Strategos
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- For the board game, see Stratego.
- "Strategus" redirects here. For the rhino beetle genus, see Strategus (beetle).
The term strategos (plural strategoi; Greek: [στρατηγός, στρατηγοί], literally meaning "army leader") is used in Greek to mean "general". In the Hellenistic and Byzantine Empires the term was also used to describe a military governor. In the modern Hellenic Army, it is the highest officer rank.
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[edit] The office of Strategos in Classical Greece
Themistocles, Aristides and Cimon were early examples of strategoi who were politicians as well as generals. Pericles was a strategos very often throughout his career; from 443 until 429bc. Cleon, Nicias and Alcibiades were also strategoi. But at the end of the 5th century, with the collapse of the military and naval power Athens, and later because of an increasing tendency to specialization, military office ceased to be a means of acquiring political influence.
Little is known of the number and method of appointment of Athenian strategoi in the 6th century, but in 501bc. a new arrangement was introduced by which ten strategoi were elected annually, one from each phyle. The ten were of equal status: at Marathon in 490 (according to Herodotus) they decided strategy by majority vote, and each held the presidency in daily rotation. At this date the polemarchos had a casting vote, and one view is that he was the commander-in- chief; but from 486 onwards the polemarch, like other archontes was appointed by lot.
The annual election of the strategoi was held in the spring, and their term of office coincided with the ordinary Athenian year, from midsummer to midsummer. If a strategos died or was dismissed from office, a by-election might be held to replace him. Strategoi commanded both from land and by sea. A particular military or naval expedition mighy have one strategos or several in command; rarely did all ten go together.
At home the strategoi were responsible for calling up citizens and metics for military service, and for organizing the maintenance and command of ships by the system of trierarchies. When a legal case arose from any of these matters, such as a prosecution for desertion or evasion of service, or a dispute over the duty to perform a trierarchy, the strategoi were the magistrates responsible for bringing the case to court and presiding over the trial.
In the 4th century a systematic division of duties was made: one strategos led the hoplites and one was in charge of the defense of Attica, two were in charge of the defense of Pireaus, and one supervised the the trierarchy, leaving the remaining five available for other duties.
The Athenian people kept a close eye on their strategoi. Like other magistrates, at the end of their term of office they were subject to euthyna and in addition there was a vote in the ekklesia every prytany on the question whether they were performing their duties well. If the vote went against anyone, he was deposed and as a rule tried by jury. Pericles himself in 430 was removed from office as strategos and fined, and in 406 the eight strategoi who commanded the fleet at Arginusae were removed all from office and condemned to death.
These arrangements illustrate one of the most striking features of Athenian democracy: reluctance to give power to individuals and fear that it might be abused.
[edit] Hellenistic and later use
Ancient Greek historians often used the term strategos when referring to the Roman political/military office of praetor. Such a use can be found in the New Testament: Acts 6:20 refers to the magistrates of Philippi as strategoi (στρατηγοί).[1]
In the Hellenistic empires of the Diadochi, notably Lagid Egypt, strategos became a gubernatorial office. The term continued in use in the Greek-speaking Byzantine Empire (see Byzantine aristocracy and bureaucracy). Initially, the term was reserved for the generals, and specifically for the rank of magister militum. With the creation of the Theme system however, the strategos became again an office combining military and civilian authority over a province (thema).
[edit] Modern use
In the modern Hellenic Army, a stratigós (the spelling remains στρατηγός) is the highest officer rank. The superior rank of stratárchis (Field Marshal) existed under the monarchy, but has not been retained by the current Third Hellenic Republic. The rank of full stratigós is held only by the Chief of the General Staff of National Defence, when he is an Army officer. Officers holding this rank are addressed as "stratigé" (Στρατηγέ) (stressed on the last syllable). All but one of the other Greek general officer ranks are derivations of this word: antistrátigos and ypostrátigos, for Lieutenant General and Major General, respectively; a Brigadier General however is called taxíarchos, after a táxis (in modern usage taxiarchía), which means brigade. The ranks of antistrátigos and ypostrátigos are also used by the Hellenic Police (and the Greek Gendarmerie before), the Greek Fire Service and the Cypriot National Guard, which lack the grade of full stratigós.
[edit] Fictional uses
This position was featured in Orson Scott Card's novel Ender's Game. In the novel, the position of Strategos was charged with overall command of solar system defense. The Strategos, along with the positions of Polemarch (responsible for the International Fleet of space warships), and the Hegemon (the political leader of Earth, rather like a stronger version of the Secretary-General of the United Nations), was one of the three most powerful people alive. Because of a belief in their inherent luck and brilliance--specifically, that no Jewish general had ever lost a war--all three positions were filled with Jewish people - an American Jew as Hegemon, an Israeli Jew as Strategos, and a Russian Jew as Polemarch. The defeat of the Formics by half-Māori Mazer Rackham changed this position. Bean was given the title of Strategos by Peter Wiggin after he assumed the role of Hegemon.
The dystopian slave-empire of the Draka, in the series of books by S. M. Stirling, also uses "Strategos" together with many other military ranks and terms drawn from Classical Antiquity - though often with only the most loose resemblance to what they originally meant.
The position of 'Strategos' was also featured in the English language version of the Sunrise anime The Vision of Escaflowne; the character Folken occupied the position when he served the Zaibach empire.
The oldest use of the term "strategos" in fiction may be found in the "Callirhoe" of Chariton of Aphrodisias which is dated in the first century A.D. There, Hermocrates is the "strategos" of Syracuse and the father of Callirhoe, living in the 5th century B.C. In fact, he was a historical person, the victor over the Athenians in 413 B.C., an event which stopped Athenian expansion to the West. His role as a character in the novel is rather limited. Although his position in Syracuse gives Callirhoe a background, and he gives consent to her marriage and fulfills a few official duties, his legal or constitutional position is not very clear.
[edit] References
- Hansen M.H. 1987, The Athenian Democracy in the age of Demosthenes. Oxford.
- Debra Hamel 1998, Athenian generals : Military authority in the classical period. Leiden.
- Oxford Classical Dictionary, 2nd edition, 1996: strategoi.
- 'Dictionary of the Classical World', John Roberts, 2005. Oxford
- Pauly-Wissowa
