Perfectionism (psychology)

Not to be confused with Perfectionism (philosophy).

Perfectionism, in psychology, is a belief that a state of completeness and flawlessness can and should be attained. In its pathological form, perfectionism is a belief that work or output that is anything less than perfect is unacceptable. At such levels, this is considered an unhealthy belief, and psychologists typically refer to such individuals as maladaptive perfectionists. Though perfectionism can be seen as a positive motivation when used to accomplish tasks, it can also affect one’s health maliciously.

Definition

Hamachek was one of the first to define perfectionism, classifying two types of perfectionists: normal perfectionists and neurotic perfectionists. Normal perfectionists pursue perfection without compromising their self-esteem, and derive pleasure from their efforts to do so. Neurotic perfectionists strive for unrealistic goals and consistently feel dissatisfied with themselves for not reaching them.

Burns defines perfectionists as "people who strain compulsively and unremittingly toward impossible goals and who measure their own worth entirely in terms of productivity and accomplishment".

Greenspon considers perfectionism to be a unitary combination of a desire to be perfect, a fear of imperfection, and an emotional conviction that perfection (not "near-perfection") is the only route to personal acceptance by others. Perfectionism itself is thus never seen as healthy or adaptive.

In the book Too Perfect, the authors describe some perfectionists as having obsessive personality types. The obsessive personality type is distinct from obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD); OCD is a clinical disorder that may be associated with specific ritualized behavior. According to Mallinger and DeWyze, perfectionists are obsessives who need to feel in control at all times to protect themselves and ensure their own safety. By being constantly vigilant and trying extremely hard, they can ensure that they not only fail to disappoint or are beyond reproach but that they can protect against unforeseen issues (such as economic downturn). Vigilance may include constant monitoring of the news, weather, and financial markets.

Perfectionism is one of the 16 Personality Factors identified by Raymond Cattell, and its descriptors of High Range are "organized, compulsive, self-disciplined, socially precise, exacting will power, control, self-sentimental". In the Big Five personality traits, perfectionism is an extreme of conscientiousness and can provoke increasing neuroticism as the perfectionist's expectations are not met. Perfectionists always put their goals ahead of everything.

Stoeber & Otto (2006) recently reviewed the various definitions and measures of perfectionism. They found that perfectionism comprised two main dimensions: perfectionistic strivings and perfectionistic concerns. Perfectionistic strivings are associated with positive aspects, whereas perfectionistic concerns are associated with negative aspects (see below). Healthy perfectionists rate high in perfectionistic strivings and low in perfectionistic concerns, whereas unhealthy perfectionists rate highly in both strivings and concerns.

Greenspon makes a distinction between perfectionism and striving for excellence. The difference is in the meaning given to mistakes. Those who strive—however intently—for excellence can simply take mistakes (imperfections) as inducements to further learning and work. Unhealthy perfectionists take mistakes as signs of personal defects that make them less acceptable; anxiety over potential failure is the reason perfectionism is felt as a burden.

Measurement

Hewitt & Flett (1991) devised the Multidimensional Perfectionism Scale (MPS), a 45-item measure which rates three aspects of perfectionistic self-presentation: self oriented perfectionism, other-oriented perfectionism, and socially prescribed perfectionism. Self-oriented perfectionism is irrational expectations and standards for oneself leading to a perfectionistic motivation . An example of this may be a college student that believes they can finish their entire 150 page senior dissertation in one day and still get an ‘A’ on the assignment. Furthermore, other-orientated perfectionism is to have irrational expectations and standards for others leading to perfectionistic motivations for them. An example would be a ‘beauty pageant mom’ who believes that her four year old daughter can become the perfect pageant queen in a week’s worth of practice, and becomes utterly upset when her daughter isn’t the winner of the pageant (even first runner up is not acceptable). This is very unhealthy for both the mother and the child and can lead to great stress and maybe a chronic mental disorder (if one is not already preset, which it usually is).

Lastly, socially prescribed perfectionism is perfectionistic motivations led by the belief that significant others expect ones to be perfect. For instance, a college student that is pressured by the belief that his parents expect him to have a 4.0 each semester of college and become valedictorian of his graduating class is perfectionistic when no assignment is good enough and does not give him full satisfaction. Though his parents have never expressed this expectation, he unhealthily punishes himself for any assignment that is graded lower than a 95%. Moreover, perfectionism is found concurrent with many mental disorders such as depression, anxiety, OCD, and eating disorders; though each disorder has varying levels of the three measurements .

Slaney and his colleagues (1996) developed the Almost Perfect Scale-Revised (APS-R) to identify perfectionists (adaptive or maladaptive) and nonperfectionists. People are classified based on their scores for High Standards, Order, and Discrepancy measures. Both adaptive and maladaptive perfectionists rate highly in High Standards and Order, but maladaptive perfectionists also rate highly in Discrepancy. Discrepancy refers to the belief that personal high standards are not being met, which is the defining negative aspect of perfectionism. Maladaptive perfectionists typically yield the highest social stress and anxiety scores, reflecting their feelings of inadequacy and low self-esteem. In general, the APS-R is a relatively easy instrument to administer, and can be used to identify perfectionist adolescents as well as adults, though it has yet to be proven useful for children. Interestingly, in one study evaluating APS-R in an adolescent population, maladaptive perfectionists obtained higher satisfaction scores than nonperfectionists. This finding suggests that adolescents' high standards may protect them from challenges to personal satisfaction when their standards are not met. Two other forms of the APS-R measure perfectionism directed towards intimate partners (Dyadic Almost Perfect Scale) and perceived perfectionism from one's family (Family Almost Perfect Scale).

The Physical Appearance Perfectionism Scale (PAPS) is newer scale with the potential to explain a particular type of perfectionism - the desire for a perfect physical appearance. Its two sub-scales reflect the multidimensional nature of perfectionism, and are Worry About Imperfection and Hope For Perfection. Those that obtain high Worry About Imperfection scores are usually greatly concerned with maladaptive aspects of perfectionism, physical appearance, and body control behavior. They also demonstrate low positive self-perceptions of their appearance.

Psychological Aspects

Daniels & Price (2000) refer to perfectionists as "ones". Perfectionists are focused on personal integrity and can be wise, discerning and inspiring in their quest for the truth. They also tend to dissociate themselves from their flaws or what they believe are flaws (such as negative emotions) and can become hypocritical and hypercritical of others, seeking the illusion of virtue to hide their own vices. The greatest fear of perfectionists is to be flawed and their ultimate goal is perfection.

Positive Aspects

Perfectionism can drive people to accomplishments and provide the motivation to persevere in the face of discouragement and obstacles. Roedell (1984) argues:

"In a positive form, perfectionism can provide the driving energy which leads to great achievement. The meticulous attention to detail, necessary for scientific investigation, the commitment which pushes composers to keep working until the music realises the glorious sounds playing in the imagination, and the persistence which keeps great artists at their easels until their creation matches their conception all result from perfectionism."

Slaney and his colleagues found that adaptive perfectionists had lower levels of procrastination than non-perfectionists. High-achieving athletes, scientists, and artists often show signs of perfectionism. For example, Michelangelo's perfectionism may have spurred him to create masterpieces such as the statue David and the Sistine Chapel. On the other hand, there is little evidence that Michelangelo was in fact a perfectionist, and research tends to show that the anxiety associated with concerns about making mistakes tends to interfere with performance rather than aid it. Many perfectionists can be successful despite their perfectionism.

In the field of positive psychology an adaptive and healthy variation of perfectionism is referred to as Optimalism. Only when taken too far does optimalism become maladaptive and neurotic.

Perfectionism is sometimes associated with giftedness in children. The only well-designed study of this issue, however, found this not to be the case. Gifted children like other children may be perfectionists; the energy and striving for excellence they exhibit are not in themselves perfectionistic.

Negative Aspects

In its pathological form, perfectionism can be very damaging. It can take the form of procrastination when it is used to postpone tasks ("I can't start my project until I know the 'right' way to do it."), and self-deprecation when it is used to excuse poor performance or to seek sympathy and affirmation from other people ("Why can't I reach my own goals? I must be stupid; how else could I not be able to do this?").

In the workplace, perfectionism is often marked by low productivity as individuals lose time and energy on attention to detail and small irrelevant details of larger projects or mundane daily activities. This can lead to depression, social alienation, and a greater risk of workplace "accidents." Adderholt-Elliot (1989) describes five characteristics of perfectionist students and teachers which contribute to underachievement: procrastination, fear of failure, an "all-or-nothing" mindset, paralysed perfectionism, and workaholism. In intimate relationships, unrealistic expectations can cause significant dissatisfaction for both partners. Greenspon lists behaviors, thoughts, and feelings that typically characterize perfectionism.

Perfectionists can suffer anxiety and low self-esteem. Perfectionism is a risk factor for obsessive compulsive personality disorder, eating disorders, social anxiety, social phobia, body dysmorphic disorder, workaholism, self harm, substance abuse, and clinical depression as well as physical problems like chronic stress, and heart disease.. In addition, Studies have found that individuals with perfectionism have a higher mortality rate than those without perfectionism . A possible reason for this is the additional stress and worry that comes along with the irrational belief that everything should be perfect.

Perfectionism sheds light on people's desire for structure and guidance. They tend to work well in structured environments where they can pay close attention to details. Other people, typically more entrepreneurial and creative, work well in flexible environments and are able to focus on broad issues. The latter generally show greater leadership qualities and find it easier to inspire colleagues and command their respect within a workplace. A Perfectionist will find it difficult to command respect and tend ultimately to alienate colleagues in the workplace.

Therapists attempt to tackle the negative thinking that surrounds perfectionism, in particular the "all-or-nothing" thinking in which the client believes that an achievement is either perfect or useless. They encourage clients to set realistic goals and to face their fear of failure.

Since perfectionism is a self esteem issue based on emotional convictions about what one must do to be acceptable as a person, negative thinking is most successfully addressed in the context of a recovery process which directly addresses these emotional convictions.

Personality Traits

Narcissism

Narcissism can be considered as a self-perceived form of perfectionism - "an insistence on perfection in the idealized self-object and the limitless power of the grandiose self. These are rooted in traumatic injuries to the grandiose self."

Narcissists often are pseudo-perfectionists and require being the center of attention and create situations where they will receive attention. This attempt at being perfect is cohesive with the narcissist's grandiose self-image. If a perceived state of perfection isn't reached it can lead to guilt, shame, anger or anxiety because he/she believes that he/she will lose the imagined love and admiration from other people if he/she isn’t perfect.

Treatment

Treatment for perfectionism can be approached from many therapeutic directions. Some examples of psychotherapy include: cognitive-behavioral therapy (the challenging of irrational thoughts and formation of alternative ways of coping and thinking), psychoanalytic therapy (an analyzation of underlying motives and issues), group therapy (where two or more clients work with one or more therapists about a specific issue, this is beneficial for those who feel as if they are the only one experiencing a certain problem) , humanistic therapy (person-centered therapy where the positive aspects are highlighted), and self-therapy (personal time for the individual where journaling, self-disciple, self-monitoring, and honesty with self are essential). The most effective therapy for perfectionism is cognitive-behavioral therapy. This way, the individual is able to identify irrational thinking and find an alternative way to approach the situation. Treatment will help the individual to understand that it is okay to make mistakes sometimes and that those mistakes can be lessons learned.

See also

• Narcissistic rage
• Obsessive-compulsive personality disorder
• Toxic leader

External links

• Power of Shame at TED

• Personality Disorders at Curlie
• Why Perfect Is Not Always Best (BBC article)
• Seeking Perfection BBC Science and Nature
• The RIGHT Stuff - Obsessive Compulsive Personality Disorder: A Defect of Philosophy, not Anxiety Steven Phillipson, Ph.D., Center for Cognitive-Behavioral Psychotherapy
• The Almost Perfect Scale-Revised Robert B. Slaney & Colleagues
• Castro, J.R.; Rice, K.G. (2003, February 9), "Perfectionism and ethnicity: implications for depressive symptoms and self-reported academic achievement", Cultural Diversity and Ethnic Minority Psychology, 9 (1): 64–78, doi:10.1037/1099-9809.9.1.64, PMID 12647326 {{citation}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)