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''Russula virescens'' has a low capacity to [[bioaccumulation|bioaccumulate]] the [[micronutrient]]s [[iron]], [[copper]], and [[zinc]] from the soil. The concentration of these trace metals is slightly higher in the caps than the stems. A {{convert|300|g|adj=on}} meal of fresh mushroom caps would supply 16% of the [[recommended daily allowance]] (RDA) of copper for an adult male or female (ages 19–50); 16% or 7.3% of the RDA of iron for an adult male or female, respectively; and 16–22% of the adult RDA of zinc.<ref name="Busuioc 2011"/> The mushroom also has a low capacity to accumulate the toxic [[heavy metal (chemistry)|heavy metals]] [[arsenic]], [[cadmium]], [[lead]], [[mercury (element)|mercury]], and [[nickel]].<ref name="Chen 2009"/>
''Russula virescens'' has a low capacity to [[bioaccumulation|bioaccumulate]] the [[micronutrient]]s [[iron]], [[copper]], and [[zinc]] from the soil. The concentration of these trace metals is slightly higher in the caps than the stems. A {{convert|300|g|adj=on}} meal of fresh mushroom caps would supply 16% of the [[recommended daily allowance]] (RDA) of copper for an adult male or female (ages 19–50); 16% or 7.3% of the RDA of iron for an adult male or female, respectively; and 16–22% of the adult RDA of zinc.<ref name="Busuioc 2011"/> The mushroom also has a low capacity to accumulate the toxic [[heavy metal (chemistry)|heavy metals]] [[arsenic]], [[cadmium]], [[lead]], [[mercury (element)|mercury]], and [[nickel]].<ref name="Chen 2009"/>


A water-insoluble [[beta-glucan]], RVS3-II, has been isolated from the fruit bodies. [[Sulfation|Sulfated]] [[derivative (chemistry)|derivatives]] of this compound have antitumor activities against sarcoma tumor [[cell line]]s.<ref name="Sun 2009"/> RVP, a water-soluble [[polysaccharide]] present in the mushroom, is made largely of [[galactomannan]] subunits and has [[antioxidant]] activity.<ref name="Sun 2010"/>
Biologically active mushroom [[polysaccharide]]s have been a frequent research topic in recent decades due to their possible stimulatory effect on [[innate immune system|innate]] and [[cell-mediated immunity|cell-mediated]] immune responses, antitumor activities, and other activities.<ref name="Wasser 2011"/> Immunostimulatory activity, antioxidant activity, cholesterol-lowering, and [[blood sugar]]-lowering effects have been detected in extracts of ''R.&nbsp;virescens'' fruit bodies, which are attributed to polysaccharides.<ref name="Badalyan 2012"/> A water-insoluble [[beta-glucan]], RVS3-II, has been isolated from the fruit bodies. [[Sulfation|Sulfated]] [[derivative (chemistry)|derivatives]] of this compound have antitumor activities against sarcoma tumor [[cell line]]s.<ref name="Sun 2009"/> RVP, a water-soluble polysaccharide present in the mushroom, is made largely of [[galactomannan]] subunits and has [[antioxidant]] activity.<ref name="Sun 2010"/>


[[Ribonuclease]]s (or RNases) are [[enzyme]]s that [[enzyme catalysis|catalyze]] the [[hydrolysis]] of [[ribonucleic acid]] (RNA), and collectively they play a critical role in many biological processes. A RNase from ''R.&nbsp;virescens'' was shown to be biochemically unique amongst seven edible mushroom species in several ways: it has a co-specificity towards cleaving RNA at poly [[adenine|A]] and poly [[cytosine|C]], compared to the monospecific RNases of the others; it can be [[adsorption|adsorbed]] on [[column chromatography|chromatography]] columns containing DEAE–cellulose as the adsorbent; it has a [[pH]] optimum of 4.5, lower than all other species; and, it has a "distinctly different" [[N-terminal]] [[amino acid sequence]].<ref name="Wang 2003"/> The mushroom contains a unique [[laccase]] enzyme that has the ability to break down several [[dye]]s used in the laboratory and in the [[textile industry]], such as [[bromothymol blue]], [[eriochrome black T]], [[malachite green]], reactive brilliant blue and reactive blue&nbsp;R. Laccases are being used increasingly in the textile industry as environmental biocatalysts for the treatment of dye [[wastewater]].<ref name="Zhu 2013"/>
[[Ribonuclease]]s (or RNases) are [[enzyme]]s that [[enzyme catalysis|catalyze]] the [[hydrolysis]] of [[ribonucleic acid]] (RNA), and collectively they play a critical role in many biological processes. A RNase from ''R.&nbsp;virescens'' was shown to be biochemically unique amongst seven edible mushroom species in several ways: it has a co-specificity towards cleaving RNA at poly [[adenine|A]] and poly [[cytosine|C]], compared to the monospecific RNases of the others; it can be [[adsorption|adsorbed]] on [[column chromatography|chromatography]] columns containing DEAE–cellulose as the adsorbent; it has a [[pH]] optimum of 4.5, lower than all other species; and, it has a "distinctly different" [[N-terminal]] [[amino acid sequence]].<ref name="Wang 2003"/> The mushroom contains a unique [[laccase]] enzyme that has the ability to break down several [[dye]]s used in the laboratory and in the [[textile industry]], such as [[bromothymol blue]], [[eriochrome black T]], [[malachite green]], reactive brilliant blue and reactive blue&nbsp;R. Laccases are being used increasingly in the textile industry as environmental biocatalysts for the treatment of dye [[wastewater]].<ref name="Zhu 2013"/>
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<ref name="Arora 1986">{{cite book |author=Arora D. |title=Mushrooms Demystified: A Comprehensive Guide to the Fleshy Fungi |publisher=Ten Speed Press |location=Berkeley |year=1986 |page=95 |isbn=0-89815-169-4 |url=http://books.google.com/books?id=vY8FXXrlHFMC&pg=PA95}}</ref>
<ref name="Arora 1986">{{cite book |author=Arora D. |title=Mushrooms Demystified: A Comprehensive Guide to the Fleshy Fungi |publisher=Ten Speed Press |location=Berkeley |year=1986 |page=95 |isbn=0-89815-169-4 |url=http://books.google.com/books?id=vY8FXXrlHFMC&pg=PA95}}</ref>

<ref name="Badalyan 2012">{{cite book |author=Badalyan S. |chapter=Medicinal aspects of edible ectomycorrhizal mushrooms |title=Edible Ectomycorrhizal Mushrooms: Current Knowledge and Future Prospects |series=Soil Biology |volume=34 |year=2012 |pages=317–34 |publisher=Springer Berlin Heidelberg |isbn=978-3-642-33822-9}}</ref>


<ref name="Bi 1993">{{cite book |author=Bi Z, Zheng G, Li T. |title=The Macrofungus Flora of China's Guangdong Province (Chinese University Press) |publisher=Columbia University Press |location=New York |year=1993 |page=522 |isbn=962-201-556-5 |url=http://books.google.com/books?id=0cAered-vqYC&pg=PA522}}</ref>
<ref name="Bi 1993">{{cite book |author=Bi Z, Zheng G, Li T. |title=The Macrofungus Flora of China's Guangdong Province (Chinese University Press) |publisher=Columbia University Press |location=New York |year=1993 |page=522 |isbn=962-201-556-5 |url=http://books.google.com/books?id=0cAered-vqYC&pg=PA522}}</ref>
Line 162: Line 164:


<ref name="Wang 2003">{{cite journal |author=Wang H, Ng TB. |title=A ribonuclease with distinctive features from the wild green-headed mushroom ''Russulus virescens''|journal=Biochemical and Biophysical Research Communications |year=2003 |volume=312 |issue=4 |pages=965–8 |pmid=14651965 |doi=10.1016/j.bbrc.2003.10.201}}</ref>
<ref name="Wang 2003">{{cite journal |author=Wang H, Ng TB. |title=A ribonuclease with distinctive features from the wild green-headed mushroom ''Russulus virescens''|journal=Biochemical and Biophysical Research Communications |year=2003 |volume=312 |issue=4 |pages=965–8 |pmid=14651965 |doi=10.1016/j.bbrc.2003.10.201}}</ref>

<ref name="Wasser 2011">{{cite journal |author=Wasser SP. |title=Current findings, future trends, and unsolved problems in studies of medicinal mushrooms |journal=Applied Microbiology and Biotechnology |year=2011 |volume=89 |issue=5 |pages=1323–32 |doi=10.1007/s00253-010-3067-4 |pmid=21190105}}</ref>


<ref name="Watling 1998">{{cite journal |author=Watling R, SuSee L. |title=Ectomycorrhizal fungi associated with members of the Dipterocarpaceae in Peninsular Malaysia&nbsp;– II |journal=Journal of Tropical Forest Science |year=1998 |volume=10 |issue=4 |pages=421–30 |issn=0128-1283}}</ref>
<ref name="Watling 1998">{{cite journal |author=Watling R, SuSee L. |title=Ectomycorrhizal fungi associated with members of the Dipterocarpaceae in Peninsular Malaysia&nbsp;– II |journal=Journal of Tropical Forest Science |year=1998 |volume=10 |issue=4 |pages=421–30 |issn=0128-1283}}</ref>

Revision as of 22:19, 26 April 2013

Russula virescens
Mushroom cap with small green patches on a light green surface. The cap becomes greener towards the center as the concentrations of patches increases; the center of the cap surface is depressed.
Scientific classification
Kingdom:
Fungi
Division:
Basidiomycota
Class:
Agaricomycetes
Order:
Russulales
Family:
Russulaceae
Genus:
Russula
Species:
R. virescens
Binomial name
Russula virescens
(Schaeff.) Fr. (1836)
Synonyms[2]
  • Agaricus virescens Schaeff. (1774)
  • Russula furcata var. aeruginosa Pers. (1796)
  • Agaricus caseosus Wallr. (1883)
  • Russula virescens var. albidocitrina Gillet (1876)[1]
Russula virescens
View the Mycomorphbox template that generates the following list
Gills on hymenium
Cap is convex
Hymenium is free
Stipe is bare
Spore print is white to yellow
Ecology is mycorrhizal
Edibility is edible

Russula virescens is a basidiomycete mushroom of the genus Russula, and is commonly known as the green-cracking Russula, the quilted green Russula, or the green brittlegill. It can be recognized by its distinctive pale green cap covered with darker green patches, its crowded white gills, and its white stem. It is a popular edible mushroom with a mild or nutty taste. Mushrooms are rich in water, carbohydrates, and proteins, with a low fat content.

The distribution of Russula virescens encompasses Britain, Europe, and Asia, where it occurs solitary or scattered on the ground in both deciduous and mixed forests, forming mycorrhizhal associations with hardwood trees like oak and European beech. Its distribution in North America has not been clarified, due to confusion with the similar species Russula parvovirescens and Russula crustosa. The ribonuclease enzyme of R. virescens has been studied and shown to have a unique biochemistry compared to other edible mushrooms.

Taxonomy

Russula virescens was first described by Jacob Christian Schaeffer in 1774 as Agaricus virescens.[3] Subsequently the taxon was transferred to the genus Russula by Elias Fries in 1836.[4][5] According to the nomenclatural authority MycoBank, Russula furcata var. aeruginosa (published by Christian Hendrik Persoon in 1796[6]) and Agaricus caseosus (published by Karl Friedrich Wilhelm Wallroth in 1883[7]) are synonyms of Russula virescens.[2] The variety albidocitrina, defined by Claude Casimir Gillet in 1876,[1] is no longer considered to have independent taxonomic significance.[8] According to Rolf Singer's 1986 classification of Russula, R. virescens is the type species of subsection Virescentinae in section Rigidae, a grouping of mushrooms characterized by a cap surface that breaks into patches of bran-like (furfuraceous) particles.[9] In a molecular phylogenetic analysis of European Russula, R. virescens grouped together in a clade with R. mustelina; these two species were sister to a clade containing R. amoenicolor and R. violeipes.[10]

The specific epithet virescens is Latin for "becoming green".[11] The characteristic pattern of the cap surface has earned the species common names such as green-cracking Russula, the quilted green Russula,[12] and the green brittlegill.[13] In the mid-Atlantic United States, it is also known locally as the moldy Russula.[14]

Description

The cap is at first dome or barrel-shaped, becoming convex and flattened with age with a diameter of up to 15 cm (5.9 in). The cuticle of the cap is green, most profoundly in the center, with patches of the same color dispersed radially around the center; the distinct pattern is called areolate.

The underside of a mushroom cap, lying on the forest floor, showing white lines arranged radially around them central white stem; the lines are packed closely together, with little space between them
The gills are white, crowded together, and have an adnate attachment to the stem.

The green color of the cuticle is often of variable shade, ranging from gray to verdigris to grass-green. The extent of the patching of the cuticle is also variable, giving specimens with limited patches a resemblance to other green-capped species of Russula, such as Russula aeruginea. The green patches of the cap lie on a white to pale green background. The cap, while frequently round, may also exhibit irregular lobes and cracks. The cap cuticle is thin, and can be readily peeled off the surface to a distance of about halfway towards the cap center.[13]

The gills are white to cream colored, and fairly crowded together; most of the gill is fused to the stem, a so-called adnate attachment. The gills are interconnected at their bases by veins.[15] The stem is cylindrical, white and of variable height, up to 8 cm (3.1 in) tall and 4 cm (1.6 in) wide;[16] it is roughly the same thickness at both the top and the base. Then top portion of the stem may be farinose—covered with a white, mealy powder.[17] It may turn slightly brown with age, or when it is injured or bruised from handling.[18] Like other species in the Russulales order of mushrooms, the flesh is brittle, owing to the sphaerocyst cytoarchitecture—cylindrical cells that contrast with the typical fibrous, filamentous hyphae present in other orders of the basidiomycota.[19]

Spores are translucent and warted.

The spores of R. virescens are elliptical or ellipsoid with warts, translucent (hyaline), and in deposit produce a white, pale or pale yellow spore print;[12][20] the spore dimensions are 6–9 by 5–7 µm.[12] The spore-bearing cells, the basidia, are club-shaped and with dimensions of 24–33 by 6–7.5 µm; they are colorless, and each hold from two to four spores. The pleurocystidia (cystidia located on the face of a gill) are 40–85 by 6–8 µm and end abruptly in a sharp point.[21]

Similar species

Another green-capped Russula is R. aeruginea, but this species may be distinguished from R. virescens by its smaller size and smooth cap.[22] Other green russulas with a smooth cap include R. heterophylla and R. cyanoxantha var. peltereaui.[23] Russula crustosa, like R. virescens also has an areolate cap, but the cap becomes sticky (viscid) when moist, and its color is more variable, as it may be reddish, yellowish, or brown.[12][13] Also, the spore print of R. crustosa is a darker yellow than R. virescens.[13] R. redolens has a cap that is "drab-green to blue-green", but unlike R. virescens, is smooth. Russula redolens also has an unpleasant taste and smells of parsley.[24]

Edibility

Russula virescens is an edible mushroom considered to be one of the best of the genus Russula, and is a popular edible in Europe.[14][20][25][26] Its smell is not distinctive, but its taste has been described as mild, or nutty.[27] Drying the mushrooms enhances the nutty flavor. Mushrooms can be sautéed (the green color disappears with cooking), and young specimens that are prepared this way have a potato taste that pairs well with shallots.[28] When collecting Russula virescens for consumption, caution is of vital importance to avoid confusion with the dangerously poisonous Amanita phalloides (known as the death cap), a mushroom that can be most easily identified by its volva and ring.[29]

The nutritional components of Russula virescens mushrooms have been characterized. Fresh mushrooms contain about 92.5% moisture. A 100-gram sample of dried mushroom (100 g dw) has 365 kcal (1527 kilojoules). Carbohydrates make up the bulk of the fruit bodies, comprising 62% of the dry weight; 11.1% of the carbohydrates are sugars, the large majority of which (10.9%) is mannitol. The total lipid, or crude fat, content makes up 1.85% of the dry matter of the mushroom. The proportion of fatty acids (expressed as a percentage of total fatty acids) are 28.78% saturated, 41.51% monounsaturated, and 29.71% polyunsaturated. The most prevalent fatty acids include: palmitic acid, 17.3% of total fatty acids; stearic acid, 7.16%; oleic acid, 40.27%; and linoleic acid, 29.18%. Several bioactive compounds are present in the mushroom. One hundred grams (dry weight) contains 49.3 micrograms (µg) of tocopherols (20.0 µg alpha, 21.3 µg beta, and 8.0 µg gamma) and 0.19 milligrams (mg) of the carotenoid pigment lycopene. There are 4.46 g of organic acids per 100 g of dry mushrooms, including oxalic acid (0.78 g), malic acid (2.71 g), citric acid (0.55 g), and fumaric acid (0.23 g). Mushrooms have 22.6 mg/100 g dw of the phenolic compound 4-hydroxybenzoic acid, and 15.8 mg/100 g dw of cinnamic acid.[30]

Habitat and distribution

Rectangular stamp with three mushrooms growing close together, and with various sizes, small, medium, and large. The colors of the caps are brown-green, and the stems are white. The text at the top right says "0.04L", and at the bottom it says "Moldova"
A postage stamp depicting R. virescens—one of five mushroom-themed stamps of different denominations released in Moldova in 1995

Russula virescens can be found fruiting on soil in both deciduous forests and mixed forests,[13] forming ectomycorrhizal symbiotic relationships with a variety of trees,[31] including oaks (Quercus) and European beech (Fagus sylvatica). Fruiting bodies may appear singly or in groups,[32] reappear in the same spots year after year, and are not common. In Britain and Europe, fruiting occurs mainly during the months of summer to early autumn.[17] A Mexican study of the seasonal occurrence of several common mushroom species in subtropical forests in Xalapa showed that the fruiting period of R. virescens occurred in April, before the onset of the rainy season.[33]

The distribution of R. virescens in North America is subject to debate, where a number of similar species such as R. parvovirescens and R. crustosa are also recognized.[34][27] One author suggests that R. virescens "is strictly a European species",[27] citing Buyck and collaborators (2006), who say "the virescens-crustosa group is much more complex than suspected and embraces at least a dozen taxa in the eastern US".[34] In addition to Britain and Europe, Russula virescens has also been collected from Malaysia,[35] Korea,[36] and China.[37]

Chemistry

Russula virescens has a low capacity to bioaccumulate the micronutrients iron, copper, and zinc from the soil. The concentration of these trace metals is slightly higher in the caps than the stems. A 300-gram (11 oz) meal of fresh mushroom caps would supply 16% of the recommended daily allowance (RDA) of copper for an adult male or female (ages 19–50); 16% or 7.3% of the RDA of iron for an adult male or female, respectively; and 16–22% of the adult RDA of zinc.[38] The mushroom also has a low capacity to accumulate the toxic heavy metals arsenic, cadmium, lead, mercury, and nickel.[39]

Biologically active mushroom polysaccharides have been a frequent research topic in recent decades due to their possible stimulatory effect on innate and cell-mediated immune responses, antitumor activities, and other activities.[40] Immunostimulatory activity, antioxidant activity, cholesterol-lowering, and blood sugar-lowering effects have been detected in extracts of R. virescens fruit bodies, which are attributed to polysaccharides.[41] A water-insoluble beta-glucan, RVS3-II, has been isolated from the fruit bodies. Sulfated derivatives of this compound have antitumor activities against sarcoma tumor cell lines.[42] RVP, a water-soluble polysaccharide present in the mushroom, is made largely of galactomannan subunits and has antioxidant activity.[43]

Ribonucleases (or RNases) are enzymes that catalyze the hydrolysis of ribonucleic acid (RNA), and collectively they play a critical role in many biological processes. A RNase from R. virescens was shown to be biochemically unique amongst seven edible mushroom species in several ways: it has a co-specificity towards cleaving RNA at poly A and poly C, compared to the monospecific RNases of the others; it can be adsorbed on chromatography columns containing DEAE–cellulose as the adsorbent; it has a pH optimum of 4.5, lower than all other species; and, it has a "distinctly different" N-terminal amino acid sequence.[44] The mushroom contains a unique laccase enzyme that has the ability to break down several dyes used in the laboratory and in the textile industry, such as bromothymol blue, eriochrome black T, malachite green, reactive brilliant blue and reactive blue R. Laccases are being used increasingly in the textile industry as environmental biocatalysts for the treatment of dye wastewater.[45]

See also

References

  1. ^ a b Gillet CC. (1876). Les Hyménomycètes ou Description de tous les Champignons qui Croissent en France (in French). Alençon: Ch. Thomas. p. 234; plate 54.
  2. ^ a b "Russula virescens (Schaeff.) Fr., Anteckningar öfver de i Sverige växande ätliga svampar: 50, 1836". MycoBank. International Mycological Association. Retrieved 2013-04-24.
  3. ^ Schaeffer JC. (1774). Fungorum qui in Bavaria et Palatinatu circa Ratisbonam nascuntur Icones (in Latin & German). Vol. 4. Regensburg: Apud J.J. Palmium. p. 40; plate 94.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: unrecognized language (link)
  4. ^ Fries EM. (1836). Anteckningar öfver de i Sverige växande ätliga svampar (in Swedish). Uppsala: Palmblad, Sebell. p. 50.
  5. ^ "Russula virescens (Schaeff.) Fr., Anteckn. Sver. Ätl. Svamp.: 50 (1836)". Index Fungorum. CAB International. Retrieved 2013-04-24.
  6. ^ Persoon CH. (1796). Observationes mycologicae (in Latin). Vol. 1. Leipzig: Petrum Phillippum Wolf. p. 103.
  7. ^ Wallroth CFW. (1833). "Flora Cryptogamica Germaniae" (in Latin). 2. Nürnberg: J.L. Schrag: 728. {{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help)
  8. ^ "Russula virescens var. albidocitrina Gillet, Les Hyménomycètes ou Description de tous les Champignons qui Croissent en France: 234, t. 54, 1876". MycoBank. International Mycological Association. Retrieved 2013-04-25.
  9. ^ Singer R. (1986). The Agaricales in Modern Taxonomy (4th ed.). Königstein im Taunus: Koeltz Scientific Books. pp. 820–1. ISBN 3-87429-254-1.
  10. ^ Miller SL, Buyck B. (2002). "Molecular phylogeny of the genus Russula in Europe with a comparison of modern infrageneric classifications". Mycological Research. 106 (3): 259–76. doi:10.1017/S0953756202005610.
  11. ^ Jamieson A, Ainsworth R, Morell T. (1828). Latin Dictionary: Morell's Abridgment. London: Moon, Boys & Graves. p. 22.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  12. ^ a b c d Arora D. (1986). Mushrooms Demystified: A Comprehensive Guide to the Fleshy Fungi. Berkeley: Ten Speed Press. p. 95. ISBN 0-89815-169-4.
  13. ^ a b c d e McKnight VB, McKnight KH. (1987). A Field Guide to Mushrooms, North America. Boston: Houghton Mifflin. p. 325. ISBN 0-395-91090-0.
  14. ^ a b Russell B. (2006). Field Guide to the Wild Mushrooms of Pennsylvania and the Mid-Atlantic. Penn State University Press. pp. 97–8. ISBN 978-0-271-02891-0.
  15. ^ Phillips R. "Rogers Mushrooms | Mushroom Pictures & Mushroom Reference". Rogers Plants. Retrieved 2013-04-24.
  16. ^ Petersen JH, Vesterholt J. (1990). "Danske storsvampe. Basidiesvampe". Viborg: Gyldendal. ISBN 87-01-09932-9. {{cite book}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |1= (help); Unknown parameter |trans_title= ignored (|trans-title= suggested) (help)
  17. ^ a b Jordan M. (2004). The Encyclopedia of Fungi of Britain and Europe. London: Frances Lincoln. p. 328. ISBN 0-7112-2378-5.
  18. ^ Healy RA, Huffman DR, Tiffany LH, Knaphaus G. (2008). Mushrooms and Other Fungi of the Midcontinental United States. Bur Oak Guide. Iowa City: University of Iowa Press. p. 117. ISBN 1-58729-627-6.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  19. ^ "Russulales News / Characteristics of the russuloid fungi". Russulales News Team. Retrieved 2009-09-10.
  20. ^ a b Hinkova T. (1986). Нашите Гъби (in Bulgarian). Zemizdat (Bulgaria). p. 107. {{cite book}}: Unknown parameter |trans_title= ignored (|trans-title= suggested) (help)
  21. ^ Bi Z, Zheng G, Li T. (1993). The Macrofungus Flora of China's Guangdong Province (Chinese University Press). New York: Columbia University Press. p. 522. ISBN 962-201-556-5.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  22. ^ Metzler V, Metzler S. (1992). Texas Mushrooms: A Field Guide. Austin: University of Texas Press. p. 110. ISBN 0-292-75125-7.
  23. ^ Cullington P. (2004). "Those green russulas!". Field Mycology. 5 (1): 24–7. doi:10.1016/S1468-1641(10)60236-8.
  24. ^ Miller HR, Miller OK. (2006). North American Mushrooms: A Field Guide to Edible and Inedible Fungi. Guilford: Falcon Guide. p. 79. ISBN 0-7627-3109-5.
  25. ^ Boa ER. (2006). "Champignons Comestibles Sauvages" [Edible Wild Mushrooms] (in French). Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. p. 149. ISBN 92-5-205157-0.
  26. ^ "Russulales News / Russula virescens". Russulales News Team. Retrieved 2009-09-10.
  27. ^ a b c Kuo M. (March 2009). "Russula virescens". Mushroom Expert. Retrieved 2013-04-24.
  28. ^ Kuo M. (2007). 100 Edible Mushrooms. Ann Arbor: The University of Michigan Press. p. 212. ISBN 0-472-03126-0.
  29. ^ Zeitlmayr L. (1976). Wild Mushrooms: An Illustrated Handbook. Hertfordshire: Garden City Press. p. 62. ISBN 0-584-10324-7.
  30. ^ Leal AR, Barros L, Barreira JCM, Sousa MJ, Martins A, Santos-Buelga C, Ferreira ICFR. (2013). "Portuguese wild mushrooms at the "pharma–nutrition" interface: Nutritional characterization and antioxidant properties". Food Research International. 50 (1): 1–9. doi:10.1016/j.foodres.2012.10.012.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  31. ^ Smith SE, Read DJ, Harley JL. (1997). Mycorrhizal Symbiosis. Academic Press. p. 369. ISBN 0-12-652840-3.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  32. ^ Roody WC. (2003). Mushrooms of West Virginia and the Central Appalachians. Lexington: University Press of Kentucky. p. 234. ISBN 0-8131-9039-8.
  33. ^ Chacon S, Guzmán G. (1995). "Observations on the phenology of ten fungal species in the subtropical forests at Xalapa, Mexico". Mycological Research. 99 (1): 54–6. doi:10.1016/S0953-7562(09)80316-X.
  34. ^ a b Buyck B, Mitchell D, Parrent J. (2006). "Russula parvovirescens sp nov., a common but ignored species in the eastern United States". Mycologia. 98 (4): 612–5. doi:10.3852/mycologia.98.4.612. PMID 17139854.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  35. ^ Watling R, SuSee L. (1998). "Ectomycorrhizal fungi associated with members of the Dipterocarpaceae in Peninsular Malaysia – II". Journal of Tropical Forest Science. 10 (4): 421–30. ISSN 0128-1283.
  36. ^ Lee KJ, Kim YS. (1986). "Host range and host specificity of putative ectomycorrhizal fungi collected under ten different artificial forest types in Korea". Agricultural Research Seoul National University. 11 (2): 41–8. ISSN 0253-651x. {{cite journal}}: Check |issn= value (help)
  37. ^ Peng W, Gan B, Tan W, Guo Y. (2003). "Studies on economic mushrooms in Longmen mountain areas". Southwest China Journal of Agricultural Sciences (in Chinese). 16 (1): 36–41. ISSN 1001-4829.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  38. ^ Busuioc G, Elekes CC, Stihi C, Iordache S, Ciulei SC. (2011). "The bioaccumulation and translocation of Fe, Zn, and Cu in species of mushrooms from Russula genus". Environmental Science and Pollution Research International. 18 (6): 890–6. doi:10.1007/s11356-011-0446-z. PMID 21274641.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
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