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The [[United States territory]] of [[Puerto Rico]] has struggled in terms of fighting [[crime]] for multiple decades since the [[island]] fell under U.S. jurisdiction in 1898. [[Police corruption|Police]] and [[political corruption]] in particular have posed persistent problems even into the [[21st century]].
The [[United States territory]] of [[Puerto Rico]] has struggled in terms of fighting [[crime]] for multiple decades since the [[island]] fell under U.S. jurisdiction in 1898. [[Police corruption|Police]] and [[political corruption]] in particular have posed persistent problems even into the [[21st century]].


The [[Geography|geographically]] strategic position that the island has between the [[conventional United States]], a highly [[developed country]], and various [[Caribbean]] societies, many of them [[developing nations]], creates a unique economic and political situation that heightens the stakes on maintaining security. After the end of the [[Cold War]] and many social changes, issues such as [[illegal migration]] and [[drug trafficking]] extend beyond local [[law enforcement]] challenges to become matters affecting regional stability.<ref name="Griffith"/>
The [[Geography|geographically]] strategic position that the island has between the [[continental United States]], a highly [[developed country]], and various [[Caribbean]] societies, many of them [[developing nations]], creates a unique economic and political situation that heightens the stakes on maintaining security. After the end of the [[Cold War]] and many social changes, issues such as [[illegal migration]] and [[drug trafficking]] extend beyond local [[law enforcement]] challenges to become matters affecting regional stability.<ref name="Griffith"/>


== Background and early history ==
== Background and early history ==
Line 32: Line 32:
The [[Richard Nixon|Nixon era]] ushered in the controversial "[[war on drugs]]" that various agencies at different levels of the U.S. government have implemented, not just on the continental U.S. but elsewhere. The [[government of Puerto Rico]] has struggled to combat the illegal drug trade and the resulting crime since the mid-[[1970s]], with increasing law enforcement efforts over multiple decades contributing to a [[cycle of violence]] in which both the demand and supply of illegal substances remains considerable.<ref name="Griffith"/><ref name="NYT">{{cite news|title=On My Mind; Dispatch From the Drug War|url=https://www.nytimes.com/1996/03/26/opinion/on-my-mind-dispatch-from-the-drug-war.html|accessdate=January 10, 2018|publisher=''[[The New York Times]]''|date=March 26, 1996|first=M.|last=Rosenthal}}</ref> Though [[recreational drug use]] was uncommon in Puerto Rico in the 1950s, it had markedly increased in the [[1960s]]. By the following decade, said increase in usage, particularly among those under the age of 25, became a major concern in Puerto Rican society. Estimates found that up to seventy thousand islanders were [[Substance-related disorder|substance abusers]].<ref name="Griffith"/> A number of drug cartels found that Puerto Rico functioned as an efficient transfer point while trafficking cocaine to the mainland United States.<ref name="NYT"/>
The [[Richard Nixon|Nixon era]] ushered in the controversial "[[war on drugs]]" that various agencies at different levels of the U.S. government have implemented, not just on the continental U.S. but elsewhere. The [[government of Puerto Rico]] has struggled to combat the illegal drug trade and the resulting crime since the mid-[[1970s]], with increasing law enforcement efforts over multiple decades contributing to a [[cycle of violence]] in which both the demand and supply of illegal substances remains considerable.<ref name="Griffith"/><ref name="NYT">{{cite news|title=On My Mind; Dispatch From the Drug War|url=https://www.nytimes.com/1996/03/26/opinion/on-my-mind-dispatch-from-the-drug-war.html|accessdate=January 10, 2018|publisher=''[[The New York Times]]''|date=March 26, 1996|first=M.|last=Rosenthal}}</ref> Though [[recreational drug use]] was uncommon in Puerto Rico in the 1950s, it had markedly increased in the [[1960s]]. By the following decade, said increase in usage, particularly among those under the age of 25, became a major concern in Puerto Rican society. Estimates found that up to seventy thousand islanders were [[Substance-related disorder|substance abusers]].<ref name="Griffith"/> A number of drug cartels found that Puerto Rico functioned as an efficient transfer point while trafficking cocaine to the mainland United States.<ref name="NYT"/>


A major focus on crime and drugs in Puerto Rican politics has been caused by these events.<ref name="Griffith">{{cite book|editor=Griffith, Ivelaw L.|title=The political economy of drugs in the Caribbean|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=qLv5aNvsAk4C|year=2000|publisher=[[Palgrave Macmillan]]|ISBN=9780312232580|pages=162–179}}</ref> In response to widespread crime, federal and local law enforcement agencies have attempted to integrate their efforts to fight trafficking.<ref name="Griffith"/> Specific strategies used by the government of Puerto Rico include longer sentences for criminals, increased funding for law enforcement equipment, and the construction of new prisons.<ref name=rosin>{{citation|first=Eileen | last=Rosin|title=Drugs and democracy in Latin America: the impact of U.S. policy|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=jAzNQGZ0AV4C&pg=PA324|year=2005|publisher=Lynne Rienner Publishers|isbn=978-1-58826-254-7|page=324}}</ref> At times, however, the [[DEA]] and the Puerto Rican police have struggled to work together,<ref name=grif176>Griffith 2000, p. 176</ref> and some commentators have questioned the effectiveness of government drug policy altogether.<ref name=rosin/>
A major focus on crime and drugs in Puerto Rican politics has been caused by these events.<ref name="Griffith">{{cite book|editor=Griffith, Ivelaw L.|title=The political economy of drugs in the Caribbean|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=FRSHDAAAQBAJ|year=2000|publisher=[[Palgrave Macmillan]]|ISBN=9780230288966|pages=162–179}}</ref> In response to widespread crime, federal and local law enforcement agencies have attempted to integrate their efforts to fight trafficking.<ref name="Griffith"/> Specific strategies used by the government of Puerto Rico include longer sentences for criminals, increased funding for law enforcement equipment, and the construction of new prisons.<ref name=rosin>{{citation|first=Eileen | last=Rosin|title=Drugs and democracy in Latin America: the impact of U.S. policy|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=jAzNQGZ0AV4C&pg=PA324|year=2005|publisher=Lynne Rienner Publishers|isbn=978-1-58826-254-7|page=324}}</ref> At times, however, the [[DEA]] and the Puerto Rican police have struggled to work together,<ref name=grif176>Griffith 2000, p. 176</ref> and some commentators have questioned the effectiveness of government drug policy altogether.<ref name=rosin/>


=== Puerto Rican crime since the 1980s ===
=== Puerto Rican crime since the 1980s ===


The existence of apparent '[[no man's land]]' areas, in which all manner of criminal activity could take place without any sort of police control, among particularly lower-class communities caused widespread concern. The use of [[automatic weapons]] and other arms to directly fight back against law enforcement became a particular problem as well. From 1987 to 1997, the total of murders on the island nearly doubled. These trends received massive interest in the island's news media.<ref name="Griffith"/>
The existence of apparent '[[no man's land]]' areas, in which all manner of criminal activity could take place without any sort of police control, among particularly lower-class communities caused widespread concern. The use of [[Automatic firearm|automatic weapons]] and other arms to directly fight back against law enforcement became a particular problem as well. From 1987 to 1997, the total of murders on the island nearly doubled. These trends received massive interest in the island's [[news media]].<ref name="Griffith"/>


In the early [[1990s]], law enforcement began specifically targeting [[White-collar worker|white collar]] drug users.<ref name=ap>{{cite news|title=Puerto Rico Enlists Mail Carriers in Drug War|url=https://news.google.com/newspapers?id=8GBVAAAAIBAJ&sjid=oT4NAAAAIBAJ&pg=2461,5066898&dq=drug-war+puerto-rico&hl=en|accessdate=20 October 2011|newspaper=Associated Press|date=23 June 1993}}</ref> However, these efforts proved inadequate in stopping widespread drug trafficking. [[Police corruption]] has frequently complicated matters.
In the early [[1990s]], law enforcement began specifically targeting [[White-collar worker|white collar]] drug users.<ref name=ap>{{cite news|title=Puerto Rico Enlists Mail Carriers in Drug War|url=https://news.google.com/newspapers?id=8GBVAAAAIBAJ&sjid=oT4NAAAAIBAJ&pg=2461,5066898&dq=drug-war+puerto-rico&hl=en|accessdate=20 October 2011|newspaper=Associated Press|date=23 June 1993}}</ref> However, these efforts proved inadequate in stopping widespread drug trafficking. [[Police corruption]] has frequently complicated matters.

Revision as of 01:01, 12 January 2018

Puerto Rico
Crime rates* (2008)
Violent crimes
Homicide26.2(2011)[1]
Rape2.4
Robbery138.3
Aggravated assault78.8
Total violent crime239.9
Property crimes
Burglary484
Larceny-theft837.4
Motor vehicle theft177.1
Total property crime1,498.5
Notes

*Number of reported crimes per 100,000 population.


Source: FBI 2008 UCR data

The United States territory of Puerto Rico has struggled in terms of fighting crime for multiple decades since the island fell under U.S. jurisdiction in 1898. Police and political corruption in particular have posed persistent problems even into the 21st century.

The geographically strategic position that the island has between the continental United States, a highly developed country, and various Caribbean societies, many of them developing nations, creates a unique economic and political situation that heightens the stakes on maintaining security. After the end of the Cold War and many social changes, issues such as illegal migration and drug trafficking extend beyond local law enforcement challenges to become matters affecting regional stability.[2]

Background and early history

Puerto Rican crime before the 1980s

On July 25, 1898, during the Spanish–American War, the U.S. invaded Puerto Rico with a landing at Guánica. As an outcome of the war, the nation of Spain ceded Puerto Rico, along with the Philippines and Guam territories held under Spanish sovereignty, to the U.S. under the Treaty of Paris.[3]

Migration to and from the island initially took place in a social environment known as colonia. Widespread industrialization spread across the continental U.S. throughout the early part of the 20th century while such development efforts didn't occur on the island in a large scale until the 1940s. That fact, coupled with the citizenship status granted to Puerto Ricans, caused widespread movement after the island fell under American control, particularly with individuals going to major U.S. metropolises. This unfortunately led to the spread of crime related to immigrant neighborhoods as well. Estimates in 1933 found that over 1,500 criminals had recently purchased false Puerto Rican birth certificates, using them to enter New York. During the Great Depression, the negative cultural stereotype associating working-class Puerto Ricans with the record highs in New York City's crime rates brought out pervasive discrimination and prejudice.[4]

In the aftermath of World War II, a conflict in which many native Puerto Ricans fought, the U.S. federal government enacted multiple measures under the title of Operation Bootstrap to finally transform the island into a developed economy. However, despite considerable advances the territory struggled in fighting deeply-rooted problems, particularly with the pervasive unemployment in some areas.[4] Still, the island's general growth took place in an atmosphere of relatively low criminality, especially in terms of violent crime, with police efforts focused more on matters such as clandestine rum production than the likes of bank robberies. The first modern such robbery didn't take place until after the 1950s ended.[2]

The Nixon era ushered in the controversial "war on drugs" that various agencies at different levels of the U.S. government have implemented, not just on the continental U.S. but elsewhere. The government of Puerto Rico has struggled to combat the illegal drug trade and the resulting crime since the mid-1970s, with increasing law enforcement efforts over multiple decades contributing to a cycle of violence in which both the demand and supply of illegal substances remains considerable.[2][5] Though recreational drug use was uncommon in Puerto Rico in the 1950s, it had markedly increased in the 1960s. By the following decade, said increase in usage, particularly among those under the age of 25, became a major concern in Puerto Rican society. Estimates found that up to seventy thousand islanders were substance abusers.[2] A number of drug cartels found that Puerto Rico functioned as an efficient transfer point while trafficking cocaine to the mainland United States.[5]

A major focus on crime and drugs in Puerto Rican politics has been caused by these events.[2] In response to widespread crime, federal and local law enforcement agencies have attempted to integrate their efforts to fight trafficking.[2] Specific strategies used by the government of Puerto Rico include longer sentences for criminals, increased funding for law enforcement equipment, and the construction of new prisons.[6] At times, however, the DEA and the Puerto Rican police have struggled to work together,[7] and some commentators have questioned the effectiveness of government drug policy altogether.[6]

Puerto Rican crime since the 1980s

The existence of apparent 'no man's land' areas, in which all manner of criminal activity could take place without any sort of police control, among particularly lower-class communities caused widespread concern. The use of automatic weapons and other arms to directly fight back against law enforcement became a particular problem as well. From 1987 to 1997, the total of murders on the island nearly doubled. These trends received massive interest in the island's news media.[2]

In the early 1990s, law enforcement began specifically targeting white collar drug users.[8] However, these efforts proved inadequate in stopping widespread drug trafficking. Police corruption has frequently complicated matters.

In 2008, four police officers in Puerto Rico were arrested by the Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI), including a Lieutenant with 33 years on the force, for extortion and distribution of cocaine and heroin.[9] In 2007, 9 police officers and their lieutenant were arrested for planting drug evidence, including cocaine, heroin, and crack, on people living in the city's low-income housing projects, prompting Puerto Rico's attorney general's office to review previous cases, making sure no innocent people were put in prison.[10] Between 2003 and 2007, 100 officers had been under investigation and 75 others convicted under federal court for police corruption.[11]

In 2001, one of the biggest police corruption busts in U.S. history took place in Puerto Rico, when 28 state police officers in Puerto Rico were arrested for drug-running charges. The yearlong undercover operation was initiated by the FBI, after authorities got a tip about the police possibly being involved in drug dealing, and protecting cocaine dealers and shipments and movement throughout the island.[12] Between 1993 and 2000, 1,000 police officers in Puerto Rico lost their jobs from the department due to criminal charges.[11] Police corruption in Puerto Rico stems from the fact that police officers make small wages and are so close to the cocaine trafficking.[13]

Operation Guard Shack was a two-year FBI investigation into law enforcement corruption in Puerto Rico.[14] The operation came to a conclusion on 6 October 2010 with a series of pre-dawn raids that led to over 130 [15] arrests of members of the Puerto Rico Police Department, various municipal departments, and the Puerto Rico Corrections Department.[16] The operation began at 3 a.m., when 65 tactical teams, including FBI SWAT and the Hostage Rescue Team (HRT), fanned out across the island in a series of sneak attack arrests. On hand were a range of Bureau personnel—crisis negotiators, evidence response team members, canines and their handlers, and 80 medical personnel from first responders and nurses to a trauma surgeon and a veterinarian. The central thread of the corruption was law enforcement officers providing protection and other services to drug traffickers. Over 1,000 agents of the FBI conducted the raids. Many of them were flown in secretly. The agency characterized the action as, "likely the largest police corruption case in the FBI’s history."[14]

In terms of the 2010s, the territory has possessed a rate of firearm homicides significantly higher than U.S. states. The total of 19.2 per 100,000 inhabitants in 2014.[17][18]

See also

References

  1. ^ "UNODC Homicide Statistics". UNODC.
  2. ^ a b c d e f g Griffith, Ivelaw L., ed. (2000). The political economy of drugs in the Caribbean. Palgrave Macmillan. pp. 162–179. ISBN 9780230288966.
  3. ^ "Treaty of Peace Between the United States and Spain". The Avalon Project at the Yale Law School. Yale Law School, Lillian Goldman Law Library. December 10, 1898.
  4. ^ a b Barkan, Elliott R., ed. (2013). Immigrants in American History: Arrival, Adaptation, and Integration (Volume 1). ABC-CLIO. pp. 1215–1224. ISBN 9781598842197.
  5. ^ a b Rosenthal, M. (March 26, 1996). "On My Mind; Dispatch From the Drug War". The New York Times. Retrieved January 10, 2018. {{cite news}}: Italic or bold markup not allowed in: |publisher= (help)
  6. ^ a b Rosin, Eileen (2005), Drugs and democracy in Latin America: the impact of U.S. policy, Lynne Rienner Publishers, p. 324, ISBN 978-1-58826-254-7
  7. ^ Griffith 2000, p. 176
  8. ^ "Puerto Rico Enlists Mail Carriers in Drug War". Associated Press. 23 June 1993. Retrieved 20 October 2011.
  9. ^ "FBI arrests 4 Puerto Rican police for corruption." EFE World News Service 19 December 2008. General OneFile. Web. 7 June 2010.
  10. ^ "Prosecutors charge Puerto Rican police with corruption." Miami Herald [Miami, FL] 23 August 2007. General OneFile. Web. 7 June 2010.
  11. ^ a b "Police corruption undermines Puerto Rican drug war." Miami Herald [Miami, FL] 18 July 2007. General OneFile. Web. 7 June 2010.
  12. ^ Lichtblau, Eric. "The Nation; 28 Puerto Rico Police Caught in Drug Sting." Los Angeles Times 15 August 2001: A-14. General OneFile. Web. 7 June 2010.
  13. ^ Lichtblau, Eric. "The Nation; 28 Puerto Rico Police Caught in Drug Sting." Los Angeles Times 15 August 2001: A-14. General OneFile. Web. 7 June 2010.
  14. ^ a b "Archived copy". Archived from the original on 7 October 2010. Retrieved 28 July 2016. {{cite web}}: Unknown parameter |deadurl= ignored (|url-status= suggested) (help)CS1 maint: archived copy as title (link)
  15. ^ "FBI: Puerto Rico cops protected cocaine dealers". CNN. 7 October 2010.
  16. ^ "89 Puerto Rico Cops Arrested in Corruption Probe". Cbsnews.com. Retrieved 26 August 2017.
  17. ^ "Table 5".
  18. ^ Chalabi, Mona (July 22, 2012). "Gun homicides and gun ownership listed by country". The Guardian.
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