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==Geography==
==Geography==
The entirety of the Nacotchtank tribe, prior to colonization, was situated within the modern borders of the District of Columbia. The tribe was situated along the intersection of two major rivers— the [[Potomac River|Potomac]] and the [[Anacostia River|Anacostia]]— and thus, the majority of Nacotchtank settlements were along the water.<ref name=":55">{{Cite web|title=Before the White House|url=https://www.whitehousehistory.org/before-the-white-house|accessdate=2020-10-11|work=WHHA (en-US)}}</ref> The Nacotchtank's principal village, ''Nachatank,'' was situated along the eastern bank of the Potomac River on the land of what is now the [[Bolling Air Force Base]]. in the floodplain below the easternmost part of [[Fort Circle Parks]].<ref>{{cite web|title=Native Peoples of Washington, DC|url=https://www.nps.gov/articles/native-peoples-of-washington-dc.htm|accessdate=2020-02-22|publisher=National Park Service}}</ref> It was here that the Nacotchtank chief was noted as residing, along with 80 others, in Smith's journal.<ref name=":82">{{Cite book|last=Smith|first=John|url=https://docsouth.unc.edu/southlit/smith/smith.html|title=The Generall Historie of Virginia, New England and the Summer Isles|date=1624|publisher=I.D. and I.H. for Michael Sparkes|year=|isbn=|volume=1|location=London|pages=24}}</ref> Smith summarized his findings in his "Map of Virginia", which plots the principal village of the Nacotchtank.<ref name=":83">{{Cite book|last=Smith|first=John|url=https://docsouth.unc.edu/southlit/smith/smith.html|title=The Generall Historie of Virginia, New England and the Summer Isles|date=1624|publisher=I.D. and I.H. for Michael Sparkes|year=|isbn=|volume=1|location=London|pages=24}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=Smith Maps|url=https://www.nps.gov/cajo/learn/smith-maps.htm|accessdate=2020-11-08|work=National Park Service}}</ref> In addition to the principal village, there were multiple smaller villages, as observed by Fleet in his time held captive.<ref name=":20">{{Cite book|last1=Neill|first1=Edward Duffield|url=http://link.gale.com/apps/doc/CY0101381267/SABN?u=nash87800&sid=zotero&xid=4c6f9b42|title=The English colonization of America during the seventeenth century|last2=Fleet|first2=Henry|date=1871|publisher=Strahan|year=1871|isbn=|location=London|pages=227|accessdate=2020-10-18}}</ref> Fleet mentioned four of these villages: ''Tonhoga'', ''Mosticum'', ''Shaunetowa'', and ''Usserahak''.<ref name=":20" />
The entirety of the Nacotchtank tribe, prior to colonization, was situated within the modern borders of the District of Columbia. The tribe was situated along the intersection of two major rivers— the [[Potomac River|Potomac]] and the [[Anacostia River|Anacostia]]— and thus, the majority of Nacotchtank settlements were along the water.<ref name=":55">{{Cite web|title=Before the White House|url=https://www.whitehousehistory.org/before-the-white-house|accessdate=2020-10-11|work=WHHA (en-US)}}</ref> The Nacotchtank's principal village, ''Nachatank,'' was situated along the eastern bank of the Potomac River on the land of what is now the [[Bolling Air Force Base]]. in the floodplain below the easternmost part of [[Fort Circle Parks]].<ref>{{cite web|title=Native Peoples of Washington, DC|url=https://www.nps.gov/articles/native-peoples-of-washington-dc.htm|accessdate=2020-02-22|publisher=National Park Service}}</ref> It was here that the Nacotchtank chief was noted as residing, along with 80 others, in Smith's journal.<ref name=":82">{{Cite book|last=Smith|first=John|url=https://docsouth.unc.edu/southlit/smith/smith.html|title=The Generall Historie of Virginia, New England and the Summer Isles|date=1624|publisher=I.D. and I.H. for Michael Sparkes|year=|isbn=|volume=1|location=London|pages=24}}</ref> Smith summarized his findings in his "Map of Virginia", which plots the principal village of the Nacotchtank.<ref name=":83">{{Cite book|last=Smith|first=John|url=https://docsouth.unc.edu/southlit/smith/smith.html|title=The Generall Historie of Virginia, New England and the Summer Isles|date=1624|publisher=I.D. and I.H. for Michael Sparkes|year=|isbn=|volume=1|location=London|pages=24}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=Smith Maps|url=https://www.nps.gov/cajo/learn/smith-maps.htm|accessdate=2020-11-08|work=National Park Service}}</ref> In addition to the principal village, there were multiple smaller villages, as observed by Fleet in his time held captive.<ref name=":20">{{Cite book|last1=Neill|first1=Edward Duffield|url=http://link.gale.com/apps/doc/CY0101381267/SABN?u=nash87800&sid=zotero&xid=4c6f9b42|title=The English colonization of America during the seventeenth century|last2=Fleet|first2=Henry|date=1871|publisher=Strahan|year=1871|isbn=|location=London|pages=227|accessdate=2020-10-18}}</ref> Fleet mentioned four of these villages: ''Tonhoga'', ''Mosticum'', ''Shaunetowa'', and ''Usserahak''.<ref name=":20" />

Various excavations have been performed throughout Washington D.C., which point to more specific areas of Nacotchtank villages.<ref name=":56">{{Cite web|title=Before the White House|url=https://www.whitehousehistory.org/before-the-white-house|accessdate=2020-10-11|work=WHHA (en-US)}}</ref> For example, a 1997 excavation near the Whitehurst Freeway, a major freeway which runs parallel to the Potomac River in Georgetown, gathered findings of a "hair comb, hammer stone, and pendants."<ref name=":14">{{Cite news|last=Hedgpeth|first=Dana|title=A Native American tribe once called D.C. home. It’s had no living members for centuries.|work=Washington Post|url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/history/2018/11/22/native-american-tribe-once-called-dc-home-its-had-no-living-members-centuries/|accessdate=2020-10-11|issn=0190-8286}}</ref> This land, upon which modern-day Georgetown is established, was the site for the ''Tohoga'' village, which Fleet had observed in his time as captive''.''<ref name=":202">{{Cite book|last1=Neill|first1=Edward Duffield|url=http://link.gale.com/apps/doc/CY0101381267/SABN?u=nash87800&sid=zotero&xid=4c6f9b42|title=The English colonization of America during the seventeenth century|last2=Fleet|first2=Henry|date=1871|publisher=Strahan|year=1871|isbn=|location=London|pages=227|accessdate=2020-10-18}}</ref><ref>{{Cite conference|last=Carr|first=Martha|date=1950|title=The District of Columbia; its rocks and their geologic history|url=https://pubs.er.usgs.gov/publication/b967|series=Bulletin|pages=10|accessdate=2020-10-17}}</ref> ''Tohoga'' was a trading village, with it being located along the [[Bank (geography)|river bank]] of the Potomac and thus permitting easy access for traders.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Washington, D.C. - Foggy Bottom|url=https://www.britannica.com/place/Washington-DC|accessdate=2020-10-17|work=Encyclopedia Britannica}}</ref>


Another village was located on [[Capitol Hill]], with farms found on the sites of the [[Supreme Court of the United States|Supreme Court]] and [[Library of Congress]] growing [[corn]], [[beans]], and [[Squash (plant)|squash]]. Evidence of this village has been found in [[Garfield Park (Washington, D.C.)|Garfield Park]], and it may have been supported by a spring in the area that is today bounded by 1st Street SE, 2nd Street SE, B Street SE, and C Street SE. Some indications are that this may have been less a village, and more just an agricultural area. Another village, called ''Tohoga'', was at the site of modern [[Georgetown, Washington, D.C.|Georgetown]], with a hair comb, hammer stone, and pendants found near the [[U.S. Route 29 in the District of Columbia|Whitehurst Freeway]] in 1997. Arrowhead points and pottery have also been found on the [[White House]] grounds.
Another village was located on [[Capitol Hill]], with farms found on the sites of the [[Supreme Court of the United States|Supreme Court]] and [[Library of Congress]] growing [[corn]], [[beans]], and [[Squash (plant)|squash]]. Evidence of this village has been found in [[Garfield Park (Washington, D.C.)|Garfield Park]], and it may have been supported by a spring in the area that is today bounded by 1st Street SE, 2nd Street SE, B Street SE, and C Street SE. Some indications are that this may have been less a village, and more just an agricultural area. Another village, called ''Tohoga'', was at the site of modern [[Georgetown, Washington, D.C.|Georgetown]], with a hair comb, hammer stone, and pendants found near the [[U.S. Route 29 in the District of Columbia|Whitehurst Freeway]] in 1997. Arrowhead points and pottery have also been found on the [[White House]] grounds.

Revision as of 20:37, 22 November 2020

Nacotchtank
Total population
Extinct as a tribe, merged with the Piscataway
Regions with significant populations
Washington, DC
Languages
Piscataway (historical)
Religion
Native American religion
Related ethnic groups
Piscataway, Doeg

The Nacotchtanks are a native Algonquian people who lived in the area of what is now Washington, D.C. during the 17th century. The name Nacotchtank, existing in several historical variants including Nacostine, Anacostine, Anaquashtank, Nacothtant, Nachatanke, and adapted into Latin as Anacostan. The name is derived from the word "anaquashatanik", meaning "a town of traders".[1]

The Nacotchtank seem to have been associated with the larger Piscataway, whose Tayac or grand chief ruled over a loose confederacy of area tribes. The Nacotchtank paid tribute to the Piscataway chief who resided to the south in the nearby village of Moyaone (present-day Accokeek).[2] Rivals and reluctant subjects of the Tayac hoped that the English newcomers would alter the balance of power in the region. Another closely related tribe was the Doeg, whose homeland was on what is today the Virginia side of the Potomac. All of these groups are thought to have spoken the Piscataway (or similar) variant of the Nanticoke language.

Naming

The name Nacotchtank is a derivation from the Algonquian term "anaquashtank," which literally translates to "a town of traders"[3]. The process in which Nacotchtank was slowly changed to Anacostine was done by European colonists.[4] In their colonization, the English frequently got rid of unfamiliar and unaccustomed sounds in the words from the local languages and replaced them with sounds that were easier to pronounce and to which they were more familiar.[4] As a result, the English colonists that were interacting with the Nacotchtank would not pronounce the "-tchtank" and would replace it with the ending "-stine," which was easier to enunciate.[4] Through transmission of the mispronounced Nacotchtank name amongst the English, the Nacotchtank name was slowly faded out and replaced with Nacostine.[4] Later on, the Jesuits from the Province of Maryland further latinized the term by making it more etymologically correct.[3] This was done by attaching a prefix "A" to "Nacostine," creating the name Anacostine.[3] Etymologically, keeping the "A" is indeed a more correct derivation of the term "anaquashtank," but the Nacotchtank preferred to omit prefixes and suffixes from words.[3] Any present cultural honoring of the Nacotchtank bears the legacy of the latinized version, Anacostine, as seen in the naming of the river which borders eastern D.C., the Anacostia River, or the neighborhood in southeast D.C., Anacostia.[3]

Classification

The Nacotchtank fell under the larger influence of the Piscataway Chiefdom.[5] The Nacotchtank were not necessarily under complete control of the Piscataway, but rather, the Nacotchtank closely allied with them as they were a much larger group of 7,000 members in comparison to the roughly 300 members of the Nacotchtank tribe.[6] The Piscataway affiliation was intended for protection against the rival Powhatan Chiefdom of eastern Virginia.[7]

The Piscataway Chief, or tayac, held a loose confederacy over the Nacotchtank in addition to the other surrounding tribes.[8] The rank of the tayac was supreme to that of the individual chiefs of the smaller tribes that belonged to the Piscataway Chiefdom.[8] These lower-ranked chiefs were known as werences (also known as werowances/weroances).[8] The Nacotchtank werence would collect and pay tribute to the Piscataway tayac who resided in a village named Mayone in present-day Prince Georges County of Maryland, 15 miles south of the Nacotchtank land base.[7]

History

Origins (unknown-1608)

There is very little documentation of the Nacotchtank way of life prior to the tribe's encounters with the English, as the Jamestown colonists have provided the most detailed accounts of the Nacotchtank.[9]

The tribe's physical location, which had a mild, temperate climate in the mid-Atlantic, allowed for the Nacotchtank to become a flourishing, self-sustainable community with an abundance in myriad natural resources.[10] By being situated along the confluence of two major rivers, the Nacotchtank had a reliable supply of fish and the area soon became a notorious fishing ground.[10] Additionally, the rivers were surrounded by a vast area of woodlands, which housed wild game such as bison, turkey, deer, and geese.[10] The Nacotchtank were also accomplished in agricultural practices, as they would move inland from the rivers to occupy fertile and flat land and grew a variety of crop species, most of which belonged to the Three Sisters family— corn, beans, and squash.[11]

With the Nacotchtank having abundant natural resources, and by being situated where two rivers met, the Nacotchtank were able to become an epicenter for a bustling trade network with neighboring tribes.[10] One known intertribal network was with the Iroquois of New York, in which the Nacotchtank traded principally animal fur, which was readily available given their extensive supply of wild game.[12] The Nacotchtank eventually held a monopoly on the fur trade.[13]

Encounters with the English (1608-1650s)

The Nacotchtank were first recorded by Captain John Smith, who visited their palisaded village during his First Voyage in 1608, in which he explored the land surrounding the Jamestown settlement of the Colony of Virginia.[14] Between the dates of June 16 and July 18 of 1608, Smith recorded in his journal, which has since been published as The Generall Historie of Virginia, New-England, and the Summer Isles, his impressions of the indigenous peoples of the Potomac River.[14] Specifically speaking of the Nacotchtank, Smith writes that they were a welcoming people who "did their best to content [him]."[15] Smith also noted the presence of a river which made the area appear to be very pleasant.[14] These initial encounters were peaceful and did not affect the Nacotchtank existence.[16]

He noted that their main village had 80 fighting men, with a total population of about 300. It was an important trading center; tribes as distant as the Iroquois of New York would come to trade beaver pelts. The Nacotchtank traded beaver skins to the Piscataway, Susquehannocks and arriving English. These early records also noted that the Nacotchtank possessed "good stores of corn".

In the year 1621, Captain Henry Fleet, age 20, took a party of approximately 26 Englishmen from Jamestown in an attempt to barter for corn from the Nacotchtank.[17] The Nacotchtank were suspicious of the colonists, and a confrontation erupted into fighting.[17] All of the colonists were killed except for Captain Fleet, who was captured.[17] Held captive for 5 years, Fleet acquired the language and culture of the Nacotchtank.[18] During his time, Fleet observed the trading village Tohoga in present-day Georgetown, and noted it as being the center for the monopolized fur trade with the Iroquois.[18][19]

In November 1622, the Nacotchtank faced their first death at the hand of colonial forces.[20] This took place at the time of the Second Anglo-Powhatan War, a battle between English colonists and the Powhatan Confederacy.[20] One tribe that the English closely allied with during this time was the Patawomeke (or Patawomeck).[20] Though the Patawomeke were initially part of the Powhatan Confederacy, they were large enough so that they could lose such affiliation and side with the English.[21] The Patawomeke, an Algonquian-speaking people, were established across from the Nacotchtank along the Potomac River, within what are now Stafford and King George counties of Northern Virginia.[21][22] Such proximity to one another resulted in long-standing hostility, with the Chief of the Patawomeke referring to the Nacotchtank as their "mortal enemies."[23] As such, the Patawomeck chief not only allied with the English, but also helped them in avenging the death of Fleet's party and in attaining corn by providing roughly 40-50 warriors to take part in a raid against the Nacotchtank.[24] As a result of the raid, the English and Patawomeke together killed 18 Nacotchtank people and drove the rest from their cabins before plundering and burning the village.[25] Captain Fleet remained a captive of the Nacotchtank, but would escape in 1626.[18]

In 1626, when Captain Fleet escaped, he left with a great sum of knowledge of the Nacotchtank way of life and would use that information in partnering in trade with other tribes.[26][27] Fleet began sailing up and down the East Coast, trading with various indigenous tribes and eventually taking over the monopoly on the fur trade that the Nacotchtank had for long enjoyed.[26] When the Jesuits arrived in Maryland in 1634, who wanted to adapt church teachings for the natives, Fleet helped by translating the Algonquian language used by the Nacotchtank to English, under the guidance of Governor Leonard Calvert.[27]

The rise of the Maryland tobacco industry & the resulting displacement (1650s-1697)

Beginning in the 1650s, the Province of Maryland experienced an economic boom with the great popularity and demand of one of its cash crops— tobacco.[28] This large expansion necessitated vast areas of land that could be turned into tobacco plantations as the demand was exceedingly high.[28] In 1663, Cecil Calvert, the second Lord of Baltimore, granted Thomas Dent an 850-acre tract of land named Gisborough on the Potomac River, which bordered the principal Nacotchtank village.[29]

The colony, in such close proximity to the Nacotchtank, now had the leverage to begin encroaching on Nacotchtank territory.[30] Additionally, with the two groups now close to one another and in constant contact, the Europeans from Maryland introduced to the area a number of Eurasian infectious diseases to which the Nacotchtank had no immunity, such as measles, cholera, and smallpox.[31] As a result, the Nacotchtank suffered a large population loss.[32]

In 1668, the Nacotchtank tribe, depopulated from Eurasian diseases, collectively relocated to Anacostine Island (present-day Theodore Roosevelt Island), giving the island the first name known to be associated with it.[33]

Legacy today (1697-present)

By 1697, the Nacotchtank population living on Theodore Roosevelt Island sought refuge in the larger Piscataway tribe of Southern Maryland, to which the Nacotchtank had previously allied with.[34] With the increased sense of tolerance of indigenous peoples in Pennsylvania, the Piscataway, which the Nacotchtank coalesced with, migrated north and settled on land bordering the lower Susquehanna River around the year 1700.[35] Though the Nacotchtank were absorbed by the Piscataway and relocated north, some aspects of Washington D.C. are named after them. The river surrounding the eastern border of the city and the neighborhood in southeast D.C. are named "Anacostia" after the latinized version of Nacotchtank.[36]

Geography

The entirety of the Nacotchtank tribe, prior to colonization, was situated within the modern borders of the District of Columbia. The tribe was situated along the intersection of two major rivers— the Potomac and the Anacostia— and thus, the majority of Nacotchtank settlements were along the water.[37] The Nacotchtank's principal village, Nachatank, was situated along the eastern bank of the Potomac River on the land of what is now the Bolling Air Force Base. in the floodplain below the easternmost part of Fort Circle Parks.[38] It was here that the Nacotchtank chief was noted as residing, along with 80 others, in Smith's journal.[39] Smith summarized his findings in his "Map of Virginia", which plots the principal village of the Nacotchtank.[40][41] In addition to the principal village, there were multiple smaller villages, as observed by Fleet in his time held captive.[42] Fleet mentioned four of these villages: Tonhoga, Mosticum, Shaunetowa, and Usserahak.[42]

Various excavations have been performed throughout Washington D.C., which point to more specific areas of Nacotchtank villages.[43] For example, a 1997 excavation near the Whitehurst Freeway, a major freeway which runs parallel to the Potomac River in Georgetown, gathered findings of a "hair comb, hammer stone, and pendants."[44] This land, upon which modern-day Georgetown is established, was the site for the Tohoga village, which Fleet had observed in his time as captive.[45][46] Tohoga was a trading village, with it being located along the river bank of the Potomac and thus permitting easy access for traders.[47]

Another village was located on Capitol Hill, with farms found on the sites of the Supreme Court and Library of Congress growing corn, beans, and squash. Evidence of this village has been found in Garfield Park, and it may have been supported by a spring in the area that is today bounded by 1st Street SE, 2nd Street SE, B Street SE, and C Street SE. Some indications are that this may have been less a village, and more just an agricultural area. Another village, called Tohoga, was at the site of modern Georgetown, with a hair comb, hammer stone, and pendants found near the Whitehurst Freeway in 1997. Arrowhead points and pottery have also been found on the White House grounds.

The Nacotchtank lived in wigwams and longhouses, as was typical of other tribes along the East Coast. [48] The villages were not generally compact assemblages of buildings, but rather dispersed settlements of scattered dwellings generally following a watercourse other than occasional small clusters of buildings. The areas in between buildings were generally used for cultivation.

Sharp-edged tools came from a quarry in the Piney Branch area, and bowls and pipes were mined from a soapstone quarry near what is now Van Ness.

References

  1. ^ "A Native American tribe once called D.C. home. It's had no living members for centuries". Retrieved 2020-10-13.
  2. ^ "Before the White House". The White House Historical Association. Retrieved 2020-02-22.
  3. ^ a b c d e Burr, Charles R. (1920). "A Brief History of Anacostia, Its Name, Origin and Progress". Records of the Columbia Historical Society, Washington, D.C. 23: 168. ISSN 0897-9049. JSTOR 40067143. Retrieved 2020-10-11 – via JSTOR.
  4. ^ a b c d Tooker, William Wallace (1894). "On the Meaning of the Name Anacostia". American Anthropologist. 7 (4): 391. ISSN 0002-7294. JSTOR 658565. Retrieved 2020-10-19 – via JSTOR.
  5. ^ Herman, Doug (2018-07-04). "American Indians of Washington, D.C., and the Chesapeake". American Association of Geographers. Retrieved 2020-10-19.
  6. ^ Asch, Chris Myers; Musgrove, George Derek (2017). Chocolate City : A History of Race and Democracy in the Nation's Capital. Chapel Hill: The University of North Carolina Press. p. 5. ISBN 978-1-4696-3587-3. Retrieved 2020-10-19.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: date and year (link)
  7. ^ a b Asch, Chris Myers; Musgrove, George Derek (2017). Chocolate City : A History of Race and Democracy in the Nation's Capital. Chapel Hill: The University of North Carolina Press. p. 6. ISBN 978-1-4696-3587-3. Retrieved 2019-10-18.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: date and year (link)
  8. ^ a b c Baker, Mick. "Native North American Tribes - Conoy & Piscataway". The History Files. Retrieved 2020-10-19.
  9. ^ Chambers, Mary Elizabeth; Humphrey, Robert L. (1985). "Ancient Washington: American Indian Cultures of the Potomac Valley". GW Washington Studies. 6: 23.
  10. ^ a b c d Navarro, Meghan A. "Early Indian Life on Analostan Island | National Postal Museum". Smithsonian National Postal Museum. Retrieved 2020-10-11.
  11. ^ Bergen, Charles. "River Terrace Medallions Telling the History of River Terrace Community from 10,000 to the Present". Charles Bergen Studios. Retrieved 2020-11-17.
  12. ^ Hedgpeth, Dana. "A Native American tribe once called D.C. home. It's had no living members for centuries". Washington Post. ISSN 0190-8286. Retrieved 2020-10-11.
  13. ^ Williams, Brett (2001). "A River Runs Through Us". American Anthropologist. 103 (2): 412. ISSN 0002-7294. JSTOR 683474. Retrieved 2020-11-17 – via JSTOR.
  14. ^ a b c Smith, John (1624). The Generall Historie of Virginia, New England and the Summer Isles. Vol. 1. London: I.D. and I.H. for Michael Sparkes. p. 24.
  15. ^ Smith, John (1624). The Generall Historie of Virginia, New England and the Summer Isles. Vol. 1. London: I.D. and I.H. for Michael Sparkes. p. 58.
  16. ^ "Before the White House". WHHA (en-US). Retrieved 2020-10-11.
  17. ^ a b c Burr, Charles R. (1920). "A Brief History of Anacostia, Its Name, Origin and Progress". Records of the Columbia Historical Society, Washington, D.C. 23: 167. ISSN 0897-9049. JSTOR 40067143. Retrieved 2020-10-11 – via JSTOR.
  18. ^ a b c Neill, Edward Duffield; Fleet, Henry (1871). The English colonization of America during the seventeenth century. London: Strahan. p. 226. Retrieved 2020-10-18.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: date and year (link)
  19. ^ Hedgpeth, Dana. "A Native American tribe once called D.C. home. It's had no living members for centuries". Washington Post. ISSN 0190-8286. Retrieved 2020-10-11.
  20. ^ a b c "Before the White House". WHHA (en-US). Retrieved 2020-10-11.
  21. ^ a b Deyo, Bill. "Patawomeck Indians of Virginia". Virginia Department of Education. Retrieved 2020-11-08.
  22. ^ Muir, Hugh (2009-06-30). "HERITAGE DAY". The Free Lance-Star. Retrieved 2020-11-08.
  23. ^ Mooney, James (1889). "Indian Tribes of the District of Columbia". American Anthropologist. The Aborigines of the District of Columbia and the Lower Potomac - A Symposium, under the Direction of the Vice President of Section D. 2 (3): 264. ISSN 0002-7294. JSTOR 658373. Retrieved 2020-10-11.
  24. ^ Smith, John (1624). The Generall Historie of Virginia, New England and the Summer Isles. Vol. 1. London: I.D. and I.H. for Michael Sparkes. p. 154.
  25. ^ American Anthropological Association, 1889, as indicated by https://www.washingtonpost.com/history/2018/11/22/native-american-tribe-once-called-dc-home-its-had-no-living-members-centuries/
  26. ^ a b Rouse, Parke (1990-03-21). "HENRY FLEETE, A VIRGINIA PIONEER WHO OPENED THE INDIAN FUR TRADE". Daily Press. Retrieved 2020-10-18.
  27. ^ a b "Henry Fleet". Archives of Maryland. 2003-03-07. Retrieved 2020-11-22.
  28. ^ a b "Before the White House". WHHA (en-US). Retrieved 2020-10-11.
  29. ^ Castle, Guy (1953). "Gisborough as a Land Grant, Manor and Residence of the Dents, Addisons, Shaaffs and Youngs". Records of the Columbia Historical Society, Washington, D.C. 53: 282. ISSN 0897-9049. JSTOR 40067680. Retrieved 2020-10-18 – via JSTOR.
  30. ^ "Before the White House". WHHA (en-US). Retrieved 2020-10-11.
  31. ^ Tayac, Gabrielle; Schupman, Edwin. We Have a Story to Tell: Native Peoples of the Chesapeake Region (PDF). Retrieved 2020-10-18.
  32. ^ Navarro, Meghan A. "Early Indian Life on Analostan Island | National Postal Museum". Smithsonian National Postal Museum. Retrieved 2020-10-11.
  33. ^ Navarro, Meghan A. "Early Indian Life on Analostan Island | National Postal Museum". Smithsonian National Postal Museum. Retrieved 2020-10-11.
  34. ^ Mooney, James (1889). "Indian Tribes of the District of Columbia". American Anthropologist. The Aborigines of the District of Columbia and the Lower Potomac - A Symposium, under the Direction of the Vice President of Section D. 2 (3): 264. ISSN 0002-7294. JSTOR 658373. Retrieved 2020-10-11.
  35. ^ Mooney, James (1889). "Indian Tribes of the District of Columbia". American Anthropologist. The Aborigines of the District of Columbia and the Lower Potomac - A Symposium, under the Direction of the Vice President of Section D. 2 (3): 265. ISSN 0002-7294. JSTOR 658373. Retrieved 2020-10-11.
  36. ^ Burr, Charles R. (1920). "A Brief History of Anacostia, Its Name, Origin and Progress". Records of the Columbia Historical Society, Washington, D.C. 23: 168. ISSN 0897-9049. JSTOR 40067143. Retrieved 2020-10-11 – via JSTOR.
  37. ^ "Before the White House". WHHA (en-US). Retrieved 2020-10-11.
  38. ^ "Native Peoples of Washington, DC". National Park Service. Retrieved 2020-02-22.
  39. ^ Smith, John (1624). The Generall Historie of Virginia, New England and the Summer Isles. Vol. 1. London: I.D. and I.H. for Michael Sparkes. p. 24.
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  41. ^ "Smith Maps". National Park Service. Retrieved 2020-11-08.
  42. ^ a b Neill, Edward Duffield; Fleet, Henry (1871). The English colonization of America during the seventeenth century. London: Strahan. p. 227. Retrieved 2020-10-18.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: date and year (link)
  43. ^ "Before the White House". WHHA (en-US). Retrieved 2020-10-11.
  44. ^ Hedgpeth, Dana. "A Native American tribe once called D.C. home. It's had no living members for centuries". Washington Post. ISSN 0190-8286. Retrieved 2020-10-11.
  45. ^ Neill, Edward Duffield; Fleet, Henry (1871). The English colonization of America during the seventeenth century. London: Strahan. p. 227. Retrieved 2020-10-18.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: date and year (link)
  46. ^ Carr, Martha (1950). The District of Columbia; its rocks and their geologic history. Bulletin. p. 10. Retrieved 2020-10-17.
  47. ^ "Washington, D.C. - Foggy Bottom". Encyclopedia Britannica. Retrieved 2020-10-17.
  48. ^ "A Native American tribe once called D.C. home. It's had no living members for centuries". Retrieved 2020-10-13.
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