Lyncoya Jackson

Lyncoya Jackson
Letter from Lincoya to Andrew Jackson, dated December 29, 1823 According to the Tennessee Virtual Archive catalog, the "authenticity of this letter has come under scrutiny." The editors of The Letters of Andrew Jackson, Volume V: 1821–1824 (published 1996) annotated a letter from Jackson to Rachel on December 7, 1823, in which Jackson asked for letters from the children ("I would be delighted to receive a letter from our son, little Hutchings, & even Lyncoya") that "Lyncoya wrote Jackson on December 29."
Born	c. 1812 Alabama, U.S.
Died	July 1, 1828(1828-07-01) (aged 15–16) Nashville, Tennessee, U.S.
Occupation	Saddler

Lyncoya Jackson (c. 1812 – July 1, 1828), also known as Lincoyer or Lincoya, was an Indigenous American born into a Muscogee family that was part of the Upper Creek tribal-geographical grouping and more than likely affiliated with Red Stick political party. The family lived in the tribal town near Tallasseehatchee Creek in present-day eastern Alabama. Lyncoya's parents were killed on November 3, 1813, by troops led by John Coffee at the Battle of Tallusahatchee, an engagement of the Creek War and the larger War of 1812. Lyncoya survived the massacre and the burning of the settlement and was found lying on the ground next to the body of his dead mother. He was one of two Creek children from the village who were taken in by militiamen from Nashville, Tennessee. Lyncoya was raised in the household of slave trader and former U.S. Senator Andrew Jackson. Lyncoya was the third of three Indian war orphans who were transported to Andrew Jackson's Hermitage in 1813–14.

Lyncoya was initially termed a "pett" for Jackson's white male wards. Jackson later included Lyncoya in the catalog of wards whom he considered to be his sons, inquiring about his health and educational progress in letters home to his wife Rachel. He was educated alongside Jackson's white wards in the local school, and at one time Jackson wanted Lyncoya to attend West Point, which he considered the most prestigious educational opportunity in the United States. Lyncoya was ultimately apprenticed to a saddler in Nashville. Lyncoya contracted a respiratory infection and returned home to the Hermitage in his sickness. Despite nursing and healthcare provided by Rachel Jackson and the enslaved labor force of the Hermitage, Lyncoya died of tuberculosis at approximately 16 years old. He was buried in an unmarked grave somewhere near the Hermitage within Davidson County.

As early as 1815, and certainly by 1824, Jackson's political allies framed Lyncoya's survival and presence in Jackson's household as a defense against charges that Jackson was a bloodthirsty killer of Indians. Lyncoya's obituary, published during the bitter 1828 U.S. presidential contest between Jackson and John Quincy Adams, also served as a form of political messaging. Jackson was presented as the hero of Lyncoya's story in 19th-century biographies of the seventh U.S. president, and his life continues to be used in the 21st century as a defense against charges that racial animus was the motive for Jackson's 25-year-long effort to ethnically cleanse the Old Southwest of Native Americans.

Biography

Excerpt from Alabama map in Indian Land Cessions in the United States (1898) showing "Talishatchie Town (Creek)" and "Old Creek Village"

The critically endangered green pitcher plant is indigenous to the biome where Lyncoya was born (Photo: Wesos19, 2018)

Born to Muscogee (Creek) parents who were most likely associated with the Red Stick political faction, Lyncoya was said to be 10 or 12 months old when he was orphaned during the Creek War in the Battle of Tallushatchee on November 3, 1813. The placename Tallasseehatchee describes "the stream or creek near the old town," from the Muscogee language tȧlwa, "town," hasi, "old," and hȧchi, "creek."

Jackson's long-time business partner and nephew-by-marriage John Coffee led the action of Jackson's Tennessee militia and their Indigenous and mixed-race allies in the assault on the tribal town, during which:

...the troops razed the town's cabins, burning alive those who had sought refuge inside. All total, the Red Sticks lost 186 warriors, as well as 84 taken prisoner...The next day soldiers swept the area looking for any food to add to their scanty provisions. Apparently, some found and ravenously ate potatoes that had actually baked in the very fires that had consumed the trapped Red Sticks. [Major John] Walker reported that he and his fellow warriors did participate in the destruction of the Red Sticks, recalling that their 'situation looked dismal to see, Women & Children slaughtered with their fathers.' The troops left the bodies of their dead enemies to the dogs.

According to his obituary in the Nashville Republican, published the summer before the 1828 U.S. presidential election in which Jackson was a candidate, Lyncoya was "the son of a Chief." His name is not in the Muscogee language but an invention of the young white woman, Maria Pope (daughter of LeRoy Pope), who was initially charged with his care. An account published in Alabama in 1983 stated that Lyncoya means "abandoned one" in Muscogee."

A tornado in the vicinity of Lyncoya's birthplace (Photo: Wjalex4, 2011)

Part of the John Melish map of 1814, showing Mississippi Territory locations in the war between the Creek Indians and the Americans in 1813–14 (Smithsonian Bureau of Ethnology, 1922)

Lyncoya was brought to Jackson after the surviving women in the village refused to care for him because they were severely injured. A scholar examining Muscogee womanhood at the time of the Creek War wrote:

If the Creek women refused to accept the normative maternal role, perhaps the single best example of compromised masculinity in the war was the transformation of Jackson and members of his army from life-taking warriors to nursemaids. In his account, Richard Keith Call noted that Jackson, 'although a man of iron nerve, he was yet a girl in the softer feelings of his nature.' For Call, the 'incident...proved the woman like tenderness of [Jackson's] heart.' The image of Andrew Jackson and his officers nursing a baby with a sugar tit and puzzling over their young charge marks a sharp contrast to the horrific life-taking that produced the orphan. Clearly they could not keep the child. Exercising mastery over both Creek babe and his own wife, Jackson sealed Lyncoya's fate. He would be a special kind of slave, kept 'in the house,' a present to be owned by one of Jackson's wards."

The actual work of sustaining Lyncoya with brown sugar and scavenged biscuit crumbs was delegated to an enslaved man named Charles.

Sketches of Creek leaders, Hysac, or the Woman's Man, and Hopothle Mico, or the Talassee King of the Creeks, made by John Trumbull in 1790 during negotiations for the Treaty of New York. Miko was a Muskogean language family title equivalent to chief. (Yale Beinecke J18 T771 841)

In the 17th through 19th centuries, "Some Anglo-Americans, including Andrew Jackson, incorporated Indian war captives into their households, calling them kin." Lyncoya has been described as having been "adopted" by the Jacksons but there are no known documents attesting to any form of legal adoption. Lyncoya was one of two Muscogee children taken from the Tallushatchee battlefield. In 1833, during his presidency, Jackson replied to an inquiry from a Col. William Moore, writing, "Your letter of the 7th instant is just to hand—I hasten to reply, that Lyncoya, was the child found suckling his dead mothers breast after the battle of Tallahassee was over, & sent to me by Genl Coffee—The wounded child which you brought into camp, was the one taken, and roused by Doctor [John] Shelby—he cured him of his wounds & adopted him as a child, and educated him—he turned out badly as I believe, & ran away from the Doctor. The Doctor can give you his history." According to one account, the child taken by Shelby was also named Lyncoya.

The building in the foreground, originally two stories, is the former Log Hermitage. The building in the background was constructed as a kitchen. Both structures were later used as slave quarters.

Lyncoya was brought to the Jackson home, the Hermitage, in 1814. He was the third of three Indigenous babies or children who was carried to Nashville at Jackson's behest, the others being Theodore, who died in the spring of 1814, and Charley, whose fate is uncertain. Lyncoya would have initially lived in what is called the Log Hermitage, and then in the mansion house, built in 1821. Rachel Jackson was charged with being Lyncoya's "primary caregiver," in part because that was the traditional gender role and in part Jackson traveled extensively for his work throughout the 1810s and 1820s, such that "Jackson depended on her to oversee Lyncoya's upbringing and prepare him for his exhibition to the nation's elite. Rachel did as best she could but considered Lyncoya a nuisance, imposed by Jackson to serve a national ambition, which she did not share. His arrival signaled a growing division between the pious and local life Rachel wanted and the national stage that Jackson had begun to thrust upon her. Rachel's neglect of Lyncoya also reflected her frustration and disappointment with Jackson."

The social-emotional world of the larger Hermitage community and a fleeting projection of Andrew Jackson's internal racial cosmology appears in a letter written to Rachel Jackson on September 18, 1816, from the "Chikesaw council house":

My Love I have this moment recd. your affectionate letter of the 8th. Instant, I rejoice that you are well & our little son. Tell him his sweept papa hears with pleasure that he has been a good boy & learns his Book, Tell him his sweet papa labours hard to get money to educate him, but when he learns & becomes a great man, his sweet papa will be amply rewarded for all his care, expence, & pains—how thankfull I am to you for taking poor little Lyncoya home & cloathing him—I have been much hurt to see him there with the negroes, like a lost sheep without a sheperd.

Nathan Wheeler oil on canvas portrait of Andrew Jackson (1815)

It is not immediately self-evident who Jackson meant by "our little son," although of the 30-odd minors to whom they served as guardian, some of whom Jackson called son in his letters, Andrew Jackson Jr. was the only ward that he and Rachel "considered to be a child of theirs." Lyncoya was "with the negroes" because he had been left in the care of Rachel's sister Mary Donelson Caffrey (either in Nashville or in the Natchez District of Mississippi Territory) while the Jacksons traveled, but Caffrey would not keep Lyncoya in the big house, instead boarding him in the slave quarter.

For a time, Lyncoya was educated along with Andrew Jackson's first adopted son, Andrew Jackson Jr. Jackson wrote Rachel from Washington, D.C. in 1823, "I would be delighted to receive a letter from our son, little Hutchings, & even Lyncoya—the latter I would like to exhibit to Mr Monroe & the Secratary of War, as I mean to try to have him recd. at the military school..." The editors of The Letters of Andrew Jackson, Volume V: 1821–1824 (published 1996) annotated this letters with the footnote that "Lyncoya wrote Jackson on December 29." The original appears to have been lost but what is said to be a "true copy" that was made at some point reads as follows:

Typewritten transcript of letter from Lincoyer to Andrew Jackson, December 29, 1823

Lyncoya encountered Ya-ha Hadjo, also known as Mad Wolf, sometime before 1823; this portrait is most likely the work of Charles Bird King, and it appears in History of the Indian Tribes of North America, which was published between 1836 and 1845 (DeGolyer Library, Southern Methodist University)

Hermitage December 29, 1823

Dear Father,

When the mad wolfe & Ogilvrie came here from their woods, they said, How do you do, Father? You had not sent them to school as you have me. They could not speak as I can. Their young ears had not known ____?____ Neither had their war limbs gathered strength from your tables, nor rest under your roof, yet they called thee Father - when an infant you placed me on your knee and Learned me the talk of your Andrews, and made me their companion at Home, their fellow in school, and their rival in their duty to you. if the Mad Wolfe & Ogilvrie call thee Father & not the bold, may not Lincoyer, & be justified? Yes he answers he can? and since he is not told that when a big man he must have the Whitemans skin, but to be just, to only evil actions, to do good, is to be the bigerest of men, he hopes to have this stature of the man not to feel a blush, when he is told hereafter, this is the Indian boy I raised.

Your obedient - grateful

Lincoyer

General Jackson

A true copy of the one received by Gen. Jackson at this house.

According to the Tennessee Virtual Archive catalog, the "authenticity of this letter has come under scrutiny," but the Tennessee state archivist and Jackson biographer Robert V. Remini agreed that it is at least authentic to the period of the 1820s–30s. "This house" is possibly the District of Columbia boarding house of the wife of William O'Neal, "former owner of the well-known Franklin House, [who] now took Jackson, John H. Eaton, and Richard K. Call as boarders...across from the West Market near John Gadsby's Hotel." "Mad Wolfe" is Ya-ha Hadjo. The Muscogee name that is variously transliterated Harjo, Hajo, Hadjo, or Hadcho means, roughly, so crazy as to seem brave, or crazy levels of brave. Lyncoya's obituary stated that, "...he had no intercourse whatever with Indians, except on one or two occasions when a few chiefs called to visit the General; when they were observed to take but slight notice of him." Historian Melissa Jean Gismondi argues that the letter was written under the supervision of Lyncoya's tutor William Chandler, and was intended as an exhibit to be shared with Jackson's fellow politicians, as much or more than it was meant to be a personal missive from a 10-year-old child to his father. The letter was likely solicited because Jackson had aspirations to send Lyncoya to the United States Military Academy at West Point, which was his ambition for several of his male wards, including Edward G. W. Butler and Andrew Jackson Donelson, both of whom graduated class of 1820. Andrew Jackson Jr. and A. J. Hutchings were both sent to the University of Nashville.

Ultimately, the education of Lyncoya did not continue past his time in neighborhood schools, and he was apprenticed to be a saddler. He lived with his master, Mr. Hoover, in Nashville in 1827. He died of tuberculosis at the Hermitage on July 1, 1828, when he was about 16 years old.

Lyncoya's obituary as reprinted in the Poughkeepsie Journal, July 16, 1828

Lyncoya was first introduced to the American electorate as early as 1815, and in 1824, the year of Jackson's first presidential run, Jackson's conduct in regards to Lyncoya was described as having "set the gem of humanity in the laurel of victory." His obituary, published in a Tennessee newspaper, has been characterized as the "paternalistic devotional of a slaveholder." Black Horse Harry Lee, who lived at the Hermitage at the time and wrote for Jackson's 1828 presidential campaign, is said to have written an eloquent tribute to Lyncoya, which some describe as a lost document but is very possibly the obituary.

Lyncoya's burial place is unknown, which is considered significant by historians because "if Jackson had truly considered Lyncoya to be part of his family, Jackson likely would have buried him in the family cemetery." According to writer Stanley Horn, "At least one chronicle has stated that he was buried in the garden; but, if so, there is no sign of it. No stone there bears his name, and there is no unmarked grave in the family plot." It has also been conjectured that Lyncoya's unmarked grave was in the Hermitage's slave cemetery. The location of the Hermitage's slave cemetery remains unknown as of 2021 despite decades of diligent archeological investigations, geographic study, and the use of cadaver dogs.

Historiography

A counter to the Jacksonian narrative about Lyncoya appeared in the John Quincy Adams-aligned National Journal in response to the obituary recording his life and death, excoriating both Jackson for his deeds and the obituary writer for his framing. The column, penned by one "Logan," concluded, "On the whole, the story of Lyncoya, be it true or be it false, is but an impotent apology for the Hero's bloody life."

As imagined by illustrator William Croome for John Frost's 1847 Pictorial History of Andrew Jackson: "Lincoyer" and his dead mother, Andrew Jackson and baby, John Coffee or Andrew Jackson on the field of battle at Tallusahatchee (Jackson was not at Tallusahatchee) and/or fighting a generalized Indian war

In 1925 white supremacist archivist and historian John Trotwood Moore surfaced a letter wherein Jackson mentions Lyncoya, and reporting on the discovery claimed, "During the campaign Jackson saved a little Indian boy, 'Lyncoya,' from death after the infant's mother had been shot dead...History says the Indian women were fighting alongside the men and the troops had to fire in self-defense." However it was styled, the pro-Jackson retelling of Lyncoya's life always "transferred the blame for the destruction of Indigenous families from Jackson to Muscogee women. Murderous women violated early American gender norms, which expected women to act to as dutiful and compassionate mothers."

In 1950, Lyncoya was described as "an exotic and pitiful member of the Hermitage household...The exact status of Lyncoya in the Hermitage menage is now not entirely clear. General Jackson probably shared the frontier sentiment that an Indian was just barely a human being, and at first he seems to have looked upon him as little more than a novel sort of pet for little Andrew. But the young redskin must have grown in Old Hickory's affections, for in subsequent letters he refers to 'my little sons, including Lyncoya,' and as soon as he was old enough he went to school along with the white boys."

Jackson's allies writing about Lyncoya in 1824, the year of Jackson's first presidential candidacy: "...he was the only survivor of a powerful tribe...[his story] from the lips of the General...drew tears from the eyes of all present...[Jackson] administered to the affliction of the savage, the benevolence of civilization..." ("ANDREW JACKSON from the Charleston Mercury" Lancaster Intelligencer, August 10, 1824)

Historian Mark R. Cheathem, in the course of reviewing recently published histories of the Jacksonian era, wrote "The example of Lyncoya is often used by scholars and non-scholars alike to soften Jackson's treatment of Native Americans, and...sentimental language, unsupported by historical evidence, only reinforces this romanticized view...Lyncoya's place in the Jackson household [should be] situated within the context of recent scholarship on Indian adoption." The three war-orphan Indigenous children sent to the Hermitage, Lyncoya, Theodore, and Charley, are considered to be part of Jackson's domestic life, and Lyncoya in particular was featured in tours of the Hermitage beginning in the 1970s, which has resulted in conflict over how to frame the story: "Jackson and his troops had killed his entire family, which is the reason he was orphaned in the first place. Older white visitors frequently ask about Lyncoya unprompted, generally phrasing it as some derivative of, 'Didn't he adopt an...Indian boy?' Public knowledge of Lyncoya and his residence at the Hermitage cements him as a regular point of conversation in the mansion, and the framing of that conversation by interpreters serves to project an image of Jackson as either paternal and sentimental or ruthless and self-deluded." One analysis of Jackson's relationship with Lyncoya and his other wards characterizes his "preoccupation with acquiring dependents" as necessary to an internal and external construction of "Jackson's mastery as a white male."

A memorial to Lyncoya was dedicated in Calhoun County, Alabama in 2000, but according to historian F. Evan Nooe, "While the monument marks the site of a historic event, the inscription removes the massacre of nearly two hundred Creek men, women, and children to praise the man responsible and frame his behavior as a selfless act worthy of adulation. The monument provides comfort for the descendants of settlers in the present, casting aside the location as a site of trauma, and conveys a celebratory version of the past to future generations in Calhoun County."

Commentary about Lyncoya's obituary and Jackson's conduct in the Daily National Journal, Washington, D.C., July 15, 1828

In 2016, former U.S. Senator Jim Webb used Lyncoya as a defense against charges that Jackson was a genocidaire, writing in the Washington Post, "As president, Jackson ordered the removal of Indian tribes east of the Mississippi to lands west of the river. This approach, supported by a string of presidents, including Jefferson and John Quincy Adams, was a disaster, resulting in the Trail of Tears where thousands died. But was its motivation genocidal? Robert Remini, Jackson's most prominent biographer, wrote that his intent was to end the increasingly bloody Indian Wars and to protect the Indians from certain annihilation at the hands of an ever-expanding frontier population. Indeed, it would be difficult to call someone genocidal when years before, after one bloody fight, he brought an orphaned Native American baby from the battlefield to his home in Tennessee and raised him as his son." However, historian Dawn Peterson argues that the image of Jackson as loving father of an Indigenous adoptee is not "an accurate reading of what happened here" but rather, summarizes Washington Post columnist Michael S. Rosenwald, "Jackson...made sure his early biographers [for instance, John Eaton] knew Lyncoya's story—about how Jackson saved the little Native American boy. It was pure spin, and plenty of historians fell for it." Contemporary historians generally challenge the 19th-century interpretation of Jackson's actions as benevolent, finding instead that they were part of a pattern of insidious race-based cruelty. As historian Rebecca Onion put it: "Lyncoya was a living argument for the supremacy of the white way of life. Jackson killed Creek people, took Creek land, and raised their children as his own—a primal act of domination."

Pragmatic, opportunistic Jackson did what it took to win: during the War of 1812 and the Creek War, he built and managed alliances with members of all four major southern tribes in order to "defeat his two enemies: Britain and the Redstick faction of the Creek Nation." In his 2019 Surviving Genocide: Native Nations and the United States from the American Revolution to Bleeding Kansas, historian Jeffrey Ostler wrote of the Creek War and the "rescue" of Lyncoya at Tallushatchee:

...Jackson and other commanders were not interested in using prisoners as hostages. Instead, they turned the prisoners over to Creek and Cherokee auxiliaries as a portion of their compensation. Taking prisoners (rather than killing them) as well as feeding refugees (rather than letting them starve) also allowed Americans to make a war of extermination appear—to themselves and observers in the 'civilized' world—consistent with principles of Christian humanitarianism. No U.S. leader mastered the art of reconciling catastrophic destruction and paternalistic benevolence better than Andrew Jackson... In the same way that Jackson assumed the role of father to Lyncoya, while at the same time destroying his people, so did Americans think of themselves as good parents to their Indian children even as they declared the necessity of Native extinction.

In popular culture

LYNCOYA – "Nashville Scrapbook" by R. Goff, Nashville Banner, March 29, 1960

• In 1969 a community theater in Pittsburgh produced Andy Jackson's Indian Boy as part of its "Preludes to Greatness" series of plays for children. Lyncoya was described as "lovable character with whom all youngsters identify."
• Lyncoya was the main character, but not the narrator, in Margery Evernden's juvenile historical fiction Lyncoya, published in 1973 by Henry Z. Walck.
• In 2009 artists Carlin Wing and Amelia Winger-Bearskin put on a show about Lyncoya at the Unusual Sympathy gallery in Nashville.
• Lyncoya Jackson is a character in the musical Bloody Bloody Andrew Jackson.

See also

• Treaty of Fort Jackson – 1814 treaty ending the Creek War
• Treaty of Cusseta – 1832 treaty between the United States and Creek
• Category:Muscogee tribal towns
• Josiah Francis (Hillis Hadjo) – Native American leader (c. 1770–1818)
• David Moniac – American soldier (1802–1836)
• Zintkála Nuni – Survivor of the Wounded Knee Massacre
• Andrew Jackson and the slave trade in the United States
• List of children of presidents of the United States
• Genocide Convention § Definition of genocide

Sources

• Abram, Susan (2012). "6. Cherokees in the Creek War: A Band of Brothers". In Braund, Kathryn E. Holland (ed.). Tohopeka: Rethinking the Creek War and the War of 1812. Tuscalosa, Alabama: University of Alabama Press. pp. 122–145. ISBN 978-0-8173-5711-5.
• Barna, Elizabeth Kathryn (2020). Between Plantation, President, and Public: Institutionalized Polysemy and the Representation of Slavery, Genocide, and Democracy at Andrew Jackson's Hermitage (Thesis). Nashville, Tennessee: Vanderbilt University.
• Braund, Kathryn E. Holland (October 2011). "Reflections on "Shee Coocys" and the Motherless Child: Creek Women in a Time of War". Alabama Review. 64 (4): 255–284. doi:10.1353/ala.2011.0004. ISSN 2166-9961.
• Cheathem, Mark R. (2019). "The Stubborn Mythology of Andrew Jackson". Reviews in American History. 47 (3): 342–348. doi:10.1353/rah.2019.0062. ISSN 1080-6628.
• Cole, Donald B. (2009). Vindicating Andrew Jackson: The 1828 Election and the Rise of the Two-Party System. American Presidential Elections. Lawrence, Kansas: University Press of Kansas. ISBN 978-0-7006-1661-9. LCCN 2009015244. OCLC 318645762. Project MUSE book 87476.
• DeWitt, John H. (1931). "Andrew Jackson and His Ward, Andrew Jackson Hutchings: A History Hitherto Unpublished". Tennessee Historical Magazine. 1 (2): 83–106. ISSN 2333-9012.
• Gismondi, Melissa (June 12, 2017). Rachel Jackson and the Search for Zion, 1760s–1830s (PhD, History thesis). Charlottesville, Virginia: University of Virginia. doi:10.18130/v3q364.
• Horn, Stanley F. (1938). The Hermitage, Home of Old Hickory. Richmond: Garrett & Massie – via HathiTrust.
• Meredith, Rachel (May 2013). "There Was Somebody Always Dying and Leaving Jackson as Guardian": The Wards of Andrew Jackson (M.A. History thesis). Murfreesboro, Tennessee: Middle Tennessee State University. ProQuest 1538368.
• Nooe, F. Evan (2024). Aggression and Sufferings: Settler Violence, Native Resistance, and the Coalescence of the Old South. Indians and Southern History. Tuscaloosa: University of Alabama Press. ISBN 978-0-8173-2174-1.
• Ostler, Jeffrey (2019). Surviving Genocide: Native Nations and the United States from the American Revolution to Bleeding Kansas. New Haven, Connecticut: Yale University Press. doi:10.12987/9780300245264. ISBN 978-0-300-24526-4.
• Ray, Jonathan (2014). Andrew Jackson and the Indians, 1767–1815 (Thesis). Tuscaloosa: University of Alabama.
• Read, William A.; McMillan, James B. (1984) [1937]. Indian Place Names in Alabama. Library of Alabama Classics (Revised ed.). Tuscaloosa: University of Alabama Press. ISBN 9780817384722. LCCN 84002593. OCLC 45728228. Project MUSE book 6765.
• Plater, David D. (2015). The Butlers of Iberville Parish, Louisiana: Dunboyne Plantation in the 1800s. Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press. ISBN 978-0-8071-6128-9. Project MUSE book 48467.
• Remini, Robert V. (1977). Andrew Jackson and the Course of American Empire, 1767–1821. New York: Harper & Row. ISBN 978-0-8018-5912-0. LCCN 77003766. OCLC 1145801830.
• Snyder, Christina (2017). "Andrew Jackson's Indian Son: Native Captives and American Empire". In Garrison, Tim Alan; O'Brien, Greg (eds.). The Native South: New Histories and Enduring Legacies. Lincoln, Nebraska: University of Nebraska Press. pp. 84–106. doi:10.2307/j.ctt1q1xq7h.9. ISBN 978-0-8032-9690-9. JSTOR j.ctt1q1xq7h.9.
• Various; Jackson, Andrew (1984). Moser, Harold D.; MacPherson, Sharon (eds.). The Papers of Andrew Jackson, Volume II, 1804–1813. Knoxville: University of Tennessee Press. ISBN 978-0-87049-441-3. LCCN 79015078. OCLC 5029597.
• Wise, Henry A. (1872). Seven Decades of the Union: The Humanities and Materialism. Philadelphia: J. B. Lippincott & Co. LCCN 08019296. OCLC 1434150131.

Further reading

• Black, Jason Edward (July 2005). "Authoritarian Fatherhood: Andrew Jackson's Early Familial Lectures to America's "Red Children"". Journal of Family History. 30 (3): 247–264. doi:10.1177/0363199005276946. ISSN 0363-1990.
• Rogin, Michael Paul (1975). Fathers and Children: Andrew Jackson and the Subjugation of the American Indian. New York: Alfred A. Knopf. ISBN 978-0-394-48204-0. LCCN 74021310. OCLC 1111310.

External links

• Davis, Louise (November 26, 1961). "Old Andy's Little Indian". The Tennessean. Illustrated by Charles O. Bissell. p. 124. & "Old Andy's Little Indian (con't)". p. 138.