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=== (2) Pallas ===
=== (2) Pallas ===


Broadly similar to Ceres, [[(2) Pallas|Pallas]] is a very large SSSB in the cooler, middle Main Belt. While the exact typing of Pallas is somewhat arbitrary, it, like Ceres, is not S-, M-, or V-type. The C-complex bodies are considered more likely to contain significant water.<ref name="feierberg">{{cite journal | vauthors = Feierberg MA, Lebofsky LA, Tholen DJ | date=1985 | title=The Nature of C-Class Asteroids from 3-um Spectrophotometry | journal=Icarus | volume=63 | page=183 }}</ref><ref name="grimm">{{ cite journal | vauthors = Grimm R, McSween H | date=1989 | title=Water and the thermal evolution of carbonaceous parent bodies | journal=Icarus | volume=82 | page=244 }}</ref>
Broadly similar to Ceres, [[(2) Pallas|Pallas]] is a very large SSSB in the cooler, middle Main Belt. While the exact typing of Pallas is somewhat arbitrary, it, like Ceres, is not S-, M-, or V-type. The C-complex bodies are considered more likely to contain significant water.<ref name="feierberg">{{cite journal | vauthors = Feierberg MA, Lebofsky LA, Tholen DJ | date=1985 | title=The Nature of C-Class Asteroids from 3-um Spectrophotometry | journal=Icarus | volume=63 | page=183 }}</ref><ref name="grimm">{{ cite journal | vauthors = Grimm R, McSween H | date=1989 | title=Water and the thermal evolution of carbonaceous parent bodies | journal=Icarus | volume=82 | page=244 | doi = 10.1016/0019-1035(89)90038-9 }}</ref>


===Dormant Comets===
===Dormant Comets===
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===Radiation Shielding===
===Radiation Shielding===


Water, as a reasonably dense material, can be used as a radiation shield. In microgravity, bags of water or water-filled spaces need little structural support. Another benefit is that water, having elements with moderate and low [[Mass_number|Z]], generates little [[secondary radiation]] when struck. It can be used to block the secondary radiation from higher-Z materials, forming a [[Radiation_protection#radiation_shielding|graded-Z shield]]. This other material may be the spoil or [[gangue]]/[[tailings]] from asteroid processing.<ref name="matloff">{{ cite journal | vauthors = Matloff GL, Wilga M | date=2011 | title=NEOs as stepping stones to Mars and main-belt asteroids | journal=Acta Astronautica | volume=68 | issue=5–6 | page=599 | bibcode=2011AcAau..68..599M | doi=10.1016/j.actaastro.2010.02.026 }}</ref><ref name="green">{{ cite journal | last1=Green, M. | last2=Hess, J. | last3=Lacroix, T. | last4=Humi, M. | date=Jun 2013 | title=Near Earth Asteroids: The Celestial Chariots | bibcode=2013arXiv1306.3118G | arxiv=1306.3118 }}</ref>
Water, as a reasonably dense material, can be used as a radiation shield. In microgravity, bags of water or water-filled spaces need little structural support. Another benefit is that water, having elements with moderate and low [[Mass_number|Z]], generates little [[secondary radiation]] when struck. It can be used to block the secondary radiation from higher-Z materials, forming a [[Radiation_protection#radiation_shielding|graded-Z shield]]. This other material may be the spoil or [[gangue]]/[[tailings]] from asteroid processing.<ref name="matloff">{{ cite journal | vauthors = Matloff GL, Wilga M | date=2011 | title=NEOs as stepping stones to Mars and main-belt asteroids | journal=Acta Astronautica | volume=68 | issue=5–6 | page=599 | bibcode=2011AcAau..68..599M | doi=10.1016/j.actaastro.2010.02.026 }}</ref><ref name="green">{{ cite journal | vauthors = Green M, Hess J, Lacroix T, Humi M | date=June 2013 | title=Near Earth Asteroids: The Celestial Chariots | bibcode=2013arXiv1306.3118G | arxiv=1306.3118 }}</ref>


===Growth medium===
===Growth medium===
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*{{cite book | vauthors = Wilson L, Bland PA, Buczkowski D, Keil K, Krot AN | chapter = Hydrothermal and Magmatic Fluid Flow in Asteroids | pages = 553| title = Asteroids IV | veditors = Michel P, DeMeo FE, Bottke WP | date = 2015 | publisher = University of Arizona Press | isbn = 978-0-8165-3218-6 }}
*{{cite book | vauthors = Wilson L, Bland PA, Buczkowski D, Keil K, Krot AN | chapter = Hydrothermal and Magmatic Fluid Flow in Asteroids | pages = 553| title = Asteroids IV | veditors = Michel P, DeMeo FE, Bottke WP | date = 2015 | publisher = University of Arizona Press | isbn = 978-0-8165-3218-6 }}
* {{cite book | vauthors = Krot AN, Nagashima K, Alexander CM, Ciesla FJ, Fujiya W, Bonal L | chapter = Sources of Water and Aqueous Activity on the Chondrite Parent Asteroids | pages = 635| title = Asteroids IV | veditors = Michel P, DeMeo FE, Bottke WP | date = 2015 | publisher = University of Arizona Press | isbn = 978-0-8165-3218-6 }}
* {{cite book | vauthors = Krot AN, Nagashima K, Alexander CM, Ciesla FJ, Fujiya W, Bonal L | chapter = Sources of Water and Aqueous Activity on the Chondrite Parent Asteroids | pages = 635| title = Asteroids IV | veditors = Michel P, DeMeo FE, Bottke WP | date = 2015 | publisher = University of Arizona Press | isbn = 978-0-8165-3218-6 }}
* {{cite journal | vauthors = Snodgrass C, Agarwal J, Combi M, Fitzsimmons A, Guilbert-Lepoutre A, Hsieh HH, Hui MT, Jehin E, Kelley MS, Knight MM, Opitom C | display-authors = 6 | title = The main belt comets and ice in the solar system. | journal = The Astronomy and Astrophysics Review | date = November 2017 | volume = 25 | issue = 1 | pages = 5 }}
* {{cite journal | vauthors = Snodgrass C, Agarwal J, Combi M, Fitzsimmons A, Guilbert-Lepoutre A, Hsieh HH, Hui MT, Jehin E, Kelley MS, Knight MM, Opitom C | display-authors = 6 | title = The main belt comets and ice in the solar system. | journal = The Astronomy and Astrophysics Review | date = November 2017 | volume = 25 | issue = 1 | pages = 5 | doi = 10.1007/s00159-017-0104-7 }}
{{refend}}
{{refend}}


Revision as of 06:51, 3 January 2019

Asteroidal water is water or a precursor, hydroxide (OH),[1] in those small Solar System bodies (SSSBs) not explicitly in its subcategory of comets. The "snow line" of this solar system lies outside of the main Asteroid Belt, and significant water is expected in, e. g., Centaurs and Kuiper Belt objects (KBOs). Nevertheless, significant water has been found inside the snow line, including in Near-Earth objects (NEOs).

The history of asteroidal water indicates Solar System history- either formation processes, or transfer via bombardment, migration, ejection, or other means. Asteroidal water is more recently a prime resource for deep-space activities, as a propellant feedstock, human requirement, agricultural input, etc.

History

In Meteorites

Since the early 1800s, meteorites have been assumed to be "space rocks," not terrestrial or atmospheric phenomena. At this time, asteroids were first discovered, then in increasing numbers and categories.

Many meteorites show signs of previous water. The petrological scale, numbered 1 through 7, indicates increasing aqueous alteration from type 2 to 1. Signs of water include phyllosilicates ("clay"), serpentinites, sulfides and sulfates, and carbonates,[2] as well as structural signs: veins, and alteration or total erasure of individual chondrules.[3][4]

Some meteorites, particularly the CI class,[5] currently contain water.[6] As these include both finds (with their Earth entry and impact unobserved) and falls (meteorites from a known, recent meteor event), that water cannot be entirely terrestrial contamination. As the precision of isotopic abundance analyses grew, they confirmed that meteorite water differs from Earth water. As water at Earth (especially its atmosphere) is well-mixed, significantly different isotope levels would indicate a separate water source.

Water content of the CI and CM types are often in double-digit percentages.

Much telescopic observation and hypothesizing attempted to link meteorite classes to asteroid types.[7] The Galileo and NEAR missions then established S-type asteroids as the parent bodies of ordinary chondrites; the Dawn mission confirmed hypotheses that (4) Vesta was the HED parent. Ongoing projects are sending spacecraft to C-, M-, D-, and P-type bodies.

Versus Comets

The planets, and to an extent the Asteroid Belt, were previously held to be static and unchanging. The Belt was a former or stalled planet.

After the discovery of many near-Earth asteroids, not in the Belt, it was apparent they had planet-crossing, unstable orbits. Their number could not have survived from the Solar System's formation, and required replenishment from some other population. Some, such as Opik and Wetherill, hypothesized that most or all NEOs were actually extinct or dormant comets, requiring no ejection process from the main Belt. The comets' orbits had become more circular after encounters with planets, possibly augmented by comet jetting. Centaurs, too, required some similar model.

A growing understanding of Solar System dynamics, including more observations, of more bodies, replicated by faster computer models, eliminated this requirement. Kirkwood Gaps were evidence of loss from the main Belt, via resonances with the planets. Later, the Yarkovsky effect, insignificant to a planet, could augment mechanisms.

As Comets

main article: Main-belt comet

The issue of asteroids versus comets reemerged with observations of active asteroids- that is, emission from small bodies in what were considered asteroidal orbits, not comet-like orbits (high eccentricity and inclination). This includes both Centaurs, past the snow line, and main Belt objects, inside the line and previously assumed dry. Activity could, in some cases, be explained by ejecta, escaping from an impact. However, some "asteroids" showed activity at perihelion, then at subsequent perihelia. The probability of impacts with this timed pattern was considered unlikely versus a model of comet-like volatile emissions.

Observations of the Geminid meteor shower linked it to 3200 Phaeton, a body in a cometary orbit but with no visible coma or tail, and thus defined as an asteroid. Phaeton was a "rock comet," whose emissions are largely discrete particles and not visible.

Observations of (1) Ceres emitting hydroxide (OH), the product of water after exposure to the Sun's ultraviolet levels, were further evidence. Ceres is well within the snow line, exposed to ultraviolet, and Cererean water was considered speculative, at least on its surface.

The IAU General Assembly of 2006 addressed this issue. Overshadowed by Pluto was the creation of "Small Solar System Body" (SSSB), a category needing no comet-asteroid distinction, nor establishment/disestablishment of volatile emission.

Hydrology/Morphology

Water can persist at higher temperatures than normal in the form of hydrated minerals: those minerals which can bind water molecules at the crystalline level. Salts, including halite (table salt, NaCl) are ionic and attract individual, polar water molecules with electrostatic forces. Alternately, the parent mineral may be e. g., sulfate, and that mineral may retain hydroxide (OH). When freed from the crystal structure, hydroxide reverts to water and oxygen.

Short of this binding, a surface may retain a monolayer or bilayer of water molecules or hydroxide. Phyllosilicate minerals assemble into microscopic plates, sheets, or fibers, rather than bulk crystals. The layers trap water between them; the large surface area created can hold much water.

Minerals which appear waterless to the eye or hand may nevertheless be hydrated. Most "rocks" are silicates, or in some cases metal oxides, containing an oxygen fraction. Hydrogen content, as substitutions or interstitials, can react with oxygen (displacing its existing cation) to form hydroxide or water. The solar wind is a reducing environment, containing hydrogen atoms and protons (effectively hydrogen, in the form of hydrogen nuclei).[8] Either may be implanted into exposed surfaces, as the small hydrogen atom is highly soluble. A lesser contribution may come from the proton component of cosmic rays. Both pyroxene and olivine, common asteroid minerals, can hydrate in this manner.

On a macroscopic scale, some thickness of crust may shelter water from evaporation, photolysis and radiolysis, meteoric bombardment, etc. Even where a crust does not originally exist, impurities in ice may form a crust after its parent ice escapes: a lag deposit.

On a geologic scale, the larger asteroids can shield ice content in their interiors via a high thermal mass. Below some depth, the diurnal temperature variation becomes negligible, and the effect of solar insolation- a daytime temperature peak- does not boil out water. A low obliquity helps; while the tropics take solar insolation, two polar regions see little sunlight and can help maintain a low average temperature.

Hydrated Asteroid Materials

Phyllosilicates

CI meteorites are mostly phyllosilicates. The phyllosilicates serpentinite, montmorillonite ("clay"), tochilinite,[2] and mica have been identified in meteorites.

Sulfates and Sulfides

Sulfur is found in meteorites; it has a fairly high cosmic abundance. The abundance in common (chondrite) meteorites is greater than that in Earth's crust; as a differentiated body, our crust has lost some sulfur to an iron core, and some to space as hydrogen sulfide gas. The element is "present in all meteorites"; carbonaceous chondrites and enstatite chondrites in particular have "higher sulfur contents than the ordinary chondrites". In C1 and C2 chondrites, "sulfur is found predominantly as free sulfur, sulfate minerals, and in organic compounds" at a net 2-5 percent.[9] A slight enrichment is due to "cosmic-ray produced S36 and S33".[10]

Sulfur-bearing, hydrated minerals identified via meteorites include epsomite, bloedite, and gypsum.

Carbonate

As the name implies, carbonaceous chondrites formed with chondrules and carbon. The carbonates whewellite and hydromagnesite have been found in meteorites.

Direct Observation

Visible/Near-Infrared Spectroscopy

The spectrum of water and water-bearing minerals have diagnostic features. Two such signs, in the near-infrared, extending somewhat into visible light, are in common use.

Some hydrated minerals have spectral features at wavelengths of 2.5-3.1 micrometers (um). Besides fundamental lines or bands is an overtone of a longer-wave (~6 um) feature. The result is a wide absorption band in the light reflecting from such bodies.[11]

Asteroid (162173) Ryugu, the target of the Hayabusa 2 mission, is expected to be hydrated where (25143) Itokawa was not. Hayabusa 1's NIRS (Near-Infrared Spectrometer) design was then shifted from its maximum wavelength of 2.1 um,[12] to Hayabusa 2's NIRS3 (1.8-3.2 um), to cover this spectral range.[13]

An absorption feature at ~0.7 micrometer is from the Fe2+ to Fe3+ transition, in iron-bearing phyllosilicates.[14][15] The 0.7 um feature is not taken as sufficient. While many phyllosilicates contain iron, other hydrated minerals do not, including non-phyllosilicates. In parallel, some non-hydrated minerals have absorption features at 0.7 um. The advantage of such observing is that 0.7 um is in the sensitivity range of common silicon detectors, where 3 um requires more exotic sensors.

Neutron Spectroscopy

main article: Neutron Spectroscopy

The hydrogen nucleus- one proton- is essentially the mass of one neutron. Neutrons striking hydrogen then rebound with a characteristic speed. Such "thermal neutrons" indicate hydrogen versus other elements, and hydrogen often indicates water. Neutron fluxes are low, so detection from Earth is infeasible. Even flyby missions are poor; orbiters and landers are needed for significant integration times.

Direct Imaging

Most small bodies are dots or single pixels in most telescopes. If such a body appears as an extended object, a coma of gas and dust is suspected, especially if it shows radial falloff, a tail, temporal variation, etc. Though other volatiles exist, water is often assumed to be present.

Native ice is difficult to image. Ice, particularly as small grains, is translucent, and tends to be masked by a parent material, or even sufficient levels of some impurities.

Sample Science

A sample in hand can be checked for fluid inclusions ("bubbles"). Near- and mid-IR spectroscopy are also easier at benchtop range. Other measurements of water include nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR), nanoSIMS; energy dispersive X-ray spectroscopy (EDS), and eventually thermogravimetric analysis (TGA)- driving off any water content.

By Body

(2060) Chiron

The Centaur 2060 Chiron, in a generally circular orbit, was assumed to be asteroidal, and given an asteroid number. However, at its first perihelion since its discovery and presumably warmer, it formed a coma, indicating loss of volatiles like a comet.

Mercury Polar Deposits

Asteroidal impacts have sufficient water to form Mercury's polar ices, without invoking comets. Any cometary water (including dormant, transitional objects) would be additional.[16][17] Not only are asteroids sufficient, but micrometeoroids/dust particles have the required water content; conversely, many of the asteroids in Mercury-crossing orbits may actually be defunct comets.[18]

Earth/Moon System

Claimed water at the lunar poles was, at first, attributed to comet impacts over the eons. This was an easy explanation. Subsequent analyses, including analyses of Earth-Moon isotopes versus comet isotopes, showed that comet water does not match Earth-Moon isotopes, while meteoritic water is very close.[19][20][21][22][23] At Earth's Moon, comet impact velocities are too high for volatile materials to remain, while asteroid orbits are "shallow" enough to deposit their water.[24]

(24) Themis and Family

Water on Themis, an outer-Belt object, has been directly observed. It is hypothesized that a recent impact exposed an ice deposit.[25][26] Other members of the Themis family, likely fragments of Themis itself or a larger parent now lost, also show signs of water.[27][28][29]

Active asteroids Elst-Pizarro, (118401)1999 RE70,[30] and possibly 238P/Read[31] are family members.

(65) Cybele and Family

As with Themis, Cybele is an outer-Belt, C-type or C-complex object at which a spectra of volatiles has been observed.[25][32]

(4) Vesta

Vesta was thought to be dry; it is in an inner, warmer zone of the Asteroid Belt, and its minerals (identified by spectroscopy) had volcanic origins which were assumed to have driven off water. For the Dawn mission, it would serve as a counterexample to hydrated (1) Ceres. However, at Vesta, Dawn found significant water. Reddy estimates the total Vestan water at 30 to 50 times that of Earth's Moon.[33] Scully et al. also claim that slumping on Vesta indicates the action of volatiles.[34]

(1) Ceres

The Herschel telescope observed far-infrared emission spectra from Ceres indicating water loss. Though debatable at the time, the subsequent Dawn probe would use a different method (thermal neutrons) to indicate subsurface water at high Cererean latitudes, and a third method (near-infrared spectra) for likely local emissions. A fourth line of evidence, relaxation of large craters, suggests a mechanically weak subsurface such as frozen volatiles.

The feature Ahuna Mons is most likely cryovolcanic: a Cererean pingo.

(16) Psyche

Psyche, despite being an M-type asteroid, shows the spectral signs of hydrated minerals.[35]

(25143) Itokawa

Water has been found in samples retrieved by the Hayabusa 1 mission. Despite being an S-type near-Earth asteroid, assumed dry, Itokawa is hypothesized to have been "a water-rich asteroid" before its disruption event. This remaining hydration is likely asteroidal, not terrestrial contamination. The water shows isotopic levels similar to carbonaceous chondrite water,[36] and the sample canister was sealed with double O-rings.[37][38]

(101955) Bennu

Maltagliati proposes that Bennu has significant volatiles content.[39]

The OSIRIS-REx spacecraft, on arriving at Bennu, found its surface to be mostly phyllosilicates and "water rich".[40][41]

Inferred Water

Jupiter Trojans

The snow line of this system is inside of Jupiter, making the Jupiter Trojans likely candidates for high water contents. Yet few signs of water have been found in spectroscopes. The hypothesis is that, past the snow line on a small body, such water is bound as ice. Ice is unlikely to participate in reactions to form hydrated minerals, or to escape as water/OH, both of which are spectrally distinct where solid ice is not.

The exception is 617 Patroclus; it may also have formed farther out, then been captured by Jupiter.

(2) Pallas

Broadly similar to Ceres, Pallas is a very large SSSB in the cooler, middle Main Belt. While the exact typing of Pallas is somewhat arbitrary, it, like Ceres, is not S-, M-, or V-type. The C-complex bodies are considered more likely to contain significant water.[42][43]

Dormant Comets

The category of Damocloids is defined as high-inclination, high-eccentricity bodies with no visible activity. In other words, they appear asteroid-like, but travel in cometary orbits.

107P/Wilson-Harrington is the first unambiguous ex-comet. After its 1949 discovery, Wilson-Harrington was not observed again in what should have been perihelion passages. In 1979, an asteroid was found and given the provisional designation 1979 VA, until its orbit could be determined to a sufficient level. That orbit matched that of comet Wilson-Harrington; the body is now dual-designated as (4015) Wilson-Harrington, too.

Other candidates include 944 Hidalgo, 1983 SA, 2201 Oljato, 3552 Don Quijote

Weak comets, perhaps not to the stage of Wilson-Harrington, include Arend-Rigauz and Neujmin 1.

(4660) Nereus, the original target of the Hayabusa mission, was selected both for its very accessible orbit, and the possibility that it is an extinct or dormant comet.

Gibbs and Cluster

Active asteroid 331P/Gibbs also has a small, close, and dynamically stable family ("cluster") of other objects.[44][45]

(162173) Ryugu

Ryugu, the target of the Hayabusa 2 mission, showed activity which may be an impact, escape of volatiles, or both.[46]

As A Resource

Propellant

The Tsiolkovskiy equation governs rocket travel. Given the velocities involved with space flight, the equation dictates that mission mass is dominated by propellant requirements, increasing as missions progress beyond low-Earth orbit.

Asteroidal water can be used by itself as a resistojet propellant. The application of large amounts of electricity (electrolysis) may decompose water into hydrogen and oxygen, which can be used in chemical rockets. When combined with the carbon present in carbonaceous chondrites (more likely to have high water content), these can synthesize oxygen and methane (both storable in space with a passive thermal design, unlike hydrogen), oxygen and methanol, etc.

As an in-space resource, asteroidal mass does not need to be lifted out of a gravity well. The cost of propellant then, in terms of other propellant, is lower by a multiplier set by the Tsiolkovskiy equation.

see also: EROEI

Radiation Shielding

Water, as a reasonably dense material, can be used as a radiation shield. In microgravity, bags of water or water-filled spaces need little structural support. Another benefit is that water, having elements with moderate and low Z, generates little secondary radiation when struck. It can be used to block the secondary radiation from higher-Z materials, forming a graded-Z shield. This other material may be the spoil or gangue/tailings from asteroid processing.[47][48]

Growth medium

Carbonaceous chondrites contain water, carbon, and minerals necessary for plant growth.[49]

See Also

References

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Further reading

  • Kerridge J, Bunch T (1979). "Aqueous Activity on Asteroids: Evidence from Carbonaceous Meteorites in Asteroids.". In Gehrels T, Mathews M (eds.). Asteroids. University of Arizona Press. ISBN 978-0-8165-0695-8.
  • Zolensky M, McSween H (1988). "Aqueous Alteration". In Kerridge J, Matthews M (eds.). Meteorites and the early solar system. University of Arizona Press. p. 114.
  • Lewis J, Hutson M (1993). "Asteroidal Resource Opportunities Suggested by Meteorite Data". In Lewis J, Matthews M, Guerrieri M (eds.). Resources of Near-Earth Space. University of Arizona Press. p. 523.
  • Nichols C (1993). "Volatile Products from Carbonaceous Asteroids". In Lewis J, Matthews M, Guerrieri M (eds.). Resources of Near-Earth Space. University of Arizona Press. p. 543.
  • Lodders K, Osborne R (1999). "Perspectives on the Comet-Asteroid-Meteorite Link". Composition and Origin of Cometary Materials. Dordrecht: Springer. pp. 289–297.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: date and year (link)
  • Jewitt D, Chizmadia L, Grimm R, Prialnik D (2002). "Water in the Small Bodies of the Solar System". In Bottke WF, Cellino A, Paolicchi P, Binzel RP (eds.). Asteroids III. University of Arizona Press. p. 863. ISBN 978-0-8165-2281-1.
  • Keppler H, Smyth J, eds. (2006). Water in Nominally Anhydrous Minerals. ISBN 978-0-939950-74-4.
  • Rivkin AS, Campins H, Emery J, Howell E (2015). "Astronomical Observations of Volatiles on Asteroids". In Michel P, DeMeo FE, Bottke WP (eds.). Asteroids IV. University of Arizona Press. pp. 65–88. ISBN 978-0-8165-3218-6.
  • Binzel R, Reddy V, Dunn T (2015). "The Active Asteroids". In Michel P, DeMeo FE, Bottke WP (eds.). Asteroids IV. University of Arizona Press. p. 221. ISBN 978-0-8165-3218-6.
  • Wilson L, Bland PA, Buczkowski D, Keil K, Krot AN (2015). "Hydrothermal and Magmatic Fluid Flow in Asteroids". In Michel P, DeMeo FE, Bottke WP (eds.). Asteroids IV. University of Arizona Press. p. 553. ISBN 978-0-8165-3218-6.
  • Krot AN, Nagashima K, Alexander CM, Ciesla FJ, Fujiya W, Bonal L (2015). "Sources of Water and Aqueous Activity on the Chondrite Parent Asteroids". In Michel P, DeMeo FE, Bottke WP (eds.). Asteroids IV. University of Arizona Press. p. 635. ISBN 978-0-8165-3218-6.
  • Snodgrass C, Agarwal J, Combi M, Fitzsimmons A, Guilbert-Lepoutre A, Hsieh HH, et al. (November 2017). "The main belt comets and ice in the solar system". The Astronomy and Astrophysics Review. 25 (1): 5. doi:10.1007/s00159-017-0104-7.
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