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Green-water navy

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The littoral combat ship USS Independence was designed for green-water operations

Green-water navy is terminology created to describe a naval force that is designed to operate in its nation's littoral zones and has the competency to operate in the open oceans of its surrounding region.[1] It is a relatively new term, and has been created to better distinguish, and add nuance, between two long-standing descriptors: blue-water navy and brown-water navy.

It is a non-doctrinal naval term used in different ways. It originates with the United States Navy, who use it to refer to the portion of their fleet that specializes in offensive operations in coastal waters. Nowadays such ships rely on stealth or speed to avoid destruction by shore batteries or land-based aircraft.

The US Navy has also used the term to refer to the first phase of the expansion of China's navy into a full blue-water navy. Subsequently other authors have applied it to other national navies that can project power locally, but cannot sustain operations at range without the help of other countries. Such navies typically have amphibious ships and sometimes small aircraft carriers, which can be escorted by destroyers and frigates with some logistical support from tankers and other auxiliaries.

Definitions

The elements of maritime geography are loosely defined and their meanings have changed throughout history. The US's 2010 Naval Operations Concept defines blue water as "the open ocean", green water as "coastal waters, ports and harbors", and brown water as "navigable rivers and their estuaries".[2] Robert Rubel of the US Naval War College includes bays in his definition of brown water,[3] and in the past US military commentators have extended brown water out to 100 nautical miles (190 km) from shore.[4]

During the Cold War, green water denoted those areas of ocean in which naval forces might encounter land-based aircraft.[3] The development of long-range bombers with anti-ship missiles turned most of the oceans to "green" and the term all but disappeared.[3] After the Cold War, US amphibious task forces were sometimes referred to as the green-water navy, in contrast to the blue-water carrier battle groups.[5] This distinction disappeared as increasing threats in coastal waters forced the amphibious ships further offshore, delivering assaults by helicopter and tiltrotor from over the horizon. This prompted the development of ships designed to operate in such waters – the Template:Sclass- and the littoral combat ships; modelling has suggested that current NATO frigates are vulnerable to swarms of 4-8 small boats in green water.[6] Rubel has proposed redefining green water as those areas of ocean which are too dangerous for high-value units, requiring offensive power to be dispersed into smaller vessels such as submarines that can use stealth and other characteristics to survive.[3] Under his scheme, brown water would be zones in which ocean-going units could not operate at all, including rivers, minefields, straits and other choke points.[3]

As the preeminent blue-water navy of the early 21st century, the US Navy is able to define maritime geography in terms of offensive action in the home waters of its enemies, without being constrained by logistics. This is not true for most other navies, whose supply chains and air cover typically limit them to power projection within a few hundred kilometres of home territory. A number of countries are working on overcoming these constraints. Other authors have started to apply the term "green-water navy" to any national navy that has ocean-going ships but lacks the logistical support needed for a blue-water navy. It's often not clear what they mean, as the term is used without consistency or precision.

It should be noted that a green-water navy does not mean that the individual ships of the fleet are unable to function away from the coast or in open ocean, instead it suggests that due to logistical reasons they are unable to be deployed for lengthy periods, and must have aid from other countries to sustain long term deployments. Also the term "green-water navy" is subjective as numerous countries that do not have a true green-water navy maintain naval forces that are on par with countries that are recognized as having green-water navies. For example, the German Navy has near the same capability as the Canadian Navy but is not recognized as a true green-water navy. Another example is the Portuguese Navy that, despite being usually classified as a minor navy, has several times conducted sustained operations in faraway regions typical of the green-water navies. However, the differences between blue-water navies and brown or green-water navies is usually quite noticeable, for example the US Navy was able to quickly respond to the disappearance of Malaysia Airlines Flight 370 and continue operations in the region with relative ease even though the search area covered the Indian Ocean. On the contrary, in 2005 the then green-water navy such the Russian Navy was unable to properly respond when its AS-28 rescue vehicle became tangled in undersea cables unable to surface, relying on the blue-water Royal Navy to respond and carry out the rescue in time.[7]

Just as nations build up naval capability some lose it, for example the Austro-Hungarian Navy was a modern green water navy of the time, however as the countries lost their coasts during World War I their navies were confiscated and their ports became parts of Italy and Yugoslavia. The Axis powers lost naval capabilities after their defeat in World War II with most of Japan's Imperial Navy and Germany's Navy being disarmed and their troop and ship numbers capped and monitored by the allies. The collapse of the USSR also brought with it the collapse of the second largest naval force in the world, and the largest submarine force in the world. Although the Russian Federation made sure to inherit the most capable ships, passing most older models to successor states, as it had lost the logistical capabilities of the Soviet Navy, it was no longer able to operate away from Russian shores for extended periods of time. Moreover, budget cuts forced large cuts in the submarine force, such as the retirements of the Template:Sclass2-. As the Soviet Navy was built largely around submarine warfare the losses in the submarine capability have adversely affected the capability of the newly formed Russian Navy as well.

Examples of green-water navies

Algeria

A Template:Sclass- amphibious assault ship, the same as Kalaat Beni Abbes is

The Algerian National Navy can be considered a green water navy as it has built up a fair fleet of surface ships & submarines through its international partnership with Russia. Recently, new partnerships have allowed Algeria to expand their fleet to incorporate amphibious capabilities with naval aviation. Algeria regularly conducts patrols in the Mediterranean Sea and partakes in exercises with other nations. However, Algeria does not possess replenishment capability.

  • Amphibious capability - 9,000 tonne Kalaat Beni Abbes LHD, and two 2,450 tonne Template:Sclass-'s.

Australia

HMAS Canberra

The Royal Australian Navy is well established as a green-water navy.[8][9] The navy sustains a broad range of maritime operations, from the Middle East to the Pacific Ocean, often as part of international or allied coalitions.[10] The RAN operates a modern fleet, consisting of destroyers, frigates, conventional submarines as well as an emerging amphibious and power projection capability based on the commissioning of HMAS Choules and two Template:Sclass-s.[11]

Brazil

The Brazilian aircraft carrier São Paulo

The Brazilian Navy has frequently been dubbed a ‘green-water’ force by experts.[12] The navy is primarily focused on securing the nation's littorals and exclusive economic zone (EEZ), but also maintains the capacity to operate in the wider South Atlantic Ocean. Since the early 2000s, the Brazilian Navy has contributed to a number of peacekeeping and humanitarian missions.

Canada

HMCS Halifax

According to the criteria as outlined in the 2001 publication, "Leadmark: The Navy’s Strategy for 2020", the Royal Canadian Navy had met its description of a 3rd tier "Medium Global Force Projection Navy" - a green-water navy with the capacity to project force worldwide with the aid of more powerful maritime allies (e.g. United Kingdom, France and the United States).[9] In this context, the Royal Canadian Navy ranked itself alongside the navies of Australia and the Netherlands.[9] However, as of 2016, the recent decommissioning of obsolete ships has left Canada without replenishment or amphibious capable ships, as well as the lack of a credible air-defence capability. The RCN's submarine capability consists of four second hand vessels of unreliable availability, with only one available for operations as of June 2016. This has led critics to view the Royal Canadian Navy as being more akin to a brown-water navy.[13]

Chile

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The CGS Sargento Aldea in French service

The Chilean Navy can be considered a green water navy as it has an established fleet of capable surface combatants, a small submarine fleet, as well as a small amphibious force. It is considered to be the fourth most capable navy in the America's behind Brazil, Canada, and the United States. Chile is allied with many foreign suppliers such as the United States, United Kingdom, France, Germany, The Netherlands, Sweden, Spain, and Israel, which have all helped build up the Chilean Fleet.

  • Amphibious capability - 11,300 tonne Sargento Aldea, two 1,400 tonne Rancagua-class LST's, and the 5,000 tonne transport, Aquiles.
  • Replenishment capability - 31,000 tonne Almirante Montt & the 12,561 tonne, Aracuano.

Egypt

File:ENS Gamal Abdel Nasser (L1010) Helicopter Carrier.jpg
The ENS Gamel Abdel Nasser (L1010)

.

The Egyptian Navy is a green water navy as it has built up a large fleet of surface ships & submarines, and has a small amphibious force with aviation capability. The Egyptian Navy is the largest and most powerful navy in Africa, and can be deployed to other regions if desired. Egypt has many international partners of whom they are allied with and help supply their fleet.

Germany

HNLMS Karel Doorman (A833)

The German Navy is a green water navy in the manner that Germany has a modest fleet of surface ships and submarines, as well as amphibious & replenishment capability, that can deploy globally. Germany's geography in the center of Europe also gives them the advantage of being able to deploy to various locations quickly. A recent deal with The Netherlands allowed Germany use of the HNLMS Karel Doorman (A833), the flagship of the Royal Netherlands Navy, which can be utilized as replenishment ship and amphibious transport dock. Germany has one on order for themselves.

Indonesia

A Makassar-class amphibious transport dock

The Indonesian Navy is a green water navy in the manner that they have built up a modest surface & submarine fleet with amphibious & aviation capability. The Indonesian Navy is one of the largest in Southeast Asia and regularly takes part in international patrols and exercises in the region. Indonesia can deploy its warships globally if desired, and has a partnership with many nations. However, Indonesia possess no replenishment capability.

  • Amphibious capability - Four 8,400 tonne Template:Sclass-'s, two 11,400 tonne Banarmasin-class amphibious transport docks, the 2,300 tonne Teluk Bintuni, 13 1,900 tonne Teluk Gilimanuk-class tank landing ships.

Italy

The aircraft carrier Cavour

The Italian Navy has been categorised as a "regional blue-water navy" in Liu Huaqing's Memoirs (1994),[14] and as a "multi/extra regional power projection navy" by Professors Daniel Todd and Michael Lindberg.[15] In the 1989 publication "The Atlantic Alliance and the Middle East", Joseph I. Coffey asserts that Italy's blue-water capabilities do not extend beyond the Mediterranean sea.[16] Today, the navy possesses two light aircraft carriers (Cavour and Giuseppe Garibaldi) as well as a modern fleet of surface combatants and submarines. The Marina Militare routinely deploys to the Indian Ocean and Persian Gulf as part of multinational anti-piracy missions such as Operation Ocean Shield and Operation Atalanta,[17] and is capable of deploying a carrier battle group in support of NATO or EU operations; such as during Operation Enduring Freedom (2001) and EU Navfor Med (European migrant crisis).

Japan

JS Hyūga

The Japan Maritime Self-Defense Force is considered to be a green-water navy.[8] Overseas JMSDF deployments include participation in the Combined Task Force 150,[18][19] and an additional task force in the Indian Ocean from 2009 to combat piracy in Somalia. The first postwar overseas naval air facility of Japan was established next to Djibouti-Ambouli International Airport.[20]

The Netherlands

HNLMS Johan de Witt

The Royal Netherlands Navy has been officially described as a 3rd tier "Medium Global Force Projection Navy" - or a green-water navy with the capacity to project force worldwide with the aid of more powerful maritime allies (e.g. Britain, France and the United States).[9] In this context, the Royal Netherlands Navy ranks alongside the navies of Australia and Canada, while the USN is a 1st tier global blue-water navy and Britain and France are 2nd tier blue-water navies.[9] For many years since the end of the Cold War, the Royal Netherlands Navy has been changing its role from national defence to overseas intervention.[21]

Singapore

An Endurance-class amphibious transport dock

The Republic of Singapore Navy can be considered a green water navy given the geographic size of Singapore. Singapore has built a small surface & submarine fleet with amphibious aviation capability, and is one of the most modern navies in Southeast Asia. But despite the power, Singapore has no replenishment capability.

South Korea

ROKS Dokdo

The Republic of Korea Navy is considered to be a green-water navy.[8] In 2011, the government authorized the building of a naval base on Jeju Island to support the new Template:Sclass-s, the base will also be capable of supporting joint forces with the US Navy.[22] A ski-jump for the operation of V/STOL jet fighters is being considered for the second ship of the Dokdo class.[23] The Korean government is considering to buy surplus Harriers as a possible interim for the F-35 Lightning II if they choose to operate VTOL aircraft at all.[24]

  • Amphibious capability – 18,800 tonne ROKS Dokdo, four 4,300 tonne Template:Sclass-'s, and one 7,000 tonne Template:Sclass-, with more under construction.
  • Replenishment capability – three 9,180 tonne Cheonji-class replenishment ships.

Spain

Juan Carlos I

The Spanish Navy is a green-water navy and participates in joint operations with NATO and European allies around the world.[25] The fleet has 54 commissioned ships, including; one amphibious assault ship (also used as an aircraft carrier), two amphibious transport docks, 11 frigates (of which 5 are fitted with the modern Aegis Combat System) and three conventional submarines.

Thailand

HTMS Chakri Naruebet

The Royal Thai Navy is a green water navy as they have a fair sized fleet of surface combatants, while also being one of the few nations to operate an aircraft carrier, and has a small fleet of amphibious ships.

  • Carrier capability - 11,500 tonne HTMS Chakri Naruebet
  • Amphibious capability - One 7,600 tonne Template:Sclass-, two 4,500 tonne Normed PS 700-class tank landing ships, two 550 tonne Marsun M55-class landing craft, four 396 tonne Thongkeo-class landing craft, and three Mannok-class landing craft.
  • Replenishment capability - 22,000 tonne HTMS Similian, and eight smaller classes of replenishment tankers.

Taiwan

ROCS Hsu Hai (LSD-193), as USS Pensacola (LSD-38) in American service.

The Republic of China Navy is a green water navy as it has a very capable surface combat fleet, with small submarine & amphibious fleet. Taiwan primarily operates in the Taiwan Strait and the South China Sea, but can deploy elsewhere if desire.

  • Amphibious capability - 14,000 tonne, ROCS Hsu Hai (LSD-193) and two 8,500 Template:Sclass-'s.
  • Replenishment capability - 17,000 tonne ROCS Wu Yi (AOE-530) & the 21,000 tonne ROCS Pin Shi (AOE-532).

Turkey

A Juan Carlos I-class amphibious assault ship in Australian service, on which TCG Anatollia will be based upon

The Turkish Naval Forces can be considered a green water navy due to the fact that it has a large fleet of surface combatants, a medium sized submarine fleet, and a small amphibious force, that is only growing in numbers. It regularly takes part in NATO exercises. Turkey is considered to have one of the strongest navies in the region, and the most powerful navy in the Middle East.

Peru

BAP Almirante Grau (CLM-81), the flagship of the Peruvian Navy, and the world's last operational gun cruiser.

The Peruvian Navy is a green water navy as they have a fair sized fleet of surface ships and submarines, with amphibious capability. Peru is also one of the last nations operating cruisers, and is the only nation operation a gun cruiser. Peru is one of the more powerful nations in South America and can be deployed worldwide if desired. Peru is allied with many larger and more powerful navies, and regularly participates in international exercises.

  • Amphibious capability - Two 8,400 tonne Template:Sclass-'s (under construction) and two 2,600 tonne Terrebonne Parish-class tank landing ships
  • Fire support capability - 12,165 tonne BAP Almirante Grau (CLM-81)
  • Replenishment capability - 17,000 tonne BAP Tacna and two 18,625 tonne Bayovar-class oil tankers.

The Philippines

File:BRP Tarlac (LD-601).jpg
BRP Tarlac (LD-601)

The Philippine Navy can be considered a green water navy as they have a small fleet of surface ships that is mainly used for coastal patrol, but can be deployed internationally. The Philippine Navy has no submarines, but does possess amphibious and replenishment capability. The Philippine Navy's main area of operation is the Philippine Sea, the South China Sea, and the Pacific Ocean. The Philippines are allied to many more powerful and capably navies such as the United States, which gives The Philippines most of its material. Most ships in the Philippine Navy are of American origin. Currently, The Philippines are in a modernization period, to bring their navy to address modern threats, more specifically being China.

See also

References

  1. ^ Bratton, Patrick C (2012). Sea Power and the Asia-Pacific. London, United Kingdom: Routledge. ISBN 1-136-62724-3.
  2. ^ "Naval Operations Concept 2010 – Implementing the Maritime Strategy" (pdf). US Naval Service. p. 16. Retrieved 7 May 2012.
  3. ^ a b c d e Rubel, Robert C. (Autumn 2010), "Talking About Sea Control" (PDF), Naval War College Review, 63 (4): 44–46
  4. ^ Burkitt, Laurie; Scobell, Andrew; Wortzel, Larry M. (July 2003). "The Lessons of History : The Chinese People's Liberation Army at 75" (pdf). Strategic Studies Institute, U.S. Army War College. p. 185. Retrieved 7 May 2012.
  5. ^ Gillespie, T.C.; Lesher, S.M.; Miner, P.D.; Cyr, B.P. (23 March 1992), Composite Warfare and The Amphibians (pdf), Marine Corps University, pp. 9–24, retrieved 7 May 2012
  6. ^ Abel, Heiko (September 2009). "Frigate Defense Effectiveness in Asymmetrical Green Water Engagements". Naval Postgraduate School. Retrieved 7 May 2012.
  7. ^ "Russian submarine surfaces with entire crew alive". USAToday.com. Associated Press. 6 August 2005. Retrieved 17 March 2015.
  8. ^ a b c Till, Geoffrey (15 August 2013). Naval Modernisation in South-East Asia: Nature, Causes and Consequences. London: Routledge. p. 267. ISBN 1-135-95394-5.
  9. ^ a b c d e Leadmark: The Navy’s Strategy for 2020, Directorate of Maritime Strategy, Department of National Defence
  10. ^ "Operations". Royal Australian Navy. Retrieved 31 August 2014.
  11. ^ "Canberra commissioning marks new era in ADF amphibious warfare". Australian Aviation. 28 November 2014. Retrieved 16 March 2015.
  12. ^ Pryce, Paul (19 January 2015). "The Brazilian Navy: Green Water or Blue?". Offiziere.ch. Retrieved 17 March 2015.
  13. ^ National Post View: Harper’s shipbuilding strategy is coming apart at the seams, http://news.nationalpost.com/, 29 June 2015
  14. ^ The Chinese Navy: Expanding Capabilities, Evolving Roles?, 2012 (Footnote no. 16, page 139)
  15. ^ Todd, Daniel; Lindberg, Michael (1996). Navies and Shipbuilding Industries: The Strained Symbiosis. Greenwood Publishing Group. pp. 56–57. ISBN 9780275953102. Retrieved 30 November 2015.
  16. ^ Coffey, Joseph I. (1989). The Atlantic Alliance and the Middle East. United States: University of Pittsburgh Press. p. 89. ISBN 9780822911548. Retrieved 30 November 2015.
  17. ^ Marina Militaire – Operations, marina.difesa.it, (In Italian)
  18. ^ Japan Ministry of Defense. "Activities based on Anti-Terrorism Special Measures Law (December 2001 – October 2007) – Replenishment Operations". Retrieved 2013-05-06.
  19. ^ Asahi Shimbun. "Japan's New Blue Water Navy: A Four-year Indian Ocean mission recasts the Constitution and the US-Japan alliance". Retrieved 2013-05-06.
  20. ^ Japan Ministry of Defense. "MOD/JSDF ANSWERS – Anti-Piracy Efforts". Retrieved 2012-11-16.
  21. ^ Warship 2006, Conway's Maritime Press – World Navies in Review 2006)
  22. ^ Sang-Hun, Choe (18 August 2011). "South Korean Navy Base Divides Jeju Island Residents". The New York Times. Retrieved 17 March 2015.
  23. ^ Sung Ki, Jung (26 October 2013). "S. Korea Envisions Light Aircraft Carrier". defensenews.com. Retrieved 17 March 2015.
  24. ^ "Dokdo Class Landing Platform Helicopter (LPH)". naval-technology.com. Retrieved 17 March 2015.
  25. ^ "ESPS Rayo Joins EU Naval Force Operation Atalanta". eunavfor.eu. 10 December 2014. Retrieved 17 March 2015.
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