Spelt: Difference between revisions
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Spelt was an important [[Staple food|staple]] in parts of Europe from the [[Bronze Age in Europe|Bronze Age]] to [[Middle Ages|medieval times]]; it now survives as a [[relict]] crop in [[Central Europe]] and northern [[Spain]] and has found a new market as a health food. Spelt is sometimes considered a subspecies of the closely related species [[common wheat]] (''Triticum aestivum''), in which case its botanical name is considered to be ''Triticum aestivum'' subsp. ''spelta''. It is a [[hexaploid]] wheat, which means it has six sets of chromosomes. |
Spelt was an important [[Staple food|staple]] in parts of Europe from the [[Bronze Age in Europe|Bronze Age]] to [[Middle Ages|medieval times]]; it now survives as a [[relict]] crop in [[Central Europe]] and northern [[Spain]] and has found a new market as a health food. Spelt is sometimes considered a subspecies of the closely related species [[common wheat]] (''Triticum aestivum''), in which case its botanical name is considered to be ''Triticum aestivum'' subsp. ''spelta''. It is a [[hexaploid]] wheat, which means it has six sets of chromosomes. |
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==Evolution== |
==Evolution== |
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Spelt has a complex history. It is a wheat species known from genetic evidence to have originated as a naturally occurring [[Hybrid (biology)|hybrid]] of a domesticated [[tetraploid]] wheat such as [[emmer]] wheat and the wild goat-grass ''[[Aegilops tauschii]]''. This hybridisation must have taken place in the [[Near East]] because this is where ''Ae. tauschii'' grows, and it must have taken place before the appearance of common or [[common wheat|bread wheat]] (''Triticum aestivum'', a hexaploid free-threshing derivative of spelt) in the [[archaeological record]] about 8,000 years ago. |
Spelt has a complex history. It is a wheat species known from genetic evidence to have originated as a naturally occurring [[Hybrid (biology)|hybrid]] of a domesticated [[tetraploid]] wheat such as [[emmer]] wheat and the wild goat-grass ''[[Aegilops tauschii]]''. This hybridisation must have taken place in the [[Near East]] because this is where ''Ae. tauschii'' grows, and it must have taken place before the appearance of common or [[common wheat|bread wheat]] (''Triticum aestivum'', a hexaploid free-threshing derivative of spelt) in the [[archaeological record]] about 8,000 years ago. |
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}}</ref> Whether spelt has two separate origins in [[Asia]] and Europe, or single origin in the Near East, is currently unresolved.<ref>{{cite paper| author=Blatter, R.H.| title=About the origin of European spelt (Triticum spelta L.): allelic differentiation of the HMW Glutenin B1-1 and A1-2 subunit genes| year=2004 | url = http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=retrieve&db=pubmed&list_uids=14564390&dopt=abstract|display-authors=etal}}</ref><ref>{{cite paper| author=Ehsanzadeh, Parviz | title=Agronomic and Growth Characteristics of Spring Spelt Compared to Common Wheat| year=1999 | format=pdf | url = http://library2.usask.ca/theses/available/etd-10212004-001220/}}</ref> |
}}</ref> Whether spelt has two separate origins in [[Asia]] and Europe, or single origin in the Near East, is currently unresolved.<ref>{{cite paper| author=Blatter, R.H.| title=About the origin of European spelt (Triticum spelta L.): allelic differentiation of the HMW Glutenin B1-1 and A1-2 subunit genes| year=2004 | url = http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=retrieve&db=pubmed&list_uids=14564390&dopt=abstract|display-authors=etal}}</ref><ref>{{cite paper| author=Ehsanzadeh, Parviz | title=Agronomic and Growth Characteristics of Spring Spelt Compared to Common Wheat| year=1999 | format=pdf | url = http://library2.usask.ca/theses/available/etd-10212004-001220/}}</ref> |
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== |
==History== |
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In Greek mythology spelt (ΖΕΙΑ in Greek) was a gift to the Greeks from the Goddess Demeter, and was first used by the Greeks. Being a sailing people, the Greeks taught the rest of the world wherever they touched how to use, cultivate and honour spelt (ZEIA). The earliest archaeological evidence of spelt is from the fifth millennium BC in [[Transcaucasia]], north-east of the [[Black Sea]], though the most abundant and best-documented archaeological evidence of spelt is in Europe.<ref name=autogenerated1>{{cite paper | author=Cubadda, Raimondo and Marconi, Emanuele| title=Spelt Wheat in Pseudocereals and less Common cereals: Grain Properties and utilization Potential (eds. Belton, Peter S.; Taylor, John R.N.) | year=2002 | url = http://books.google.com/books?vid=ISBN3540429395&id=NRMdXx8fC8kC&dq=Pseudocereals+and+less+Common+cereals:+Grain+Properties+and+utilization+Potential}}</ref> Remains of spelt have been found in some later Neolithic sites (2500–1700 BC) in Central Europe.<ref name=autogenerated1 /><ref>{{cite paper | author=Akeret, Ö.| title=Plant remains from a Bell Beaker site in Switzerland, and the beginnings of Triticum spelta (spelt) cultivation in Europe | year=2005 | url = http://china.springerlink.com/content/j0453274uw744tw9/?p=9a73f75a245d448a844fbf12f99e7740&pi=0}}</ref> During the Bronze Age, spelt spread widely in central Europe. In the Iron Age (750–15 BC), spelt became a principal wheat species in southern Germany and Switzerland; by 500 BC, it was in common use in southern Britain.<ref name=autogenerated1 /> |
In Greek mythology spelt (ΖΕΙΑ in Greek) was a gift to the Greeks from the Goddess Demeter, and was first used by the Greeks. Being a sailing people, the Greeks taught the rest of the world wherever they touched how to use, cultivate and honour spelt (ZEIA). The earliest archaeological evidence of spelt is from the fifth millennium BC in [[Transcaucasia]], north-east of the [[Black Sea]], though the most abundant and best-documented archaeological evidence of spelt is in Europe.<ref name=autogenerated1>{{cite paper | author=Cubadda, Raimondo and Marconi, Emanuele| title=Spelt Wheat in Pseudocereals and less Common cereals: Grain Properties and utilization Potential (eds. Belton, Peter S.; Taylor, John R.N.) | year=2002 | url = http://books.google.com/books?vid=ISBN3540429395&id=NRMdXx8fC8kC&dq=Pseudocereals+and+less+Common+cereals:+Grain+Properties+and+utilization+Potential}}</ref> Remains of spelt have been found in some later Neolithic sites (2500–1700 BC) in Central Europe.<ref name=autogenerated1 /><ref>{{cite paper | author=Akeret, Ö.| title=Plant remains from a Bell Beaker site in Switzerland, and the beginnings of Triticum spelta (spelt) cultivation in Europe | year=2005 | url = http://china.springerlink.com/content/j0453274uw744tw9/?p=9a73f75a245d448a844fbf12f99e7740&pi=0}}</ref> During the Bronze Age, spelt spread widely in central Europe. In the Iron Age (750–15 BC), spelt became a principal wheat species in southern Germany and Switzerland; by 500 BC, it was in common use in southern Britain.<ref name=autogenerated1 /> |
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References to the cultivation of spelt wheat in Biblical times (see [[matzo]]), in ancient Egypt and Mesopotamia and in ancient Greece are incorrect and result from confusion with emmer wheat.<ref>{{cite paper | author=Nesbitt, Mark | title=Wheat evolution: integrating archaeological and biological evidence | year=2001 | format=PDF | url=http://www.rbgkew.org.uk/scihort/ecbot/papers/nesbitt2001wheat.pdf}}.</ref> |
References to the cultivation of spelt wheat in Biblical times (see [[matzo]]), in ancient Egypt and Mesopotamia and in ancient Greece are incorrect and result from confusion with emmer wheat.<ref>{{cite paper | author=Nesbitt, Mark | title=Wheat evolution: integrating archaeological and biological evidence | year=2001 | format=PDF | url=http://www.rbgkew.org.uk/scihort/ecbot/papers/nesbitt2001wheat.pdf}}.</ref> |
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==Later history== |
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In the [[Middle Ages]], spelt was cultivated in parts of [[Switzerland]], [[Tyrol (state)|Tyrol]], and [[Germany]]. Spelt was introduced to the [[United States]] in the 1890s. In the 20th century, spelt was replaced by bread wheat in almost all areas where it was still grown. The [[organic farming]] movement revived its popularity somewhat toward the end of the century, as spelt requires less [[fertilizer]]. |
In the [[Middle Ages]], spelt was cultivated in parts of [[Switzerland]], [[Tyrol (state)|Tyrol]], and [[Germany]]. Spelt was introduced to the [[United States]] in the 1890s. In the 20th century, spelt was replaced by bread wheat in almost all areas where it was still grown. The [[organic farming]] movement revived its popularity somewhat toward the end of the century, as spelt requires less [[fertilizer]]. |
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==Nutrition== |
==Nutrition== |
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{{nutritionalvalue| |
{{nutritionalvalue| |
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name = Spelt, uncooked |
name = Spelt, uncooked |
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| vitE_mg = 0.79 |
| vitE_mg = 0.79 |
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| niacin_mg = 6.843 |
| niacin_mg = 6.843 |
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| calcium_mg = 27 |
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| potassium_mg = 388 |
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| sodium_mg = 8 |
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| iron_mg = 4.44 |
| iron_mg = 4.44 |
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| magnesium_mg = 136 |
| magnesium_mg = 136 |
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| manganese_mg = 3.0 |
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| phosphorus_mg = 401 |
| phosphorus_mg = 401 |
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| zinc_mg = 3.28 |
| zinc_mg = 3.28 |
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| vitB6_mg = 0.230 |
| vitB6_mg = 0.230 |
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| water = 11.02 g |
| water = 11.02 g |
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| note =[http://ndb.nal.usda.gov/ndb/foods/show/6590?fg=&man=&lfacet=&count=&max=35&sort=&qlookup=spelt&offset=&format=Full&new=&measureby= Full USDA Nutrient Report] |
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| source_usda = 1 |
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| right = 1}} |
| right = 1}} |
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In a 100 gram serving, uncooked spelt provides 338 [[calories]] and is an excellent source (20% or more of the [[Daily Value]], DV) of [[protein]], [[dietary fiber]], several [[B vitamins]] and numerous [[dietary minerals]] (table). Richest nutrient contents include [[manganese]] (143% DV), [[phosphorus]] (57% DV) and [[niacin]] (46% DV) (table). Cooking substantially reduces all nutrient contents.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://ndb.nal.usda.gov/ndb/foods/show/6591?fgcd=&manu=&lfacet=&format=&count=&max=35&offset=&sort=&qlookup=spelt|title=Full Report (All Nutrients): Spelt, cooked per 100 g|publisher=USDA National Nutrient Database, Release 28|date=2015|accessdate=2 December 2015}}</ref> Spelt contains about 70% total [[carbohydrate]]s, including 11% as dietary fiber, and is low in [[fat]] (table). |
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| ⚫ | As spelt contains a moderate amount of [[gluten]], it is suitable for [[baking]], but this component also makes it unsuitable for people with [[coeliac disease]].<ref>{{cite journal|journal=European Food Research and Technology|year=2001|volume=213|issue=3|pages=183-186|url=http://www.springerlink.com/content/tfy7m36kjfq7d653/|title=Comparative investigations of gluten proteins from different wheat species|author=Wieser H}}</ref> In comparison to hard red [[winter wheat]], spelt has a more soluble protein matrix characterized by a higher [[gliadin]]:[[glutenin]] ratio.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Schober, T. J., Bean, S. R., & Kuhn, M. |year=2006 |title=Gluten proteins from spelt (''Triticum aestivum'' ssp. ''spelta'') cultivars: A rheological and size-exclusion high-performance liquid chromatography study. |journal=Journal of Cereal Science, |volume=44 |number=2 |pages=161–173 |format=pdf |url=http://naldc.nal.usda.gov/download/8787/PDF |accessdate=2013-11-21 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |author=Kohajdová, Z., & Karovičová, J. |year=2008 |title=Nutritional value and baking applications of spelt wheat. |journal=Acta Sci. Pol., Technol. Aliment |volume=7 |number=3 |pages=5–14 |url=http://www.food.actapol.net/tom7/zeszyt3/1_3_2008.pdf |format=pdf |accessdate=2013-11-21}}</ref> |
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Spelt flour is becoming more easily available. Spelt bread is sold in health food shops and some bakeries in an increasing variety of types of loaf, similar in colour to light [[rye]] breads but usually with a slightly sweet and nutty flavour. Biscuits, crackers, and pretzels are also produced, but are more likely to be found in a specialty bakery or health food store than in a regular grocer's shop. In Germany and Austria, spelt loaves and rolls (''Dinkelbrot'') are widely available in bakeries as is spelt flour in supermarkets. The unripe spelt grains are dried and eaten as ''[[Grünkern]]'' ("green grain"). |
Spelt flour is becoming more easily available. Spelt bread is sold in health food shops and some bakeries in an increasing variety of types of loaf, similar in colour to light [[rye]] breads but usually with a slightly sweet and nutty flavour. Biscuits, crackers, and pretzels are also produced, but are more likely to be found in a specialty bakery or health food store than in a regular grocer's shop. In Germany and Austria, spelt loaves and rolls (''Dinkelbrot'') are widely available in bakeries as is spelt flour in supermarkets. The unripe spelt grains are dried and eaten as ''[[Grünkern]]'' ("green grain"). |
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{{Commons category|Spelt}} |
{{Commons category|Spelt}} |
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{{wiktionary|spelt}} |
{{wiktionary|spelt}} |
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* [http://www.beansbeansbeans.com/spelt-and-cannellini-beans-with-escarole Recipe: Tuscan Spelt] |
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* [http://www.britishmuseum.org/whats_on/past_exhibitions/2013/pompeii_and_herculaneum/pompeii_live/live_event/bread_recipe.aspx Recipe: 2000-year-old bread from Pompeii with Spelt] |
* [http://www.britishmuseum.org/whats_on/past_exhibitions/2013/pompeii_and_herculaneum/pompeii_live/live_event/bread_recipe.aspx Recipe: 2000-year-old bread from Pompeii with Spelt] |
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* [http://www.sharphampark.com/ British organic spelt farm: Sharpham Park] |
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{{Wheat}} |
{{Wheat}} |
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Revision as of 05:41, 2 December 2015
| Spelt | |
|---|---|
| |
| Scientific classification | |
| Kingdom: | |
| (unranked): | |
| (unranked): | |
| (unranked): | |
| Order: | |
| Family: | |
| Genus: | |
| Species: | T. spelta[1]
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| Binomial name | |
| Triticum spelta | |
Spelt (Triticum spelta), also known as dinkel wheat,[2] or hulled wheat,[2] is a species of wheat cultivated since 5000 BCE.
Spelt was an important staple in parts of Europe from the Bronze Age to medieval times; it now survives as a relict crop in Central Europe and northern Spain and has found a new market as a health food. Spelt is sometimes considered a subspecies of the closely related species common wheat (Triticum aestivum), in which case its botanical name is considered to be Triticum aestivum subsp. spelta. It is a hexaploid wheat, which means it has six sets of chromosomes.
Evolution
Spelt has a complex history. It is a wheat species known from genetic evidence to have originated as a naturally occurring hybrid of a domesticated tetraploid wheat such as emmer wheat and the wild goat-grass Aegilops tauschii. This hybridisation must have taken place in the Near East because this is where Ae. tauschii grows, and it must have taken place before the appearance of common or bread wheat (Triticum aestivum, a hexaploid free-threshing derivative of spelt) in the archaeological record about 8,000 years ago.
Genetic evidence shows that spelt wheat can also arise as the result of hybridisation of bread wheat and emmer wheat, although only at some date following the initial Aegilops–tetraploid wheat hybridisation. The much later appearance of spelt in Europe might thus be the result of a later, second, hybridisation between emmer and bread wheat. Recent DNA evidence supports an independent origin for European spelt through this hybridisation.[3] Whether spelt has two separate origins in Asia and Europe, or single origin in the Near East, is currently unresolved.[4][5]
History
In Greek mythology spelt (ΖΕΙΑ in Greek) was a gift to the Greeks from the Goddess Demeter, and was first used by the Greeks. Being a sailing people, the Greeks taught the rest of the world wherever they touched how to use, cultivate and honour spelt (ZEIA). The earliest archaeological evidence of spelt is from the fifth millennium BC in Transcaucasia, north-east of the Black Sea, though the most abundant and best-documented archaeological evidence of spelt is in Europe.[6] Remains of spelt have been found in some later Neolithic sites (2500–1700 BC) in Central Europe.[6][7] During the Bronze Age, spelt spread widely in central Europe. In the Iron Age (750–15 BC), spelt became a principal wheat species in southern Germany and Switzerland; by 500 BC, it was in common use in southern Britain.[6]
References to the cultivation of spelt wheat in Biblical times (see matzo), in ancient Egypt and Mesopotamia and in ancient Greece are incorrect and result from confusion with emmer wheat.[8]
In the Middle Ages, spelt was cultivated in parts of Switzerland, Tyrol, and Germany. Spelt was introduced to the United States in the 1890s. In the 20th century, spelt was replaced by bread wheat in almost all areas where it was still grown. The organic farming movement revived its popularity somewhat toward the end of the century, as spelt requires less fertilizer.
Nutrition
| Nutritional value per 100 g (3.5 oz) | |
|---|---|
| Energy | 1,415 kJ (338 kcal) |
70.19 g | |
| Starch | 53.92 g |
| Dietary fibre | 10.7 g |
2.43 g | |
| Polyunsaturated | 1.258 g |
14.57 g | |
| Vitamins | Quantity %DV† |
| Thiamine (B1) | 30% 0.364 mg |
| Riboflavin (B2) | 9% 0.113 mg |
| Niacin (B3) | 43% 6.843 mg |
| Vitamin B6 | 14% 0.230 mg |
| Folate (B9) | 11% 45 μg |
| Vitamin E | 5% 0.79 mg |
| Minerals | Quantity %DV† |
| Calcium | 2% 27 mg |
| Iron | 25% 4.44 mg |
| Magnesium | 32% 136 mg |
| Manganese | 130% 3.0 mg |
| Phosphorus | 32% 401 mg |
| Potassium | 13% 388 mg |
| Sodium | 0% 8 mg |
| Zinc | 30% 3.28 mg |
| Other constituents | Quantity |
| Water | 11.02 g |
| †Percentages estimated using US recommendations for adults,[9] except for potassium, which is estimated based on expert recommendation from the National Academies.[10] | |
In a 100 gram serving, uncooked spelt provides 338 calories and is an excellent source (20% or more of the Daily Value, DV) of protein, dietary fiber, several B vitamins and numerous dietary minerals (table). Richest nutrient contents include manganese (143% DV), phosphorus (57% DV) and niacin (46% DV) (table). Cooking substantially reduces all nutrient contents.[11] Spelt contains about 70% total carbohydrates, including 11% as dietary fiber, and is low in fat (table).
As spelt contains a moderate amount of gluten, it is suitable for baking, but this component also makes it unsuitable for people with coeliac disease.[12] In comparison to hard red winter wheat, spelt has a more soluble protein matrix characterized by a higher gliadin:glutenin ratio.[13][14]
Products
Spelt flour is becoming more easily available. Spelt bread is sold in health food shops and some bakeries in an increasing variety of types of loaf, similar in colour to light rye breads but usually with a slightly sweet and nutty flavour. Biscuits, crackers, and pretzels are also produced, but are more likely to be found in a specialty bakery or health food store than in a regular grocer's shop. In Germany and Austria, spelt loaves and rolls (Dinkelbrot) are widely available in bakeries as is spelt flour in supermarkets. The unripe spelt grains are dried and eaten as Grünkern ("green grain").
Dutch Jenever makers distill with spelt.[15] Beer brewed from spelt is sometimes seen in Bavaria[16] and Belgium[17] and spelt is distilled to make vodka in Poland.
Literary references
While today spelt is a specialty crop, its popularity as a peasants' staple food of the past has been attested in literature. Although today's Russian-speaking children perhaps do not know exactly what polba (spelt) looks or tastes like,[18] they may recognize the word as something-or-other that can be made into porridge, having heard Pushkin's well-rhymed story in which the poor workman Balda asks his employer the priest "to feed me boiled spelt" ("есть же мне давай варёную полбу").[19] In Horace's Satire 2.6 (late 31 – 30 B.C.), which ends with the story of the Country Mouse and the City Mouse, the country mouse eats spelt at dinner while serving his city guest finer foods.
In The Divine Comedy of Dante Alighieri, Pietro della Vigna appears as a suicide in Circle VII, ring ii, Canto XIII of the Inferno. Pietro describes the fate awaiting souls guilty of suicide to Dante the Pilgrim and Virgil. According to Pietro, the soul of the suicide grows into a wild tree and is tormented by harpies that feast upon its leaves. Pietro likens the initial growth and transformation of the soul of the suicide to the germination of a grain of spelt (Inferno XIII, 94–102).
Spelt is also mentioned in the Bible. The seventh plague in Egypt reported in Exodus, chapter 9 was said not to have damaged the harvest of wheat and spelt, as these were "late crops".[20] Ezekiel 4:9 says: "Take thou also unto thee wheat, and barley, and beans, and lentils, and millet, and spelt, and put them in one vessel, and make thee bread thereof ...", though as noted above this is presumably a mistranslation and should be "emmer". It is mentioned again in Isaiah 28:25: "...and put in the wheat in rows and the barley in the appointed place and the spelt in the border thereof?"
See also
References
Footnotes
- ^ "The Plant List".
- ^ a b "USDA GRIN Taxonomy".
- ^ Blatter RH, Jacomet S, Schlumbaum A (2004). "About the origin of European spelt (Triticum spelta L.): allelic differentiation of the HMW Glutenin B1-1 and A1-2 subunit genes". PubMed. Retrieved February 14, 2006.
{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) - ^ Blatter, R.H.; et al. (2004). "About the origin of European spelt (Triticum spelta L.): allelic differentiation of the HMW Glutenin B1-1 and A1-2 subunit genes".
{{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires|journal=(help) - ^ Ehsanzadeh, Parviz (1999). "Agronomic and Growth Characteristics of Spring Spelt Compared to Common Wheat" (pdf).
{{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires|journal=(help) - ^ a b c Cubadda, Raimondo and Marconi, Emanuele (2002). "Spelt Wheat in Pseudocereals and less Common cereals: Grain Properties and utilization Potential (eds. Belton, Peter S.; Taylor, John R.N.)".
{{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires|journal=(help)CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) - ^ Akeret, Ö. (2005). "Plant remains from a Bell Beaker site in Switzerland, and the beginnings of Triticum spelta (spelt) cultivation in Europe".
{{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires|journal=(help) - ^ Nesbitt, Mark (2001). "Wheat evolution: integrating archaeological and biological evidence" (PDF).
{{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires|journal=(help). - ^ United States Food and Drug Administration (2024). "Daily Value on the Nutrition and Supplement Facts Labels". Retrieved 2024-03-28.
- ^ National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine; Health and Medicine Division; Food and Nutrition Board; Committee to Review the Dietary Reference Intakes for Sodium and Potassium (2019). Oria, Maria; Harrison, Meghan; Stallings, Virginia A. (eds.). Dietary Reference Intakes for Sodium and Potassium. The National Academies Collection: Reports funded by National Institutes of Health. Washington, DC: National Academies Press (US). ISBN 978-0-309-48834-1. PMID 30844154.
- ^ "Full Report (All Nutrients): Spelt, cooked per 100 g". USDA National Nutrient Database, Release 28. 2015. Retrieved 2 December 2015.
- ^ Wieser H (2001). "Comparative investigations of gluten proteins from different wheat species". European Food Research and Technology. 213 (3): 183–186.
- ^ Schober, T. J., Bean, S. R., & Kuhn, M. (2006). "Gluten proteins from spelt (Triticum aestivum ssp. spelta) cultivars: A rheological and size-exclusion high-performance liquid chromatography study" (pdf). Journal of Cereal Science,. 44 (2): 161–173. Retrieved 2013-11-21.
{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: extra punctuation (link) CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) - ^ Kohajdová, Z., & Karovičová, J. (2008). "Nutritional value and baking applications of spelt wheat" (pdf). Acta Sci. Pol., Technol. Aliment. 7 (3): 5–14. Retrieved 2013-11-21.
{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) - ^ John N. Peragine (30 Nov 2010). The Complete Guide to Growing Your Own Hops, Malts, and Brewing Herbs. Atlantic Publishing Company. p. 128. Retrieved 1 September 2012.
- ^ Dinkelbier, German Beer Institute, URL accessed Nov 2009
- ^ Den Mulder, beer from Huisbrouwerij Den Tseut in Oosteeklo, URL accessed Sept 2013
- ^ Кристина Смирнова (24 March 2009). "Что такое полба?". Shkolazhizni.ru.
- ^ "Александр Сергеевич Пушкин. Сказка о попе и о работнике его Балде". lib.ru.
- ^ Exodus 9:31
Bibliography
- Padulosi, Stefano, Karl Hammer and J. Heller (1996). Hulled Wheats. Promoting the conservation and use of underutilized and neglected crops. 4. Proceedings of the First International Workshop on Hulled Wheats 21–22 July 1995, Castelvecchio Pascoli, Tuscany, Italy.
{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) - Zohary, Daniel and Maria Hopf (2000). Domestication of Plants in the Old World. Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-850356-3.
External links
