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Narcissism

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For the clinical disorder, see Narcissistic personality disorder. For other uses, see Narcissism (disambiguation).

Narcissus (1597–99) by Caravaggio; the man in love with his own reflection

Narcissism is excessive preoccupation with one's self, one's own worth, and one's own needs.[1][2] It is typically associated with behaviors of self-elevation over others, entitlement, and delusional grandiosity.

Narcissism, named after the Greek mythological figure Narcissus--who fell in love with his own reflection, leading to his own vegetative transformation--is a psychological concept studied extensively since the late 19th century. Many different frameworks for explaining and categorizing different types and expressions of narcissism have developed.[3]

Some experts suggest that narcissism exists on a continuum that ranges from normal to abnormal personality expression.[4] Other psychologists argue that a moderate degree of self-interest is normal and healthy in humans, which is not pathological or clinical narcissism. But there are also extreme forms of narcissism, such as narcissistic personality disorder (NPD), where the narcissistic tendency has become pathological,[4][5] leading to functional impairment and psychosocial disability.[6] It has also been discussed in dark triad studies, along with subclinical psychopathy and Machiavellianism.[7][8][9]

Historical background

The term narcissism is derived from Narcissus, a character in Greek mythology best known from the telling in Roman poet Ovid's Metamorphoses, written in 8 CE. Book III of the poem tells the mythical story of a handsome young man, Narcissus, who spurns the advances of many potential lovers. When Narcissus rejects the nymph Echo, who was cursed to only echo the sounds that others made, the gods punish Narcissus by making him fall in love with his own reflection in a pool of water. When Narcissus discovers that the object of his love cannot love him back, he slowly pines away and dies.[10] In other versions of the story, he transforms into a flower instead (in particular, daffodils).

The concept of excessive selfishness has been recognized throughout history. In ancient Greece, an adjacent concept was understood as hubris, although this generally connoted pride leading to a downfall, rather than a pattern of selfishness, self-absorbedness, or grandiosity.[11] Some religious movements such as the Hussites attempted to rectify what they viewed as the shattering and narcissistic cultures of recent centuries.[12]

It was not until the late 1800s that narcissism came into use as a formal psychological term. Originally the term was used to describe the disorder producing homosexual behavior, and was popularized in this theory through the influence of Sigmund Freud.[13] However, since Freud, the term has developed alternative meanings.

Since its primitive psychological application, "narcissism" has been used to describe:

  • A sexual disorder (in which like is attracted to like),
  • A symptom in psychosis
  • A normal impulse of self-interest that may become disordered
  • A developmental characteristic in the psyche with multiple expressions or types.[14]
  • (In popular culture) Any type of exaggerated self-interest or entitlement.

In 1889, psychiatrists Paul Näcke and Havelock Ellis used the term "narcissism," independently of each other, to explain same-sex attraction or homosexual behavior. In this theory of narcissism, the gendered self becomes the focus of the sexual impulse, and same-sex partners are seen as proxy reflections of each other. Narcissism, in this original context, was seen as same-sex "perversion" that consumed a person's entire sexual life.[13] Both Näcke and Ellis were eugenicists who relied on their theory of narcissism to advocate for the forced sterilization of the "degenerate class." Their work became foundational to the later research of Sigmund Freud, who continued to treat homosexual attraction and behavior as a narcissistic pathology.

In 1911 Otto Rank published the first clinical paper about narcissism, linking it to vanity and self-admiration.[15][13] In an essay in 1913 called "The God Complex," Ernest Jones--an early and discredited theorist of sexual "disorders" in children--considered extreme narcissism as a character trait of people with the "God" complex he postulated. Jones described people with a God complex as being aloof, self-important, overconfident, auto-erotic, inaccessible, self-admiring, and exhibitionistic, with fantasies of omnipotence and omniscience. He theorized that these people had a high need for uniqueness. Again, Jones' theory of narcissism was sympathetic to the religious anthropology of the Christian New Testament, and relied on the original definition of narcissism as self-directed sexual attraction or projection, manifesting in same-sex disorder.[16][17][18]

Sigmund Freud (1914) published his theory of narcissism in a lengthy essay titled "On Narcissism: An Introduction." For Freud, narcissism refers to the individual's direction of libidinal energy toward themselves, rather than "objects" or "the other" (including other people).[19] He postulated a universal "primary narcissism" in which infants were preoccupied with their own bodies as a source of gratification, as a necessary intermediate stage between auto-eroticism and object-love (or love for others as objects outside the self). Portions of this 'self-love' or ego-libido are, at later stages of development, expressed outwardly, or "given off" toward others.

To explain homosexuality as the consequence of disordered self-interest, Freud postulated a type of "secondary narcissism," wherein he speculated that disordered homosexuals had withdrawn from healthy object-love (love for the "other") and had become erotically focused on themselves. He arrived at this theory after observing two fundamental qualities in schizophrenics: megalomania, and withdrawal of interest from the real world of people and things. "[T]he libido that has been withdrawn from the external world has been directed to the ego and thus gives rise to an attitude which may be called narcissism."[20][21] This was called secondary narcissism because the disorder was seen not as a new pathology in that particular psyche, but as the re-emergence of, or return to, an early layer of psychic development (primary narcissism). In other words, he speculated that same-sex attraction was an expression of psychosexual regression to an infantile fixation on the self as a source of sexual gratification, in which a person's personality development could become arrested of blocked (and therefore, theoretically cured).

Freud's theory of secondary narcissism relied upon prior models of narcissism established by Näcke, Ellis, and Rank, representing same-sex attraction as a disorder or malfunction of the libidinal impulse. Freud's popular influence established a strong correlation between narcissism and homosexuality in the psychological culture of the 20th century. His use of "primary" and "secondary" categories--to describe stages of narcissistic disorder--is a primitive basis for theories of healthy vs. unhealthy narcissism today, beginning in particular with the work of Karen Horney (1939), who postulated that narcissism was on a spectrum that ranged from healthy self-esteem to a pathological state.[22]

In 1925, Robert Waelder conceptualized narcissism as a personality trait with no necessary correlation to same-sex attraction. His definition described individuals who are condescending, feel superior to others, are preoccupied with admiration, and exhibit a lack of empathy.[22] Waelder's work and his case study have been influential in the way "narcissistic personality disorder" is defined today.[citation needed] His patient was a successful scientist with an attitude of superiority, an obsession with fostering self-respect, and a lack of normal feelings of guilt. The patient was aloof and independent from others, had an inability to empathize with others, and was selfish sexually. Waelder's patient was also overly logical and analytical and valued abstract intellectual thought over the practical application of scientific knowledge.[23]

The term narcissism entered the broader social consciousness following the publication of The Culture of Narcissism by Christopher Lasch in 1979.[24] Since then--in classic forms of projection--social media, bloggers, and self-help authors have indiscriminately applied the diagnosis of "narcissism"[25] to people who maintain their own self-interests or appear to be selfish, as a label for the self-serving, and to all domestic abusers.[26][27] Among religious psychologists especially, the trait of narcissism is still frequently used to diagnose same-sex attraction as a medical or psychological disorder.[8]

Characteristics

Normal and healthy levels of narcissism

Some psychologists suggest that a moderate level of narcissism is supportive of good psychological health. Self-esteem works as a mediator between narcissism and psychological health. Elevated self-esteem, in moderation, supports resilience and ambition, but excessive self-focus can distort social relationships.[28][29]

Destructive levels of narcissism

While narcissism, in and of itself, can be considered a normal personality trait, high levels of narcissistic behavior can be harmful to both self and others.[30][31] Destructive narcissism is a category of narcissism between ordinary and pathological narcissism, and is marked by the display of some but not all of the characteristics usually associated with pathological Narcissistic Personality Disorder:

  • a "pervasive pattern of grandiosity"
  • feelings of entitlement and superiority,
  • arrogant or haughty behaviors
  • a generalized lack of empathy and concern for others[2]

On a spectrum, destructive narcissism is more extreme than healthy narcissism but not as extreme as the pathological condition.[32]

Pathological levels of narcissism (NPD)

Main article: Narcissistic personality disorder

Extremely high levels of narcissistic behavior are considered pathological.[33] The pathological condition of narcissism is a magnified, extreme manifestation of healthy self-interest. It is characterized by

  • an apparent inability to give or receive genuine love
  • a lack of empathy for others
  • a pervasive use of manipulative charm
  • a characteristic feeling of emptiness
  • a grossly distorted sense of grandiosity or self-worth
  • an underlying lack of emotional availability[30]

The clinical theorists Kernberg, Kohut, and Theodore Millon all saw pathological narcissism as a possible outcome in response to unempathetic and inconsistent early childhood interactions. They suggested that narcissists are overcompensating for their childhood trauma in their adult relationships.[34] German psychoanalyst Karen Horney (1885–1952) also saw the narcissistic personality as a temperament trait molded by a certain kind of early environment.[35]

Heritability

Heritability studies using twins have shown that narcissistic traits, as measured by standardized tests, are often inherited.[36] Narcissism was found to have a high heritability score (0.64) indicating that the concordance of this trait in the identical twins was significantly influenced by genetics as compared to an environmental causation. It has also been shown that there is a continuum or spectrum of narcissistic traits ranging from normal to a pathological personality.[37][38] Furthermore, evidence suggests that individual elements of narcissism have their own heritability score. For example, intrapersonal grandiosity has a score of 0.23, and interpersonal entitlement has a score of 0.35.[39] While the genetic impact on narcissism levels is significant, it is not the only factor at play.[citation needed]

Expressions of narcissism

Primary expressions

Two primary expressions of narcissism have been identified: grandiose ("thick-skinned") and vulnerable ("thin-skinned"). Recent accounts posit that the core of narcissism is self-centred antagonism (or "entitled self-importance"), namely selfishness, entitlement, lack of empathy, and devaluation of others.[40] Grandiosity and vulnerability are seen as different expressions of this antagonistic core, arising from individual differences in the strength of the approach and avoidance motivational systems.[41] Some researchers have posited that genuine narcissists may fall into the vulnerable narcissism subtype, whereas grandiose narcissism might be a form of psychopathy.[42]

Grandiose narcissism

Narcissistic grandiosity is thought to arise from a combination of the antagonistic core with temperamental boldness—defined by positive emotionality, social dominance, reward-seeking and risk-taking. Grandiosity is defined—in addition to antagonism—by a confident, exhibitionistic and manipulative self-regulatory style:[41]

  1. Extraordinarily high self-esteem, a clear sense of uniqueness and superiority, with fantasies of success and power, and extremely lofty ambitions.
  2. Social potency (the calculated ability to charm and influence others), marked by exhibitionistic, authoritative, charismatic and self-promoting interpersonal behaviors.
  3. Exploitative, self-serving relational dynamics; transactional, short-term relationships defined by manipulation and exploitation, privileging personal gain over other benefits of socialization.

Vulnerable narcissism

Narcissistic vulnerability is thought to arise from a combination of the antagonistic core with temperamental reactivity—defined by negative emotionality, social avoidance, passivity and marked proneness to rage. Vulnerability is defined—in addition to antagonism—by a shy, vindictive, and needy self-regulatory style:[41]

  1. Low and contingent self-esteem, unstable and unclear sense of self, and resentment of others' success.
  2. Social withdrawal, resulting from shame, distrust of others' intentions, and concerns over being accepted.
  3. Needy, obsessive relational dynamics; long-term relationship transactions defined by an excessive need for admiration, approval and support, and vengefulness when needs are unmet.

Other theories of narcissism

Sexual

Sexual narcissism has been described as an egocentric pattern of sexual behavior that involves an inflated sense of sexual ability or sexual entitlement, sometimes in the form of extramarital affairs. This can be overcompensation for low self-esteem or an inability to sustain true intimacy.[43] While this behavioral pattern is believed to be more common in men than in women,[44][45] it occurs in both males and females who compensate for feelings of sexual inadequacy by becoming overly proud or obsessed with their masculinity or femininity.[46] In an eerie parallel to primitive psychologists who identified homosexuality as a narcissistic pathology, the controversial theory of "sexual addiction" has alternatively been described as an expression sexual narcissism.[47] However, theories of sexual addiction and sexual narcissism have been been criticized as oversimplifying multiple types of sexual expression, sexual compulsivity, and sexual normativity.[48]

Parental

Main article: Narcissistic parents

Narcissistic parents often see their children as extensions of themselves and encourage the children to act in ways that support the parents' emotional and self-esteem needs.[49] Due to their vulnerability, children may be significantly affected by this behavior.[50] To meet their parents' needs, the child may sacrifice their own wants and feelings.[51]

A child subjected to this type of parenting may struggle in adulthood with their intimate relationships. In extreme situations, this parenting style can result in estranged relationships with the children, coupled with feelings of resentment, and in some cases, self-destructive tendencies.[49]

Social theorists additionally suggest that some types of narcissism may be caused by parents who "overvalue" their children or use them as proxies for their own narcissistic disorder, for example demanding special privileges for their offspring, teaching by example that they are worth more than others.[52]

Workplace

Main article: Narcissism in the workplace

There is a compulsion of some professionals to constantly assert their competence, even when they are wrong.[53][54] Professional narcissism can lead otherwise capable, even exceptional, professionals to fall into narcissistic traps. "Most professionals work on cultivating a self that exudes authority, control, knowledge, competence and respectability. It's the narcissist in us all—we dread appearing stupid or incompetent."[53]

Executives are often provided with potential narcissistic triggers. Inanimate triggers include status symbols like company cars, company-issued smartphone, or prestigious offices with window views; animate triggers include flattery and attention from colleagues and subordinates.[55]: 143 

Narcissism has been linked to a range of potential leadership problems ranging from poor motivational skills to risky decision making, and in extreme cases, white-collar crime.[56] High-profile corporate leaders that place an extreme emphasis on profits may yield positive short-term benefits for their organizations, but ultimately it drags down individual employees as well as entire companies.[57]

Subordinates may find everyday offers of support swiftly turn them into enabling sources, unless they are very careful to maintain proper boundaries.[55]: 143, 181 

Studies examining the role of personality in the rise to leadership have shown that individuals who rise to leadership positions can be described as inter-personally dominant, extraverted, and socially skilled.[56] When examining the correlation of narcissism in the rise to leadership positions, narcissists who are often interpersonally dominant, extraverted, and socially skilled, were also likely to rise to leadership but were more likely to emerge as leaders in situations where they were not known, such as in outside hires (versus internal promotions). Paradoxically, narcissism can present as characteristics that facilitate an individual's rise to leadership, and ultimately lead that person to underachieve or even to fail.[56]

Narcissism can also create problems in the general workforce. For example, individuals high in narcissism inventories are more likely to engage in counterproductive behavior that harms organizations or other people in the workplace.[58] Aggressive (and counterproductive) behaviors tend to surface when self-esteem is threatened.[59][60] Individuals high in narcissism have fragile self-esteem and are easily threatened. One study found that employees who are high in narcissism are more likely to perceive the behaviors of others in the workplace as abusive and threatening than individuals who are low in narcissism.[61]

Relationships

Narcissism can have a profound impact on both personal and professional relationships, often creating toxic dynamics. In romantic relationships, narcissistic individuals typically demand attention and admiration from their partner while offering little in return. They often fail to show empathy or concern for their partner’s emotional needs, focusing instead on fulfilling their own desires. The narcissist’s behavior can shift dramatically, alternating between idealizing their partner—viewing them as perfect—and devaluing them when the narcissist no longer feels validated. This inconsistency can cause emotional confusion and distress for the partner, leaving them feeling undervalued and emotionally drained.[62]

Celebrity

Celebrity narcissism (sometimes referred to as acquired situational narcissism) is a form of narcissism that develops in late adolescence or adulthood, brought on by wealth, fame and the other trappings of celebrity. Celebrity narcissism develops after childhood, and is triggered and supported by the celebrity-obsessed society. Fans, assistants and tabloid media all play into the idea that the person really is vastly more important than other people, triggering a narcissistic problem that might have been only a tendency, or latent, and helping it to become a full-blown personality disorder. "Robert Millman says that what happens to celebrities is that they get so used to people looking at them that they stop looking back at other people."[63] In its most extreme presentation and symptoms, it is indistinguishable from narcissistic personality disorder, differing only in its late onset and its environmental support by large numbers of fans. "The lack of social norms, controls, and of people centering them makes these people believe they're invulnerable",[63] so that the person may suffer from unstable relationships, substance abuse or erratic behaviors.

Social media

Social media has played a significant role in shaping and amplifying narcissistic behaviors in recent years. Platforms such as Instagram and TikTok encourage users to share content that emphasizes their personal achievements and appearance, often rewarding those who gain the most likes and followers. Narcissistic individuals are more likely to use these platforms for self-promotion and validation. The trend of posting selfies and curated images is particularly prevalent among individuals who seek external approval to boost their self-esteem. The constant feedback from social media algorithms, which prioritize highly engaging content, further fuels narcissistic tendencies. While this can lead to increased attention and admiration, it can also create emotional instability. Narcissists often experience negative feelings, such as anxiety or depression, when they do not receive the validation they expect. This pressure to maintain an idealized online persona can lead to emotional distress, especially when their real-world interactions do not match the image they present online.[64]

Dark triad

Narcissism is one of the three traits in the dark triad model.[65][66] The dark triad of personality traits – narcissism, Machiavellianism, and psychopathy – shows how narcissism relates to manipulative behaviors and a lack of empathy.[67] Narcissism has variously been correlated with both traits, though psychologists such as Delroy Paulhus and Kevin Williams see enough evidence that it is a distinct trait.[68] However, researchers who criticize the dark triad model note that many of the theoretical characteristics that is stated to separate Psychopathy, Machiavellianism and Narcissism from each other do not appear in empirical research.[69]

Collective narcissism

Main article: Collective narcissism

Collective narcissism is a type of narcissism where an individual has an inflated self-love of their own group.[70] While the classic definition of narcissism focuses on the individual, collective narcissism asserts that one can have a similar excessively high opinion of a group, and that a group can function as a narcissistic entity.[70] Collective narcissism is related to ethnocentrism; however, ethnocentrism primarily focuses on self-centeredness at an ethnic or cultural level, while collective narcissism is extended to any type of ingroup beyond just cultures and ethnicities.[70][71]

Normalization of narcissistic behaviors

Some commentators contend that the American populace has become increasingly narcissistic since the end of World War II.[72][73][74] According to sociologist Charles Derber, people pursue and compete for attention on an unprecedented scale. The profusion of popular literature about "listening" and "managing those who talk constantly about themselves" suggests its pervasiveness in everyday life.[75] The growth of media phenomena such as "reality TV" programs[72] and social media is generating a "new era of public narcissism."[76]

Also supporting the contention that American culture has become more narcissistic is an analysis of US popular song lyrics between 1987 and 2007. This found a growth in the use of first-person singular pronouns, such as I, me, my, and mine, reflecting a greater focus on the self, and also of references to antisocial behavior; during the same period, there was a diminution of words reflecting a focus on others, positive emotions, and social interactions.[38][77] References to narcissism and self-esteem in American popular print media have experienced vast inflation since the late 1980s.[77] Between 1987 and 2007 direct mentions of self-esteem in leading US newspapers and magazines increased by 4,540 percent while narcissism, which had been almost non-existent in the press during the 1970s, was referred to over 5,000 times between 2002 and 2007.[77]

Individualistic vs collectivist national cultures

Similar patterns of change in cultural production are observable in other Western states. For example, a linguistic analysis of the largest circulation Norwegian newspaper found that the use of self-focused and individualistic terms increased in frequency by 69 per cent between 1984 and 2005 while collectivist terms declined by 32 per cent.[78]

One study looked at differences in advertising between an individualistic culture, United States, and a collectivist culture, South Korea and found that in the US there was a greater tendency to stress the distinctiveness and uniqueness of the person; whereas advertising in South Korean stressed the importance of social conformity and harmony.[78] These cultural differences were greater than the effects of individual differences within national cultures.[78]

Controversies

There has been an increased interest in narcissism and narcissistic personality disorder (NPD) in the last 10 years.[79] There are areas of substantial debate that surround the subject including:

  • Clearly defining the difference between normal and pathological narcissism,[79]
  • Understanding the role of self-esteem in narcissism,[79]
  • Reaching a consensus on the classifications and definitions of sub-types such as "grandiose" and "vulnerable dimensions" or variants of these,[79]
  • Understanding what are the central versus peripheral, primary versus secondary features/characteristics of narcissism,
  • Determining if there is consensual description,[79]
  • Agreeing on the etiological factors,[79]
  • Deciding what field or discipline narcissism should be studied by,[79]
  • Agreeing on how it should be assessed and measured,[79] and
  • Agreeing on its representation in textbooks and classification manuals.[79]

This extent of the controversy was on public display in 2010–2013 when the committee on personality disorders for the 5th Edition (2013) of the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders recommended the removal of Narcissistic Personality from the manual. A contentious three-year debate unfolded in the clinical community with one of the sharpest critics being John G. Gunderson, the person who led the DSM personality disorders committee for the 4th edition of the manual.[80]

See also

References

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