Holocentric chromosome: Difference between revisions
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'''Holocentric chromosomes''' are [[chromosome]]s that possess multiple [[kinetochore]]s along their length rather than the single [[centromere]] typical of other chromosomes.<ref name="Schrader">{{ |
'''Holocentric chromosomes''' are [[chromosome]]s that possess multiple [[kinetochore]]s along their length rather than the single [[centromere]] typical of other chromosomes.<ref name="Schrader">{{cite journal|last=Schrader|first=Franz | name-list-format = vanc |title=Notes an the Mitotic Behavior of Long Chromosomes|date=1935|journal=Cytologica|volume=6|issue=4|pages=422–430|doi=10.1508/cytologia.6.422|issn=0011-4545}}</ref> They have been described for the first time in cytogenetic experiments dating from 1935 and, since this first observation, the term holocentric chromosome has referred to chromosomes that: i) they lack the primary constriction corresponding to centromere observed in monocentric chromosomes;<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Mandrioli M, Manicardi GC | title = Analysis of insect holocentric chromosomes by atomic force microscopy | journal = Hereditas | volume = 138 | issue = 2 | pages = 129–32 | date = 2003 | pmid = 12921164 | doi = 10.1034/j.1601-5223.2003.01661.x | hdl = 11380/5054 }}</ref> and ii) they possess multiple kinetochores dispersed along the chromosomal axis so that microtubules bind to chromosomes along their entire length and move broadside to the pole from the metaphase plate.<ref name="Hughes">{{cite journal | vauthors = Hughes-Schrader S, Schrader F | title = The kinetochore of the Hemiptera | journal = Chromosoma | volume = 12 | issue = 1 | pages = 327–50 | date = January 1961 | pmid = 13716663 | doi = 10.1007/bf00328928 }}</ref> These chromosomes are also termed holokinetic, because, during cell division, chromatids move apart in parallel and do not form the classical V-shaped figures typical of monocentric chromosomes.<ref name="Wrench">{{cite book |last1=Wrensch |first1=Dana L. |last2=Kethley |first2=John B. |last3=Norton |first3=Roy A.| name-list-format = vanc | chapter = Cytogenetics of Holokinetic Chromosomes and Inverted Meiosis: Keys to the Evolutionary Success of Mites, with Generalizations on Eukaryotes|date=1994|doi=10.1007/978-1-4615-2389-5_11|title =Mites|pages=282–343|publisher=Springer US|isbn=978-1-4613-6012-4}}</ref><ref name="White">{{cite book| vauthors = White MJ |title=Animal cytology and evolution|date=1973|edition=3d|location=Cambridge [England]|publisher=University Press|isbn=0-521-07071-6|oclc=674359}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Mandrioli M, Manicardi GC | title = Unlocking holocentric chromosomes: new perspectives from comparative and functional genomics? | journal = Current Genomics | volume = 13 | issue = 5 | pages = 343–9 | date = August 2012 | pmid = 23372420 | doi = 10.2174/138920212801619250 | pmc = 3401891 }}</ref> Holocentric chromosomes evolved several times during both animal and plant evolution and are currently reported in about eight hundred diverse species, including plants, insects, arachnids and nematodes<ref name="Melters">{{cite journal | vauthors = Melters DP, Paliulis LV, Korf IF, Chan SW | s2cid = 3351527 | title = Holocentric chromosomes: convergent evolution, meiotic adaptations, and genomic analysis | journal = Chromosome Research | volume = 20 | issue = 5 | pages = 579–93 | date = July 2012 | pmid = 22766638 | doi = 10.1007/s10577-012-9292-1 }}</ref><ref name="Zedek2018">{{cite journal| vauthors = Benavente R |title=Holocentric chromosomes of arachnids: Presence of kinetochore plates during meiotic divisions|date=May 1982|journal=Genetica|volume=59|issue=1|pages=23–27|doi=10.1007/bf00130811|issn=0016-6707}}</ref> As a consequence of their diffuse kinetochores, holocentric chromosomes may stabilize chromosomal fragments favouring karyotype rearrangements.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Monti V, Lombardo G, Loxdale HD, Manicardi GC, Mandrioli M | s2cid = 15715405 | title = Continuous occurrence of intra-individual chromosome rearrangements in the peach potato aphid, Myzus persicae (Sulzer) (Hemiptera: Aphididae) | journal = Genetica | volume = 140 | issue = 1–3 | pages = 93–103 | date = March 2012 | pmid = 22644285 | doi = 10.1007/s10709-012-9661-x | hdl = 11380/739277 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|last1=Manicardi|first1=Gian Carlo |last2=Nardelli|first2=Andrea|last3=Mandrioli|first3=Mauro | name-list-format = vanc |title=Fast chromosomal evolution and karyotype instability: recurrent chromosomal rearrangements in the peach potato aphidMyzus persicae(Hemiptera: Aphididae)|date=2015-08-01|journal=Biological Journal of the Linnean Society|volume=116|issue=3|pages=519–529|doi=10.1111/bij.12621|issn=0024-4066}}</ref> However, holocentric chromosome may also present limitations to crossing over causing a restriction of the number of chiasma in bivalents<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Nokkala S, Kuznetsova VG, Maryanska-Nadachowska A, Nokkala C | title = Holocentric chromosomes in meiosis. I. Restriction of the number of chiasmata in bivalents | journal = Chromosome Research | volume = 12 | issue = 7 | pages = 733–9 | date = 2004 | pmid = 15505408 | doi = 10.1023/b:chro.0000045797.74375.70 }}</ref> and may cause a restructuring of meiotic divisions resulting in an inverted meiosis.<ref name="Lukhtanov">{{cite journal | vauthors = Lukhtanov VA, Dincă V, Friberg M, Šíchová J, Olofsson M, Vila R, Marec F, Wiklund C | display-authors = 6 | title = Versatility of multivalent orientation, inverted meiosis, and rescued fitness in holocentric chromosomal hybrids | journal = Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America | volume = 115 | issue = 41 | pages = E9610–E9619 | date = October 2018 | pmid = 30266792 | doi = 10.1073/pnas.1802610115 | pmc = 6187165 }}</ref> |
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== Evolution and structure == |
== Evolution and structure == |
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Holocentric chromosomes were described for the first time in 1935 to identify [[chromosome]]s with a diffuse [[kinetochore]] (or with a diffuse kinetochore activity) making these chromosomes able to bind to [[microtubules]] along their entire length. In the last decades, several studies assessed that the same behaviour during [[mitosis]] can be observed not only for holocentric/holokinetic chromosomes, but also for polykinetic chromosomes that contain numerous (but discrete) microtubule-binding sites, but the term “holocentric/holokinetic” is still used for both.<ref name="Schrader" /><ref name="White" /><ref name="Melters" /> |
Holocentric chromosomes were described for the first time in 1935 to identify [[chromosome]]s with a diffuse [[kinetochore]] (or with a diffuse kinetochore activity) making these chromosomes able to bind to [[microtubules]] along their entire length. In the last decades, several studies assessed that the same behaviour during [[mitosis]] can be observed not only for holocentric/holokinetic chromosomes, but also for polykinetic chromosomes that contain numerous (but discrete) microtubule-binding sites, but the term “holocentric/holokinetic” is still used for both.<ref name="Schrader" /><ref name="White" /><ref name="Melters" /> |
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[[File:Figure_holocentric_chromosomes.jpg|link=link=Special:FilePath/Figure holocentric chromosomes.jpg|thumb|In monocentric chromosomes, kinetochore (red circles) can be easily identified as it is located at the chromosomal primary constriction (centromere) during metaphase (M, top box). At anaphase (A, top box) chromatids move towards poles after their attachment to microtubules and V-shaped structures can be observed resulting from the passive movement of the chromosomal arms. In holocentric chromosome a chromosome-wide kinetochore is present (red lines) and no primary constriction is present during metaphase (M, bottom box). During anaphase (A, top box) holocentric chromatids move towards poles as linear bars parallel. If a chromosomal breakage occurs in a monocentric chromosome (bottom box), acentric chromosome fragments cannot be attached to microtubules during metaphase (M) and they are lost during anaphase (A). On the contrary, chromosome breakage of a holocentric chromosome results in chromosomal fragments that retain kinetic activity due to the chromosome-wide centromere extension and can be properly inherited.]] |
[[File:Figure_holocentric_chromosomes.jpg|link=link=Special:FilePath/Figure holocentric chromosomes.jpg|thumb|In monocentric chromosomes, kinetochore (red circles) can be easily identified as it is located at the chromosomal primary constriction (centromere) during metaphase (M, top box). At anaphase (A, top box) chromatids move towards poles after their attachment to microtubules and V-shaped structures can be observed resulting from the passive movement of the chromosomal arms. In holocentric chromosome a chromosome-wide kinetochore is present (red lines) and no primary constriction is present during metaphase (M, bottom box). During anaphase (A, top box) holocentric chromatids move towards poles as linear bars parallel. If a chromosomal breakage occurs in a monocentric chromosome (bottom box), acentric chromosome fragments cannot be attached to microtubules during metaphase (M) and they are lost during anaphase (A). On the contrary, chromosome breakage of a holocentric chromosome results in chromosomal fragments that retain kinetic activity due to the chromosome-wide centromere extension and can be properly inherited.]] |
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Before molecular methods became available, the presence of holocentric chromosomes was evaluated mostly using [[cytology]] and, considering that many species are difficult to study cytologically, it can be surmised that the true presence of holocentrism may be underestimated. In addition, there are several [[Taxon|taxa]], whose chromosomes are still uncharacterized, but their [[Phylogenetic tree|phylogenetic position]] suggests that they should have holocentric chromosomes.<ref name="Melters" /><ref>{{ |
Before molecular methods became available, the presence of holocentric chromosomes was evaluated mostly using [[cytology]] and, considering that many species are difficult to study cytologically, it can be surmised that the true presence of holocentrism may be underestimated. In addition, there are several [[Taxon|taxa]], whose chromosomes are still uncharacterized, but their [[Phylogenetic tree|phylogenetic position]] suggests that they should have holocentric chromosomes.<ref name="Melters" /><ref>{{cite book|last1=Bureš|first1=Petr|last2=Zedek|first2=František|last3=Marková|first3=Michaela | name-list-format = vanc | chapter = Holocentric Chromosomes|date=2012-08-23 | doi =10.1007/978-3-7091-1160-4_12| title = Plant Genome Diversity | volume = 2 |pages=187–208|publisher=Springer Vienna|isbn=978-3-7091-1159-8}}</ref> The presence of holocentric chromosomes has been up till now assessed in about 800 species, including [[insects]], [[plant]]s, [[arachnids]], and [[nematodes]]<ref name="Schrader" /><ref name="White" /><ref name="Melters" /> suggesting that generally holocentric chromosomes originated by [[convergent evolution]] from ancestors possessing [[monocentric chromosome]]s. Interesting exceptions are represented by insects belonging to [[Oligoneoptera]] and [[Neoptera]], whose monocentric chromosomes probably evolved from holocentric ancestor in two different and independent events.<ref name="Melters" /> Evidence of convergent evolution suggests that holocentrism is adaptive, but the specific conditions under which holocentrism provided a [[Adaptation|selective advantage]] seem to be diverse for different taxa.<ref name="Melters" /><ref name="Escudero">{{cite journal|last1=Escudero|first1=Marcial |last2=Márquez-Corro|first2=J. Ignacio|last3=Hipp|first3=Andrew L. | name-list-format = vanc |title=The Phylogenetic Origins and Evolutionary History of Holocentric Chromosomes|date=2016-09-01|journal=Systematic Botany|volume=41|issue=3|pages=580–585|doi=10.1600/036364416x692442|issn=0363-6445}}</ref> Indeed, in [[phytophagous]] insects (such as [[aphids]] and [[lepidopterans]]) holocentrism could be related to the production by plants of compounds able to induce chromosomal breakages ([[clastogen]]s), whereas in other cases, holocentrism allows facing[[DNA damage]] resulting from desiccation and/or other chromosome-breaking factors.<ref name="Escudero" /> Despite these differences, holocentric chromosomes present intrinsic benefits since [[Chromosome abnormality|chromosomal mutations]], such as fissions and fusions, are potentially [[Neutral mutation|neutral]] in holocentric chromosomes in respect to monocentric ones. However, the hypothesis of holocentrism as an anticlastogenic adaptation have to be more systematically tested, including both controlled laboratory experiments and field studies across clastogenic gradients and large-scale phylogenetic analyses.<ref name="Zedek2018" /> At the same time, Nagaki et al.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Nagaki K, Kashihara K, Murata M | title = Visualization of diffuse centromeres with centromere-specific histone H3 in the holocentric plant Luzula nivea | journal = The Plant Cell | volume = 17 | issue = 7 | pages = 1886–93 | date = July 2005 | pmid = 15937225 | doi = 10.1105/tpc.105.032961 | pmc = 1167539 }}</ref> proposed that holocentrism can be easily acquired during plant and animal evolution by a slight difference in the kinetochore origin. In particular, they hypothesized that if the direction of kinetochore origin turns by 90° and occurs along the chromosome axes up to the [[Telomere|telomeric regions]], it is possible to “generate” holocentric chromosomes without any further step. |
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=== Structure of holocentric chromosomes === |
=== Structure of holocentric chromosomes === |
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A detailed molecular analysis of the [[Chromosome structure|structure]] of holocentric chromosomes is currently available for the nematode ''[[Caenorhabditis elegans]]'' only,<ref name="Howe">{{ |
A detailed molecular analysis of the [[Chromosome structure|structure]] of holocentric chromosomes is currently available for the nematode ''[[Caenorhabditis elegans]]'' only,<ref name="Howe">{{cite journal | vauthors = Howe M, McDonald KL, Albertson DG, Meyer BJ | title = HIM-10 is required for kinetochore structure and function on Caenorhabditis elegans holocentric chromosomes | journal = The Journal of Cell Biology | volume = 153 | issue = 6 | pages = 1227–38 | date = June 2001 | pmid = 11402066 | doi = 10.1083/jcb.153.6.1227 | pmc = 2192032 }}</ref><ref name="Zedek">{{cite journal | vauthors = Zedek F, Bureš P | title = Evidence for centromere drive in the holocentric chromosomes of Caenorhabditis | journal = PLOS ONE | volume = 7 | issue = 1 | pages = e30496 | date = 2012-01-23 | pmid = 22291967 | doi = 10.1371/journal.pone.0030496 | pmc = 3264583 | bibcode = 2012PLoSO...730496Z }}</ref> whereas the presence of true holokinetic nature has been also confirmed in other taxa by the evidence that experimentally induced chromosome fragments continue to attach to the [[Spindle apparatus|spindle]] and [[Chromosome segregation|segregate]] correctly.<ref name="Hughes" /> For most of the species, data about holocentrism are related to the analysis of the behaviour of chromosomes during [[anaphase]] migration since holocentric [[sister chromatids]] migrate in parallel to the [[spindle pole]]s, in contrast to monocentric ones in which pulling forces are exerted on a single chromosomal point and chromosome arms trail behind. As a consequence, chromatids of holocentric chromosomes move apart in parallel and do not form the classical V-shaped figures typical of monocentric ones.<ref name="Wrench" /> Moreover, if a holocentric chromosome is fragmented (for instance by [[X-ray|X-ray irradiation]]), each fragment retains centromere activity and can segregate properly to the poles. |
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== In different organisms == |
== In different organisms == |
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=== Arthropods === |
=== Arthropods === |
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Among [[arthropods]], the presence of holocentric chromosome has been reported in different species belonging to insects ([[Odonata]], [[Zoraptera]], [[Dermaptera]], [[Psocoptera]], [[Phthiraptera]], [[Thysanoptera]], [[Hemiptera]], [[Trichoptera]] and [[Lepidoptera]]), scorpions ([[Buthoidea]]), mites and ticks of the superorder [[Acariformes]] and genus ''[[Rhipicephalus]]'' ([[Ixodidae]]), spiders ([[Dysderidae]] and [[Segestridae]]),<ref name="Melters" /><ref name="Escudero" /> millipedes<ref name="Ogawa">{{ |
Among [[arthropods]], the presence of holocentric chromosome has been reported in different species belonging to insects ([[Odonata]], [[Zoraptera]], [[Dermaptera]], [[Psocoptera]], [[Phthiraptera]], [[Thysanoptera]], [[Hemiptera]], [[Trichoptera]] and [[Lepidoptera]]), scorpions ([[Buthoidea]]), mites and ticks of the superorder [[Acariformes]] and genus ''[[Rhipicephalus]]'' ([[Ixodidae]]), spiders ([[Dysderidae]] and [[Segestridae]]),<ref name="Melters" /><ref name="Escudero" /> millipedes<ref name="Ogawa">{{cite journal|last=Ogawa|first=Kazuo | name-list-format = vanc |title=Chromosome Studies in the Myriapoda|date=1953|url=https://www.jstage.jst.go.jp/article/ggs1921/28/1/28_1_12/_article/-char/ja/|journal=Japanese Journal of Genetics (遺伝學雑誌)|volume=28|issue=1|pages=12–18|doi=10.1266/jjg.28.12}}</ref> and centipedes.<ref name="Ogawa" /> Despite this widespread occurrence, most of the currently available data on holocentrism is related to aphid and lepidopteran species.<ref name="Melters" /><ref name="White" /> In aphids, holocentric chromosomes have been deeply studied and their ability to stabilize chromosomal fragments has been associated to their phytophagous life style. Indeed, several plants produce chemicals able to induce DNA damage to pest insects. [[Nicotine]], for instance, is a naturally occurring [[alkaloid]] found primarily in members of the [[Solanaceae|solanaceous plant family]] (including ''[[Nicotiana tabacum]]'') that can cause replication fork stress resulting in various forms of DNA damage, including chromosomal fragmentations.<ref name="Richards">{{cite journal | vauthors = Richards RI | title = Fragile and unstable chromosomes in cancer: causes and consequences | journal = Trends in Genetics | volume = 17 | issue = 6 | pages = 339–45 | date = June 2001 | pmid = 11377796 | doi = 10.1016/s0168-9525(01)02303-4 }}</ref><ref name="Freudenreich">{{cite journal | vauthors = Freudenreich CH | title = Chromosome fragility: molecular mechanisms and cellular consequences | journal = Frontiers in Bioscience | volume = 12 | issue = 12 | pages = 4911–24 | date = September 2007 | pmid = 17569619 | doi = 10.2741/2437 }}</ref> Similar effects have been also reported by other plant-produced molecules, such as [[caffeine]] and [[ethanol]].<ref name="Richards" /><ref name="Freudenreich" /> In view of their ability to favour the inheritance of chromosomal fragments, holocentrism has been associated to recurrent changes in the [[karyotype]]s of some aphid species and in particular in the peach potato aphid ''[[Myzus persicae]]'', where both inter- and intra-individual rearranged karyotypes have been also observed.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Manicardi GC, Mandrioli M, Blackman RL | title = The cytogenetic architecture of the aphid genome | journal = Biological Reviews of the Cambridge Philosophical Society | volume = 90 | issue = 1 | pages = 112–25 | date = February 2015 | pmid = 24593177 | doi = 10.1111/brv.12096 | hdl = 11380/1062551 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|last1=Monti|first1=Valentina |last2=Mandrioli|first2=Mauro|last3=Rivi|first3=Marco|last4=Manicardi|first4=Gian Carlo | name-list-format = vanc |title=The vanishing clone: karyotypic evidence for extensive intraclonal genetic variation in the peach potato aphid, Myzus persicae (Hemiptera: Aphididae)|date=2011-12-16|journal=Biological Journal of the Linnean Society|volume=105|issue=2|pages=350–358|doi=10.1111/j.1095-8312.2011.01812.x|issn=0024-4066}}</ref> Interestingly, aphids also possess a constitutive expression of the [[telomerase]] coding gene so that they can initiate a ''de novo'' synthesis of telomere sequences at internal breakpoints, resulting in the stabilization of chromosomal fragments.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Monti V, Giusti M, Bizzaro D, Manicardi GC, Mandrioli M | s2cid = 25127536 | title = Presence of a functional (TTAGG)(n) telomere-telomerase system in aphids | journal = Chromosome Research | volume = 19 | issue = 5 | pages = 625–33 | date = July 2011 | pmid = 21667174 | doi = 10.1007/s10577-011-9222-7 | hdl = 11380/659235 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Mandrioli M, Borsatti F | s2cid = 20329150 | title = Analysis of heterochromatic epigenetic markers in the holocentric chromosomes of the aphid Acyrthosiphon pisum | journal = Chromosome Research | volume = 15 | issue = 8 | pages = 1015–22 | date = 2007-11-17 | pmid = 18004669 | doi = 10.1007/s10577-007-1176-4 | hdl = 11380/594885 }}</ref> Among non-polyploid animals, Lepidoptera exhibit the highest variance in [[Ploidy|chromosome number]] between species within a genus and notable levels of interspecific and intraspecific karyotype variability.<ref name="Lukhtanov" /><ref name="Marec">{{cite journal | vauthors = Marec F, Tothova A, Sahara K, Traut W | s2cid = 415409 | title = Meiotic pairing of sex chromosome fragments and its relation to atypical transmission of a sex-linked marker in Ephestia kuehniella (Insecta: Lepidoptera) | journal = Heredity | volume = 87 | issue = Pt 6 | pages = 659–71 | date = December 2001 | pmid = 11903561 | doi = 10.1046/j.1365-2540.2001.00958.x }}</ref><ref name="Hill">{{cite journal | vauthors = Hill J, Rastas P, Hornett EA, Neethiraj R, Clark N, Morehouse N, de la Paz Celorio-Mancera M, Cols JC, Dircksen H, Meslin C, Keehnen N, Pruisscher P, Sikkink K, Vives M, Vogel H, Wiklund C, Woronik A, Boggs CL, Nylin S, Wheat CW | display-authors = 6 | title = Unprecedented reorganization of holocentric chromosomes provides insights into the enigma of lepidopteran chromosome evolution | journal = Science Advances | volume = 5 | issue = 6 | pages = eaau3648 | date = June 2019 | pmid = 31206013 | doi = 10.1126/sciadv.aau3648 | pmc = 6561736 | bibcode = 2019SciA....5.3648H }}</ref> Lepidoptera indeed tolerate chromosomal variations in view of their holokinetic chromosomes, which facilitate the successful inheritance of novel fission or fusion fragments. As a consequence, Lepidoptera can avoid the deleterious consequences of large-scale chromosomal fission and fusion.<ref name="Lukhtanov" /><ref name="Marec" /><ref name="Hill" /> Nevertheless, they can sometimes tolerate heterozygosity for multiple rearrangements in hybrids between population with differences in their karyotype, raising questions about additional mechanisms that rescue fertility in [[Hybrid (biology)|chromosomal hybrids]]. In Lepidoptera, therefore, chromosome evolution is believed to play a role in [[Reinforcement (speciation)|reinforcing speciation]].<ref name="Lukhtanov" /> Comparing the genomes of lepidopteran species it has been also possible to analyse the effect of holocentrism in terms of rate of fixed [[chromosomal rearrangement]]s. This approach evidenced in Lepidoptera two chromosome breaks per megabase of DNA per Million of years: a rate that is much higher than what observed in ''[[Drosophila]]'' and it is a direct consequence of the holocentric nature of the lepidopteran genomes.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = d'Alençon E, Sezutsu H, Legeai F, Permal E, Bernard-Samain S, Gimenez S, Gagneur C, Cousserans F, Shimomura M, Brun-Barale A, Flutre T, Couloux A, East P, Gordon K, Mita K, Quesneville H, Fournier P, Feyereisen R | display-authors = 6 | title = Extensive synteny conservation of holocentric chromosomes in Lepidoptera despite high rates of local genome rearrangements | journal = Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America | volume = 107 | issue = 17 | pages = 7680–5 | date = April 2010 | pmid = 20388903 | doi = 10.1073/pnas.0910413107 | pmc = 2867904 | bibcode = 2010PNAS..107.7680D }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Lukhtanov VA, Dincă V, Talavera G, Vila R | title = Unprecedented within-species chromosome number cline in the Wood White butterfly Leptidea sinapis and its significance for karyotype evolution and speciation | journal = BMC Evolutionary Biology | volume = 11 | issue = 1 | pages = 109 | date = April 2011 | pmid = 21507222 | doi = 10.1186/1471-2148-11-109 | pmc = 3113740 }}</ref> At a structural level, insect holocentric chromosomes have not been studied in details, but it is interesting to underline the absence of homologues of [[CENPC1|CENP-C]] and [[CENPA|CENP-A]], previously considered essential for kinetochore functioning in eukaryotes.<ref name="drinnenberg">{{cite journal|last1=Drinnenberg|first1=Ines A |last2=deYoung|first2=Dakota|last3=Henikoff|first3=Steven|last4=Malik|first4=Harmit Singh | name-list-format = vanc |title=Author response: Recurrent loss of CenH3 is associated with independent transitions to holocentricity in insects|date=2014-08-18|journal=eLife|doi=10.7554/elife.03676.020}}</ref> |
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=== Nematodes === |
=== Nematodes === |
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The best known group of holocentric species can be found in the [[Secernentea]] class of the nematodes, which includes ''C. elegans''.<ref name="Howe" /><ref name="Zedek" /> other nematodes are usually described as holocentric because of their phylogenetic relationship to ''C. elegans'', but real karyotypic evidences are scarce or controversial.<ref>{{ |
The best known group of holocentric species can be found in the [[Secernentea]] class of the nematodes, which includes ''C. elegans''.<ref name="Howe" /><ref name="Zedek" /> other nematodes are usually described as holocentric because of their phylogenetic relationship to ''C. elegans'', but real karyotypic evidences are scarce or controversial.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Mutafova T, Dimitrova Y, Komandarev S | title = The karyotype of four Trichinella species | journal = Zeitschrift Fur Parasitenkunde | volume = 67 | issue = 1 | pages = 115–20 | date = 1982 | pmid = 7072318 | doi = 10.1007/bf00929519 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Spakulová M, Králová I, Cutillas C | title = Studies on the karyotype and gametogenesis in Trichuris muris | journal = Journal of Helminthology | volume = 68 | issue = 1 | pages = 67–72 | date = March 1994 | pmid = 8006389 | doi = 10.1017/s0022149x0001350x }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Post R | title = The chromosomes of the Filariae | journal = Filaria Journal | volume = 4 | issue = 1 | pages = 10 | date = November 2005 | pmid = 16266430 | doi = 10.1186/1475-2883-4-10 | pmc = 1282586 }}</ref> Nematode development is typically characterized by fixed lineages and a single inappropriate cell death, therefore, it has been suggested that holocentrism could avoid the disastrous consequences of unrepaired chromosome breakage events.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Pimpinelli S, Goday C | title = Unusual kinetochores and chromatin diminution in Parascaris | journal = Trends in Genetics | volume = 5 | issue = 9 | pages = 310–5 | date = September 1989 | pmid = 2686123 | doi = 10.1016/0168-9525(89)90114-5 }}</ref> The availability of several molecular and genomic resources allowed a detailed characterization of ''C. elegans'' holocentric chromosomes and in particular the structure of the kinetochore has been molecularly dissected.<ref name="Dernburg">{{cite journal | vauthors = Dernburg AF | title = Here, there, and everywhere: kinetochore function on holocentric chromosomes | journal = The Journal of Cell Biology | volume = 153 | issue = 6 | pages = F33-8 | date = June 2001 | pmid = 11402076 | pmc = 2192025 | doi = 10.1083/jcb.153.6.f33 }}</ref><ref name="Maddox">{{cite journal | vauthors = Maddox PS, Oegema K, Desai A, Cheeseman IM | title = "Holo"er than thou: chromosome segregation and kinetochore function in C. elegans | journal = Chromosome Research | volume = 12 | issue = 6 | pages = 641–53 | date = 2004 | pmid = 15289669 | doi = 10.1023/b:chro.0000036588.42225.2f }}</ref> Current data suggest that ''C. elegans'' kinetochores form paired lines or plates on opposite faces of condensed mitotic chromosomes,<ref name="Maddox" /> where each line represents the diffuse kinetochore of a single chromatid. transmission electron microscopy of ''C. elegans'' chromosomes revealed that the kinetochore has a trilaminar structure very similar to that observed in monocentric chromosomes<ref name="Maddox" /><ref name="Albertson">{{cite journal | vauthors = Albertson DG, Thomson JN | title = The kinetochores of Caenorhabditis elegans | journal = Chromosoma | volume = 86 | issue = 3 | pages = 409–28 | date = October 1982 | pmid = 7172865 | doi = 10.1007/bf00292267 }}</ref> More than 30 different proteins have been identified as components of the ''C. elegans'' kinetochore and half of them was already known as functioning in the kinetochores of monocentric chromosomes. Among these, highly studied proteins include homologues of CENP-C and CENP-A, which are highly conserved structural component of the kinetochore in eukaryotes.<ref name="Albertson" /><ref name="Monen">{{cite journal | vauthors = Monen J, Maddox PS, Hyndman F, Oegema K, Desai A | s2cid = 37436777 | title = Differential role of CENP-A in the segregation of holocentric C. elegans chromosomes during meiosis and mitosis | journal = Nature Cell Biology | volume = 7 | issue = 12 | pages = 1248–55 | date = December 2005 | pmid = 16273096 | doi = 10.1038/ncb1331 }}</ref> Contrarily to what generally observed in monocentric chromosomes, in holocentric ones the preferential localization of centromeres within heterochromatic areas is missing together with the presence of specific DNA sequences that in ''C. elegans'' are not required for the assembly of a functional kinetochore.<ref name="Albertson" /><ref name="Monen" /> In this regard, it has been observed that holocentric chromosomes of nematodes are unique because they have a large number of [[Satellite DNA|satellites]] scattered throughout their genome, whereas no scattered satellites are found in the monocentric chromosomes of the nematode ''[[trichinella spiralis]].''<ref name="Subirana">{{cite journal | vauthors = Subirana JA, Messeguer X | title = A satellite explosion in the genome of holocentric nematodes | journal = PLOS ONE | volume = 8 | issue = 4 | pages = e62221 | date = 2013-04-24 | pmid = 23638010 | doi = 10.1371/journal.pone.0062221 | pmc = 3634726 | bibcode = 2013PLoSO...862221S }}</ref> Interestingly, these satellite DNAs are not conserved in their sequences among species suggesting that highly [[Repeated sequence (DNA)|repetitive DNAs]] may facilitate the formation of kinetochores in view of their repetitiveness rather than for their specific sequence.<ref name="Subirana" /> The absence of a localized centromere prompted several studies to identify proteins that are involved in the sister chromatid cohesion assessing that it is accomplished by a separate [[Protein complex|complex]] of conserved proteins, termed [[cohesin]], that is comprised of the core subunits Scc3, Smc1, Smc3 and Scc1. Interestingly, they play the same function in organisms with monocentric chromosomes with an exception related to the subunit Scc1, whose gene in addition to the Scc1 [[orthologue]] present three additional [[paralogous]] genes.<ref name="Albertson" /><ref name="Monen" /> |
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=== Plants === |
=== Plants === |
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In plants, holocentric chromosomes have been found in [[Zygnematophyceae|zygnematophycean]] algae,<ref>{{ |
In plants, holocentric chromosomes have been found in [[Zygnematophyceae|zygnematophycean]] algae,<ref>{{cite book|last=Godward|first=Maud B. E. | name-list-format = vanc |title=Chromosomes of the Algae|date=1966|url=|publisher=Edward Arnold|isbn=9780713120585|p=24 –51}}</ref> in the genera ''[[Myristica]]'' ([[Myristicaceae]]), ''[[Chionographis]]'' ([[Melanthiaceae]]), ''[[Cuscuta]]'' ([[Convolvulaceae]]) and ''[[Droseraceae]],''<ref name="Kolodin">{{cite journal | vauthors = Kolodin P, Cempírková H, Bureš P, Horová L, Veleba A, Francová J, Adamec L, Zedek F | title = Holocentric chromosomes may be an apomorphy of Droseraceae. | journal = Plant Systematics and Evolution | date = December 2018 | volume = 304 | issue = 10 | pages = 1289–96 | doi = 10.1007/s00606-018-1546-8 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|last1=Luceño|first1=Modesto |last2=Vanzela|first2=André LL|last3=Guerra|first3=Marcelo| name-list-format = vanc |title=Cytotaxonomic studies in Brazilian Rhynchospora (Cyperaceae), a genus exhibiting holocentric chromosomes|date=1998-03-01|journal=Canadian Journal of Botany|volume=76|issue=3|pages=440–449|doi=10.1139/b98-013|issn=0008-4026}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Kuta E, Bohanec B, Dubas E, Vizintin L, Przywara L | title = Chromosome and nuclear DNA study on Luzula - a genus with holokinetic chromosomes | journal = Genome | volume = 47 | issue = 2 | pages = 246–56 | date = April 2004 | pmid = 15060577 | doi = 10.1139/g03-121 }}</ref> in the species ''[[trithuria submersa]]'' ([[hydatellaceae]]), ''[[prionium serratum]]'' ([[thurniaceae]])<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Kynast RG, Joseph JA, Pellicer J, Ramsay MM, Rudall PJ | title = Chromosome behavior at the base of the angiosperm radiation: karyology of Trithuria submersa (Hydatellaceae, Nymphaeales) | journal = American Journal of Botany | volume = 101 | issue = 9 | pages = 1447–55 | date = September 2014 | pmid = 25253705 | doi = 10.3732/ajb.1400050 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Zedek F, Veselý P, Horová L, Bureš P | title = Flow cytometry may allow microscope-independent detection of holocentric chromosomes in plants | journal = Scientific Reports | volume = 6 | issue = 1 | pages = 27161 | date = June 2016 | pmid = 27255216 | doi = 10.1038/srep27161 | pmc = 4891681 | bibcode = 2016NatSR...627161Z }}</ref> and, among higher-plants, in many genera belonging to families [[cyperaceae]] and [[juncaceae]], including the snowy woodrush ''[[luzula nivea]]'' ([[juncaceae]]), the most well-studied holocentric plant.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Haizel T, Lim YK, Leitch AR, Moore G | s2cid = 45200884 | title = Molecular analysis of holocentric centromeres of Luzula species | journal = Cytogenetic and Genome Research | volume = 109 | issue = 1–3 | pages = 134–43 | date = 2005 | pmid = 15753569 | doi = 10.1159/000082392 }}</ref><ref name="Zedek2016">{{cite journal | vauthors = Zedek F, Bureš P | title = Absence of positive selection on CenH3 in Luzula suggests that holokinetic chromosomes may suppress centromere drive | journal = Annals of Botany | volume = 118 | issue = 7 | pages = 1347–1352 | date = December 2016 | pmid = 27616209 | doi = 10.1093/aob/mcw186 | pmc = 5155603 }}</ref> In ''Luzula'' spp, the centromeric activity is localized simultaneously at several evenly spaced sites along each chromosome and chromosomes can be fragmented naturally or by irradiation into smaller (but viable) chromosomes.<ref name="Madei">{{cite journal| vauthors = Madej A, Kuta E |title=Holokinetic chromosomes of Luzula luzuloides [Juncaceae] in callus culture|date=2001|url=https://www.infona.pl//resource/bwmeta1.element.agro-article-bc619ee1-d3cf-4d0a-8f3e-1b72490dd68a|journal=Acta Biologica Cracoviensia. Series Botanica|issue=43|language=English|issn=0001-5296 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|last=Nordenskiöld|first=Hedda|title=Tetrad Analysis and the Course of Meiosis in Three Hybrids of Luzula Campestris|date=1961|journal=Hereditas|volume=47|issue=2|pages=203–238|language=en|doi=10.1111/j.1601-5223.1961.tb01771.x|issn=1601-5223}}</ref> The presence of rearranged karyotype does not affect fitness, as assessed by studies reporting that ''Luzula'' hybrids with parents possessing smaller and larger chromosomes showed the smaller chromosomes aligned and paired with the larger ones.<ref name="Madei" /> Similarly, in plants belonging to the genus ''[[Carex]]'', differentiation of the karyotype has been demonstrated to correlate with genetic divergence within species,<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Escudero M, Vargas P, Arens P, Ouborg NJ, Luceño M | title = The east-west-north colonization history of the Mediterranean and Europe by the coastal plant Carex extensa (Cyperaceae) | journal = Molecular Ecology | volume = 19 | issue = 2 | pages = 352–70 | date = January 2010 | pmid = 20002603 | doi = 10.1111/j.1365-294X.2009.04449.x }}</ref> among populations within species<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Hipp|first1=Andrew L. |last2=Rothrock|first2=Paul E.|last3=Roalson|first3=Eric H. | name-list-format = vanc |title=The Evolution of Chromosome Arrangements in Carex (Cyperaceae)|date=2008-12-05|journal=The Botanical Review|volume=75|issue=1|pages=96–109|doi=10.1007/s12229-008-9022-8|issn=0006-8101|s2cid=4489708}}</ref> and within populations<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Escudero M, Weber JA, Hipp AL | title = Species coherence in the face of karyotype diversification in holocentric organisms: the case of a cytogenetically variable sedge (Carex scoparia, Cyperaceae) | journal = Annals of Botany | volume = 112 | issue = 3 | pages = 515–26 | date = August 2013 | pmid = 23723260 | doi = 10.1093/aob/mct119 | pmc = 3718211 }}</ref> suggesting that, as previously reported in Lepidoptera,<ref name="Lukhtanov" /> holocentric chromosome rearrangements contribute to genetic differentiation at different evolutionary scales in ''Carex'' evolution and speciation. In plants it has also been suggested that the diffuse kinetochore of holocentric chromosomes may suppress the [[meiotic drive]] of centromeric repeats and its negative consequences.<ref name="Zedek2016" /> In particular, the expansions (or contractions) of centromeric repeats may lead to a larger (or smaller) kinetochore, which attracts more (or fewer) microtubules during meiosis.<ref name="Zedek" /><ref name="Zedek2016" /> This hypothesis, which correlates the presence of holocentric chromosomes with centromere drive suppression, is very intriguing but it only explains the evolution of chromosomal holocentrism in meiosis and not in mitosis and this is not trivial considering that some species with holocentric chromosomes may present a restriction of kinetochore activity during meiosis.<ref name="Zedek" /><ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Wanner G, Schroeder-Reiter E, Ma W, Houben A, Schubert V | s2cid = 14145859 | title = The ultrastructure of mono- and holocentric plant centromeres: an immunological investigation by structured illumination microscopy and scanning electron microscopy | journal = Chromosoma | volume = 124 | issue = 4 | pages = 503–17 | date = December 2015 | pmid = 26048589 | doi = 10.1007/s00412-015-0521-1 }}</ref> Similarly to what previously reported for ''C. elegans'', in ''[[Luzula elegans|L. elegans]]'' centromeres are not made by centromere-associated [[retrotransposon]]s nor centromere-associated satellite DNAs, but cenH3 proteins seem to be associated with a centromere-specific chromatin folding rather than with specific centromeric DNA sequences.<ref name="Cuacos">{{cite journal | vauthors = Cuacos M, H Franklin FC, Heckmann S | title = Atypical centromeres in plants-what they can tell us | journal = Frontiers in Plant Science | volume = 6 | pages = 913 | date = 2015-10-26 | pmid = 26579160 | doi = 10.3389/fpls.2015.00913 | pmc = 4620154 }}</ref> Conservation of elements between mono- and holocentric chromosomes is not limited to centromeric proteins, but it is also extended to [[Epigenetic marker|epigenetic marks]]. Indeed, the cell cycle-dependent phosphorylation of serine 10 or serine 28 of H3 (that is typically enriched in peri-centromeric regions of monocentric plant chromosomes) occurs uniformly along the ''Luzula'' chromosomes.<ref name="Cuacos" /> As previously described in aphids, ''L. elegans'' possesses a rapid and efficient ''de novo'' telomere formation based on a telomerase-mediated healing process that is active immediately after chromosomal damage by irradiation of chromosomes.<ref name="Jankowska">{{cite journal | vauthors = Jankowska M, Fuchs J, Klocke E, Fojtová M, Polanská P, Fajkus J, Schubert V, Houben A | s2cid = 2530401 | display-authors = 6 | title = Holokinetic centromeres and efficient telomere healing enable rapid karyotype evolution | journal = Chromosoma | volume = 124 | issue = 4 | pages = 519–28 | date = December 2015 | pmid = 26062516 | doi = 10.1007/s00412-015-0524-y }}</ref> Newly formed telomere repeats were cytologically detectable 21 days after irradiation in about 50% of cases with a complete healing of telomere after 3 months favouring the fragment stabilization and karyotype fixation.<ref name="Jankowska" /> |
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== Meiosis == |
== Meiosis == |
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More than 120 years ago, [[Edouard Van Beneden|van Beneden]] (1883) and [[Theodor Boveri|Boveri]] (1890) described meiosis for the first time through a careful observation of [[germ cell]] formation in the nematode ''[[Ascaris]]''. These observations, together with several further analyses, evidenced that canonical meiosis consists of a first division (called reductional division) that involves the segregation of chromosomal homologs resulting in the reduction of chromosome number and a second division (defined equational division) consisting in the separation of sister chromatids. A general rule for meiosis is therefore: first homologues, then sisters. |
More than 120 years ago, [[Edouard Van Beneden|van Beneden]] (1883) and [[Theodor Boveri|Boveri]] (1890) described meiosis for the first time through a careful observation of [[germ cell]] formation in the nematode ''[[Ascaris]]''. These observations, together with several further analyses, evidenced that canonical meiosis consists of a first division (called reductional division) that involves the segregation of chromosomal homologs resulting in the reduction of chromosome number and a second division (defined equational division) consisting in the separation of sister chromatids. A general rule for meiosis is therefore: first homologues, then sisters. |
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[[File:Inverted_meiosis.jpg|link=link=Special:FilePath/Inverted meiosis.jpg|thumb|Schematic comparison of the chromosomal separation occurring during the first meiotic division in standard and inverted meiosis.]] |
[[File:Inverted_meiosis.jpg|link=link=Special:FilePath/Inverted meiosis.jpg|thumb|Schematic comparison of the chromosomal separation occurring during the first meiotic division in standard and inverted meiosis.]] |
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Ironically, the understanding of the reductional division in meiosis of ''Ascaris'' sp. has been obtained studying the holocentric chromosomes which, in many other taxa, follow a reverse order of meiotic division.<ref name="Lukhtanov" /> Indeed, as reported in several nematodes, in insects belonging to Hemiptera and Lepidoptera,<ref name="Bogdanov">{{ |
Ironically, the understanding of the reductional division in meiosis of ''Ascaris'' sp. has been obtained studying the holocentric chromosomes which, in many other taxa, follow a reverse order of meiotic division.<ref name="Lukhtanov" /> Indeed, as reported in several nematodes, in insects belonging to Hemiptera and Lepidoptera,<ref name="Bogdanov">{{cite journal | vauthors = Bogdanov YF | title = [Inverted meiosis and its place in the evolution of sexual reproduction pathways] | journal = Genetika | volume = 52 | issue = 5 | pages = 541–60 | date = May 2016 | pmid = 29368476 | doi = 10.1134/s1022795416050033 }}</ref><ref name="Viera">{{cite journal | vauthors = Viera A, Page J, Rufas JS | title = Inverted meiosis: the true bugs as a model to study | journal = Genome Dynamics | volume = 5 | issue = | pages = 137–156 | date = 2009 | pmid = 18948713 | doi = 10.1159/000166639 |publisher = Karger |isbn=978-3-8055-8967-3 }}</ref> in mites<ref name="Vanzela">{{cite journal | vauthors = Vanzela AL, Cuadrado A, Guerra M | title = Localization of 45S rDNA and telomeric sites on holocentric chromosomes of Rhynchospora tenuis Link (Cyperaceae). | journal = Genetics and Molecular Biology | date = 2003 | volume = 26 | issue = 2 | pages = 199–201 | url=http://www.scielo.br/scielo.php?script=sci_abstract&pid=S1415-47572003000200014&lng=en&nrm=iso&tlng=en | doi = 10.1590/S1415-47572003000200014 }}</ref> and in some flowering plants<ref name="Zedek2018" /> species with holocentric chromosomes generally present an inverted meiotic sequence, in which segregation of homologs is postponed until the second meiotic division. Furthermore, in most cases of inverted meiosis the absence of a canonical kinetochore structure has been observed, together with a restriction of the kinetic activity to the chromosomal ends.<ref name="Lukhtanov" /><ref name="Bogdanov" /><ref name="Viera" /> These changes are related to the peculiar cohesion occurring in [[Tetrad (meiosis)|tetrads]] of the holocentric homologous chromosomes during meiosis that impose obstacles to the releases of chromosomes involved in multiple crossing over events.<ref name="Bogdanov" /><ref name="Viera" /><ref name="Vanzela" /> In the holocentric chromosomes of ''C. elegans'' female meiosis,<ref name="Martinez-Perez">{{cite journal | vauthors = Martinez-Perez E, Schvarzstein M, Barroso C, Lightfoot J, Dernburg AF, Villeneuve AM | title = Crossovers trigger a remodeling of meiotic chromosome axis composition that is linked to two-step loss of sister chromatid cohesion | journal = Genes & Development | volume = 22 | issue = 20 | pages = 2886–901 | date = October 2008 | pmid = 18923085 | doi = 10.1101/gad.1694108 | pmc = 2569886 }}</ref> this problem is circumvented restricting crossing over to form only a single [[Chiasma (genetics)|chiasma]] per bivalent and triggering the redistribution of kinetochore proteins along the bivalent axis forming meiosis-specific cup-like structures that uniformly coat each half bivalent but are excluded from the midbivalent region.<ref name="Martinez-Perez" /> During anaphase I, ''C. elegans'' homologous chromosomes are segregated to the poles by microtubule pushing from the midbivalent regions towards the poles.<ref name="Martinez-Perez" /> Differently to what reported in ''C. elegans'', other organisms with holocentric chromosomes, including both plants and insects,<ref name="Lukhtanov" /><ref name="Bogdanov" /><ref name="Viera" /> circumvent this problem segregating sister chromatids during meiosis I leading to the term inverted meiosis in which the order of reductional and equational division is inverted in respect to canonical meiosis. In this case therefore the separation of homologous chromosomes follows the segregation of sister chromatids. However, in order to have a successful inverted meiosis, it is necessary that a bipolar orientation of sister kinetochores occurs, together with their attachment to microtubules from opposite spindle poles in meiosis I. This allows the segregation of sister chromatids to opposite poles in anaphase I (equational division), but it requests a mechanism to align and pair homologous chromosomes during the second meiotic division.<ref name="Bogdanov" /><ref name="Viera" /><ref name="Vanzela" /> Interestingly, the presence of inverted meiosis can also facilitate the proper chromosome segregation in hybrids from parental species with differences in their karyotypes or derived by populations with rearranged karyotype allowing rescue of the fertility and viability of hybrids and promoting a fast karyotype evolution and possibly chromosomal speciation, as reported in Lepidoptera.<ref name="Lukhtanov" /> |
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== References == |
== References == |
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Revision as of 13:53, 31 July 2020
Holocentric chromosomes are chromosomes that possess multiple kinetochores along their length rather than the single centromere typical of other chromosomes.[1] They have been described for the first time in cytogenetic experiments dating from 1935 and, since this first observation, the term holocentric chromosome has referred to chromosomes that: i) they lack the primary constriction corresponding to centromere observed in monocentric chromosomes;[2] and ii) they possess multiple kinetochores dispersed along the chromosomal axis so that microtubules bind to chromosomes along their entire length and move broadside to the pole from the metaphase plate.[3] These chromosomes are also termed holokinetic, because, during cell division, chromatids move apart in parallel and do not form the classical V-shaped figures typical of monocentric chromosomes.[4][5][6] Holocentric chromosomes evolved several times during both animal and plant evolution and are currently reported in about eight hundred diverse species, including plants, insects, arachnids and nematodes[7][8] As a consequence of their diffuse kinetochores, holocentric chromosomes may stabilize chromosomal fragments favouring karyotype rearrangements.[9][10] However, holocentric chromosome may also present limitations to crossing over causing a restriction of the number of chiasma in bivalents[11] and may cause a restructuring of meiotic divisions resulting in an inverted meiosis.[12]
Evolution and structure
Evolution of holocentric chromosomes
Holocentric chromosomes were described for the first time in 1935 to identify chromosomes with a diffuse kinetochore (or with a diffuse kinetochore activity) making these chromosomes able to bind to microtubules along their entire length. In the last decades, several studies assessed that the same behaviour during mitosis can be observed not only for holocentric/holokinetic chromosomes, but also for polykinetic chromosomes that contain numerous (but discrete) microtubule-binding sites, but the term “holocentric/holokinetic” is still used for both.[1][5][7]
Before molecular methods became available, the presence of holocentric chromosomes was evaluated mostly using cytology and, considering that many species are difficult to study cytologically, it can be surmised that the true presence of holocentrism may be underestimated. In addition, there are several taxa, whose chromosomes are still uncharacterized, but their phylogenetic position suggests that they should have holocentric chromosomes.[7][13] The presence of holocentric chromosomes has been up till now assessed in about 800 species, including insects, plants, arachnids, and nematodes[1][5][7] suggesting that generally holocentric chromosomes originated by convergent evolution from ancestors possessing monocentric chromosomes. Interesting exceptions are represented by insects belonging to Oligoneoptera and Neoptera, whose monocentric chromosomes probably evolved from holocentric ancestor in two different and independent events.[7] Evidence of convergent evolution suggests that holocentrism is adaptive, but the specific conditions under which holocentrism provided a selective advantage seem to be diverse for different taxa.[7][14] Indeed, in phytophagous insects (such as aphids and lepidopterans) holocentrism could be related to the production by plants of compounds able to induce chromosomal breakages (clastogens), whereas in other cases, holocentrism allows facingDNA damage resulting from desiccation and/or other chromosome-breaking factors.[14] Despite these differences, holocentric chromosomes present intrinsic benefits since chromosomal mutations, such as fissions and fusions, are potentially neutral in holocentric chromosomes in respect to monocentric ones. However, the hypothesis of holocentrism as an anticlastogenic adaptation have to be more systematically tested, including both controlled laboratory experiments and field studies across clastogenic gradients and large-scale phylogenetic analyses.[8] At the same time, Nagaki et al.[15] proposed that holocentrism can be easily acquired during plant and animal evolution by a slight difference in the kinetochore origin. In particular, they hypothesized that if the direction of kinetochore origin turns by 90° and occurs along the chromosome axes up to the telomeric regions, it is possible to “generate” holocentric chromosomes without any further step.
Structure of holocentric chromosomes
A detailed molecular analysis of the structure of holocentric chromosomes is currently available for the nematode Caenorhabditis elegans only,[16][17] whereas the presence of true holokinetic nature has been also confirmed in other taxa by the evidence that experimentally induced chromosome fragments continue to attach to the spindle and segregate correctly.[3] For most of the species, data about holocentrism are related to the analysis of the behaviour of chromosomes during anaphase migration since holocentric sister chromatids migrate in parallel to the spindle poles, in contrast to monocentric ones in which pulling forces are exerted on a single chromosomal point and chromosome arms trail behind. As a consequence, chromatids of holocentric chromosomes move apart in parallel and do not form the classical V-shaped figures typical of monocentric ones.[4] Moreover, if a holocentric chromosome is fragmented (for instance by X-ray irradiation), each fragment retains centromere activity and can segregate properly to the poles.
In different organisms
Arthropods
Among arthropods, the presence of holocentric chromosome has been reported in different species belonging to insects (Odonata, Zoraptera, Dermaptera, Psocoptera, Phthiraptera, Thysanoptera, Hemiptera, Trichoptera and Lepidoptera), scorpions (Buthoidea), mites and ticks of the superorder Acariformes and genus Rhipicephalus (Ixodidae), spiders (Dysderidae and Segestridae),[7][14] millipedes[18] and centipedes.[18] Despite this widespread occurrence, most of the currently available data on holocentrism is related to aphid and lepidopteran species.[7][5] In aphids, holocentric chromosomes have been deeply studied and their ability to stabilize chromosomal fragments has been associated to their phytophagous life style. Indeed, several plants produce chemicals able to induce DNA damage to pest insects. Nicotine, for instance, is a naturally occurring alkaloid found primarily in members of the solanaceous plant family (including Nicotiana tabacum) that can cause replication fork stress resulting in various forms of DNA damage, including chromosomal fragmentations.[19][20] Similar effects have been also reported by other plant-produced molecules, such as caffeine and ethanol.[19][20] In view of their ability to favour the inheritance of chromosomal fragments, holocentrism has been associated to recurrent changes in the karyotypes of some aphid species and in particular in the peach potato aphid Myzus persicae, where both inter- and intra-individual rearranged karyotypes have been also observed.[21][22] Interestingly, aphids also possess a constitutive expression of the telomerase coding gene so that they can initiate a de novo synthesis of telomere sequences at internal breakpoints, resulting in the stabilization of chromosomal fragments.[23][24] Among non-polyploid animals, Lepidoptera exhibit the highest variance in chromosome number between species within a genus and notable levels of interspecific and intraspecific karyotype variability.[12][25][26] Lepidoptera indeed tolerate chromosomal variations in view of their holokinetic chromosomes, which facilitate the successful inheritance of novel fission or fusion fragments. As a consequence, Lepidoptera can avoid the deleterious consequences of large-scale chromosomal fission and fusion.[12][25][26] Nevertheless, they can sometimes tolerate heterozygosity for multiple rearrangements in hybrids between population with differences in their karyotype, raising questions about additional mechanisms that rescue fertility in chromosomal hybrids. In Lepidoptera, therefore, chromosome evolution is believed to play a role in reinforcing speciation.[12] Comparing the genomes of lepidopteran species it has been also possible to analyse the effect of holocentrism in terms of rate of fixed chromosomal rearrangements. This approach evidenced in Lepidoptera two chromosome breaks per megabase of DNA per Million of years: a rate that is much higher than what observed in Drosophila and it is a direct consequence of the holocentric nature of the lepidopteran genomes.[27][28] At a structural level, insect holocentric chromosomes have not been studied in details, but it is interesting to underline the absence of homologues of CENP-C and CENP-A, previously considered essential for kinetochore functioning in eukaryotes.[29]
Nematodes
The best known group of holocentric species can be found in the Secernentea class of the nematodes, which includes C. elegans.[16][17] other nematodes are usually described as holocentric because of their phylogenetic relationship to C. elegans, but real karyotypic evidences are scarce or controversial.[30][31][32] Nematode development is typically characterized by fixed lineages and a single inappropriate cell death, therefore, it has been suggested that holocentrism could avoid the disastrous consequences of unrepaired chromosome breakage events.[33] The availability of several molecular and genomic resources allowed a detailed characterization of C. elegans holocentric chromosomes and in particular the structure of the kinetochore has been molecularly dissected.[34][35] Current data suggest that C. elegans kinetochores form paired lines or plates on opposite faces of condensed mitotic chromosomes,[35] where each line represents the diffuse kinetochore of a single chromatid. transmission electron microscopy of C. elegans chromosomes revealed that the kinetochore has a trilaminar structure very similar to that observed in monocentric chromosomes[35][36] More than 30 different proteins have been identified as components of the C. elegans kinetochore and half of them was already known as functioning in the kinetochores of monocentric chromosomes. Among these, highly studied proteins include homologues of CENP-C and CENP-A, which are highly conserved structural component of the kinetochore in eukaryotes.[36][37] Contrarily to what generally observed in monocentric chromosomes, in holocentric ones the preferential localization of centromeres within heterochromatic areas is missing together with the presence of specific DNA sequences that in C. elegans are not required for the assembly of a functional kinetochore.[36][37] In this regard, it has been observed that holocentric chromosomes of nematodes are unique because they have a large number of satellites scattered throughout their genome, whereas no scattered satellites are found in the monocentric chromosomes of the nematode trichinella spiralis.[38] Interestingly, these satellite DNAs are not conserved in their sequences among species suggesting that highly repetitive DNAs may facilitate the formation of kinetochores in view of their repetitiveness rather than for their specific sequence.[38] The absence of a localized centromere prompted several studies to identify proteins that are involved in the sister chromatid cohesion assessing that it is accomplished by a separate complex of conserved proteins, termed cohesin, that is comprised of the core subunits Scc3, Smc1, Smc3 and Scc1. Interestingly, they play the same function in organisms with monocentric chromosomes with an exception related to the subunit Scc1, whose gene in addition to the Scc1 orthologue present three additional paralogous genes.[36][37]
Plants
In plants, holocentric chromosomes have been found in zygnematophycean algae,[39] in the genera Myristica (Myristicaceae), Chionographis (Melanthiaceae), Cuscuta (Convolvulaceae) and Droseraceae,[40][41][42] in the species trithuria submersa (hydatellaceae), prionium serratum (thurniaceae)[43][44] and, among higher-plants, in many genera belonging to families cyperaceae and juncaceae, including the snowy woodrush luzula nivea (juncaceae), the most well-studied holocentric plant.[45][46] In Luzula spp, the centromeric activity is localized simultaneously at several evenly spaced sites along each chromosome and chromosomes can be fragmented naturally or by irradiation into smaller (but viable) chromosomes.[47][48] The presence of rearranged karyotype does not affect fitness, as assessed by studies reporting that Luzula hybrids with parents possessing smaller and larger chromosomes showed the smaller chromosomes aligned and paired with the larger ones.[47] Similarly, in plants belonging to the genus Carex, differentiation of the karyotype has been demonstrated to correlate with genetic divergence within species,[49] among populations within species[50] and within populations[51] suggesting that, as previously reported in Lepidoptera,[12] holocentric chromosome rearrangements contribute to genetic differentiation at different evolutionary scales in Carex evolution and speciation. In plants it has also been suggested that the diffuse kinetochore of holocentric chromosomes may suppress the meiotic drive of centromeric repeats and its negative consequences.[46] In particular, the expansions (or contractions) of centromeric repeats may lead to a larger (or smaller) kinetochore, which attracts more (or fewer) microtubules during meiosis.[17][46] This hypothesis, which correlates the presence of holocentric chromosomes with centromere drive suppression, is very intriguing but it only explains the evolution of chromosomal holocentrism in meiosis and not in mitosis and this is not trivial considering that some species with holocentric chromosomes may present a restriction of kinetochore activity during meiosis.[17][52] Similarly to what previously reported for C. elegans, in L. elegans centromeres are not made by centromere-associated retrotransposons nor centromere-associated satellite DNAs, but cenH3 proteins seem to be associated with a centromere-specific chromatin folding rather than with specific centromeric DNA sequences.[53] Conservation of elements between mono- and holocentric chromosomes is not limited to centromeric proteins, but it is also extended to epigenetic marks. Indeed, the cell cycle-dependent phosphorylation of serine 10 or serine 28 of H3 (that is typically enriched in peri-centromeric regions of monocentric plant chromosomes) occurs uniformly along the Luzula chromosomes.[53] As previously described in aphids, L. elegans possesses a rapid and efficient de novo telomere formation based on a telomerase-mediated healing process that is active immediately after chromosomal damage by irradiation of chromosomes.[54] Newly formed telomere repeats were cytologically detectable 21 days after irradiation in about 50% of cases with a complete healing of telomere after 3 months favouring the fragment stabilization and karyotype fixation.[54]
Meiosis
More than 120 years ago, van Beneden (1883) and Boveri (1890) described meiosis for the first time through a careful observation of germ cell formation in the nematode Ascaris. These observations, together with several further analyses, evidenced that canonical meiosis consists of a first division (called reductional division) that involves the segregation of chromosomal homologs resulting in the reduction of chromosome number and a second division (defined equational division) consisting in the separation of sister chromatids. A general rule for meiosis is therefore: first homologues, then sisters.
Ironically, the understanding of the reductional division in meiosis of Ascaris sp. has been obtained studying the holocentric chromosomes which, in many other taxa, follow a reverse order of meiotic division.[12] Indeed, as reported in several nematodes, in insects belonging to Hemiptera and Lepidoptera,[55][56] in mites[57] and in some flowering plants[8] species with holocentric chromosomes generally present an inverted meiotic sequence, in which segregation of homologs is postponed until the second meiotic division. Furthermore, in most cases of inverted meiosis the absence of a canonical kinetochore structure has been observed, together with a restriction of the kinetic activity to the chromosomal ends.[12][55][56] These changes are related to the peculiar cohesion occurring in tetrads of the holocentric homologous chromosomes during meiosis that impose obstacles to the releases of chromosomes involved in multiple crossing over events.[55][56][57] In the holocentric chromosomes of C. elegans female meiosis,[58] this problem is circumvented restricting crossing over to form only a single chiasma per bivalent and triggering the redistribution of kinetochore proteins along the bivalent axis forming meiosis-specific cup-like structures that uniformly coat each half bivalent but are excluded from the midbivalent region.[58] During anaphase I, C. elegans homologous chromosomes are segregated to the poles by microtubule pushing from the midbivalent regions towards the poles.[58] Differently to what reported in C. elegans, other organisms with holocentric chromosomes, including both plants and insects,[12][55][56] circumvent this problem segregating sister chromatids during meiosis I leading to the term inverted meiosis in which the order of reductional and equational division is inverted in respect to canonical meiosis. In this case therefore the separation of homologous chromosomes follows the segregation of sister chromatids. However, in order to have a successful inverted meiosis, it is necessary that a bipolar orientation of sister kinetochores occurs, together with their attachment to microtubules from opposite spindle poles in meiosis I. This allows the segregation of sister chromatids to opposite poles in anaphase I (equational division), but it requests a mechanism to align and pair homologous chromosomes during the second meiotic division.[55][56][57] Interestingly, the presence of inverted meiosis can also facilitate the proper chromosome segregation in hybrids from parental species with differences in their karyotypes or derived by populations with rearranged karyotype allowing rescue of the fertility and viability of hybrids and promoting a fast karyotype evolution and possibly chromosomal speciation, as reported in Lepidoptera.[12]
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This article was adapted from the following source under a CC BY 4.0 license (2020) (reviewer reports):
Mauro Mandrioli; Gian Carlo Manicardi (2020). "Holocentric chromosomes". PLOS Genetics. 16 (7): e1008918. doi:10.1371/JOURNAL.PGEN.1008918. ISSN 1553-7390. PMC 7392213. PMID 32730246. Wikidata Q97932961.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: unflagged free DOI (link)