View source for Ferdinand Marcos

{{Short description|President of the Philippines from 1965 to 1986}}
{{For|his son, Ferdinand Marcos Jr.|Bongbong Marcos}}
{{pp-semi-indef}}
{{Philippine name|Edralin|Marcos}}
{{Use mdy dates|date=May 2022}}
{{use Philippine English|date=August 2020}}{{Multiple issues|{{cleanup-reorganize|date=July 2024}}
{{repetition|date=July 2024}}}}{{Infobox officeholder
| name                = Ferdinand Marcos
| image               = Ferdinand Marcos (cropped).jpg
| caption             = Marcos in 1982
| order               = 10th
| office              = President of the Philippines
| term_start          = December 30, 1965
| term_end            = February 25, 1986
| primeminister       = {{plainlist|
* Himself (1978–1981)
* [[Cesar Virata]] (1981–1986)
}}
| vicepresident       = {{plainlist|
* [[Fernando Lopez]] (1965–1972)
* ''Abolished'' (1972–1984)
* ''Vacant'' (1984–1986)
}}
| predecessor         = [[Diosdado Macapagal]]
| successor           = [[Corazon Aquino]]
| order2              = 3rd
| office2             = Prime Minister of the Philippines
| term_start2         = June 12, 1978
| term_end2           = June 30, 1981
| predecessor2        = ''Office re-established; {{hanging indent|position previously held by [[Pedro Paterno]]}}''
| successor2          = Cesar Virata
| office3             = [[Secretary of National Defense (Philippines)|Secretary of National Defense]]
| term_start3         = August 28, 1971
| term_end3           = January 3, 1972
| president3          = Himself
| predecessor3        = [[Juan Ponce Enrile]]
| successor3          = Juan Ponce Enrile
| term_start4         = December 31, 1965
| term_end4           = January 20, 1967
| president4          = Himself
| predecessor4        = [[Macario Peralta]]
| successor4          = [[Ernesto Mata]]
{{Collapsed infobox section begin |cont = yes |Political offices {{nobold|1949{{nbnd}}1965}}
| titlestyle       = border:1px dashed lightgrey;}}{{Infobox officeholder
| embed            = yes
| order5           = 9th
| office5          = President of the Senate of the Philippines
| term_start5      = April 5, 1963
| term_end5        = December 30, 1965
| president5          = [[Diosdado Macapagal]] 
| predecessor5     = [[Eulogio Rodriguez]]
| successor5       = [[Arturo Tolentino]]
| office6          = [[Minority Floor Leader of the Senate of the Philippines|Senate Minority Leader]]
| term_start6      = January 25, 1960
| term_end6        = January 22, 1962
| predecessor6     = [[Ambrosio Padilla]]
| successor6       = [[Estanislao Fernandez]]
| office7          = [[Senator of the Philippines]]
| term_start7      = December 30, 1959
| term_end7        = December 30, 1965
| predecessor7     = 
| successor7       = 
| office8          = Member of the [[House of Representatives of the Philippines|House of Representatives]] from [[Ilocos Norte]]'s [[Ilocos Norte's 2nd congressional district|2nd]] district
| term_start8      = December 30, 1949
| term_end8        = December 30, 1959
| predecessor8     = Pedro Albano
| successor8       = Simeon M. Valdez{{collapsed infobox section end}}}}
| birth_name          = Ferdinand Emmanuel Edralin Marcos
| birth_date          = {{birth date|mf=yes|1917|9|11}}
| birth_place         = [[Sarrat]], Ilocos Norte, Philippines<!-- DO NOT LINK, see [[MOS:GEOLINK]] for further guidance -->{{efn|The Philippines was an [[unincorporated territory of the United States]] known as the [[Insular Government of the Philippine Islands|Philippine Islands]] at the time of Marcos's birth.}}
| death_date          = {{death date and age|mf=yes|1989|9|28|1917|9|11}}
| death_place         = [[Honolulu]], Hawaii, US
| resting_place       = {{plainlist|
* [[Ferdinand E. Marcos Presidential Center]], Batac, Ilocos Norte (1993{{nbnd}}2016)
* [[Libingan ng mga Bayani]], Taguig, Metro Manila (since{{nbsp}}2016; disputed)<ref name = "contested" /><ref name="rappler">{{Cite web|last=Pedroza|first=Stephen|title=Are we really burying Marcos' 'body'|url=https://www.rappler.com/moveph/144664-marcos-necropolitics-bury/|date=2016-08-31|access-date=November 7, 2023|archive-date=October 15, 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231015185946/https://www.rappler.com/moveph/144664-marcos-necropolitics-bury/|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|last=Zambrano|first=Chiara|title=Marcos in mausoleum-Wax or real?|url=https://news.abs-cbn.com/nation/regions/07/04/11/marcos-mausoleum-wax-or-real|date=2011-07-04|access-date=November 7, 2023|archive-date=April 23, 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230423124008/https://news.abs-cbn.com/nation/regions/07/04/11/marcos-mausoleum-wax-or-real|url-status=live}}</ref>
}}
| party               = [[Kilusang Bagong Lipunan]] (1978–89)
| otherparty          = {{plainlist|
* [[Liberal Party (Philippines)|Liberal]] (1946–65)
* [[Nacionalista]] (1965–78)
}}
| spouse              = {{plainlist|
* {{marriage|Carmen Ortega ([[Common-law marriage|common{{nbh}}law]])||1954}}<ref name = "loveLiesLoot" />
* {{marriage|[[Imelda Romualdez]]|May 1, 1954}}
}}
| children            = 9, including [[Imee]], [[Bongbong]], [[Irene Marcos|Irene]], and [[Aimee Marcos|Aimee]]
| mother              = {{#ifexist: Josefa Edralin|[[Josefa Edralin]]}}
| father              = [[Mariano Marcos]]
| relatives           = [[Marcos family]]
| alma_mater          = [[University of the Philippines Manila]] ([[LL.B]])
| occupation          = {{hlist|[[Jurist]]|lawyer|politician}}
| awards              = <!-- Fake medals and awards should only be restored above if irreproachable sources can be found and cited inline -->
| signature           = Marcos Sig.svg
| nickname            = {{hlist|Apo Lakay|Ferdie|Macoy}}
<!--Military service-->| allegiance          = {{plainlist|
* Philippines
* United States{{efn|During the [[Commonwealth of the Philippines|Commonwealth era]], the US controlled the Philippines as a protectorate.}}
}}
| serviceyears        = 1942–1945
| rank                = {{plainlist|
* [[First lieutenant]]
* [[Major (rank)|Major]]
}}
| unit                = {{plainlist|
* 21st Infantry Division ([[USAFFE]])
* 14th Infantry Regiment ([[USAFIP-NL]])
}}
| battles             = [[Military history of the Philippines during World War II|World War II]]
| module              = <!-- {{Listen|pos=center|embed=yes|filename=|title=Ferdinand Marcos's voice|type=speech|description=Marcos on his [[Martial law under Ferdinand Marcos|declaration of martial law]]<br />Recorded September 17, 1982}} -->
}}
{{Ferdinand Marcos sidebar}}

'''Ferdinand Emmanuel Edralin Marcos Sr.'''{{efn|{{IPAc-en|UK|ˈ|m|ɑːr|k|ɒ|s}} {{respell|MAR|koss}}<br />{{IPAc-en|US|-|k|oʊ|s|,_|-|k|ɔː|s}} {{respell|-|kohss|,_-|kawss}},<ref>{{cite EPD|18|Marcos|page=305}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|title=The New Websters Dictionary of the English Language|year=1994|publisher=Lexicon Publications, Inc.|isbn=0-7172-4690-6|pages=609}}</ref> <br />{{IPA|tl|ˈmaɾkɔs|lang}}}} (September 11, 1917 – September 28, 1989) was a Filipino lawyer, politician, [[dictator]]<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Bonner |first1=William |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=6nUaAQAAIAAJ |title=Waltzing with a Dictator: The Marcoses and the Making of American Policy |last2=Bonner |first2=Raymond |date=1987 |publisher=Times Books |isbn=978-0-8129-1326-2}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Fuentecilla |first=Jose V. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=EYJDsNK_7PUC&q=info:1-cWfZnYbr4J:scholar.google.com/&pg=PP2 |title=Fighting from a Distance: How Filipino Exiles Helped Topple a Dictator |date=April 1, 2013 |publisher=University of Illinois Press |isbn=978-0-252-09509-2 |access-date=September 30, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211120121135/https://books.google.com/books?id=EYJDsNK_7PUC&q=info:1-cWfZnYbr4J:scholar.google.com/&pg=PP2 |archive-date=November 20, 2021 |url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="marcosRiseAndFallDictator">{{cite news |date=November 19, 2016 |title=Marcos: Rise and fall of a dictator |url=http://newsinfo.inquirer.net/845784/marcos-rise-and-fall-of-a-dictator |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220702000008/https://newsinfo.inquirer.net/845784/marcos-rise-and-fall-of-a-dictator |archive-date=July 2, 2022 |access-date=January 26, 2018 |newspaper=Philippine Daily Inquirer}}</ref> and [[Kleptocracy|kleptocrat]]<ref name="marcosKleptocracy22">{{Cite book |last1=David |first1=Chaikin |chapter-url=https://doi.org/10.1057/9780230622456_7 |title=Corruption and Money Laundering: A Symbiotic Relationship |last2=Sharman |first2=J.C. |publisher=Palgrave Macmillan |year=2009 |isbn=978-0-230-61360-7 |series=Palgrave Series on Asian Governance |location=New York |pages=153–186 |chapter=The Marcos Kleptocracy |doi=10.1057/9780230622456_7 |access-date=September 18, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231107161416/https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1057/9780230622456_7 |archive-date=November 7, 2023 |url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="RegimeOfMarcoses22">{{cite news |last=Roa |first=Ana |date=September 29, 2014 |title=Regime of Marcoses, cronies, kleptocracy |url=http://newsinfo.inquirer.net/641277/regime-of-marcoses-cronies-kleptocracy |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180628044437/http://newsinfo.inquirer.net/641277/regime-of-marcoses-cronies-kleptocracy |archive-date=June 28, 2018 |access-date=March 2, 2016 |newspaper=Philippine Daily Inquirer}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Root |first=Hilton L. |url=https://www.worldscientific.com/worldscibooks/10.1142/10889 |title=Building Inclusive Democracies In ASEAN |publisher=World Scientific Publishing Co. Pte. Ltd. |year=2019 |isbn=978-981-3236-50-9 |editor-last=Mendoza |editor-first=Ronald U. |location=Singapore |pages=225–241 |chapter=Lootable Resources and Political Virtue: The Economic Governance of Lee Kuan Yew, Ferdinand Marcos, and Chiang Kai-shek Compared |doi=10.1142/9789813236493_0013 |access-date=March 13, 2022 |editor-last2=Beja |editor-first2=Edsel L. Jr. |editor-last3=Teehankee |editor-first3=Julio C. |editor-last4=La Viña |editor-first4=Antonio G. M. |editor-last5=Villamejor-Mendoza |editor-first5=Maria Fe |chapter-url=https://doi.org/10.1142/9789813236493_0013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220416012821/https://www.worldscientific.com/worldscibooks/10.1142/10889 |archive-date=April 16, 2022 |url-status=live |s2cid=158645388}}</ref> who served as the tenth [[president of the Philippines]] from 1965 to 1986. Marcos ruled the country under [[Martial law under Ferdinand Marcos|martial law from 1972 to 1981]],<ref name="lacsamana1990p189">{{Cite book |last=Lacsamana |first=Leodivico Cruz |title=Philippine History and Government |edition= Second |year=1990 |isbn= 971-06-1894-6 |publisher=Phoenix Publishing House, Inc.}} p. 189.</ref> and with vastly expanded powers under the [[Constitution of the Philippines#The 1973 Constitution|1973 Constitution]] until he was deposed by a nonviolent revolution in 1986. Marcos described [[History of the Philippines (1965–1986)|his rule]]'s philosophy as "[[constitutional authoritarianism]]"<ref name="politicalEconomyOfAuthoritarianism">{{cite book |last=Celoza |first=Albert F.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Sp3U1oCNKlgC&pg=PA57|title=Ferdinand Marcos and the Philippines: The Political Economy of Authoritarianism |date=1997 |publisher=[[Praeger Publishers]]|isbn=978-0-275-94137-6|access-date=November 7, 2023|archive-date=November 7, 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231107161415/https://books.google.com/books?id=Sp3U1oCNKlgC&pg=PA57|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="PalgraveNewHistoryofSEA" />{{rp|page=414}} under his [[Kilusang Bagong Lipunan]] (New Society Movement). One of the most controversial figures in Filipino history, Marcos's regime was infamous for its corruption,<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Shleifer|first1=Andrei|last2=Vishny|first2=Robert W.|date=August 1, 1993|title=Corruption*|url=https://doi.org/10.2307/2118402|journal=The Quarterly Journal of Economics|volume=108|issue=3|pages=599–617|doi=10.2307/2118402|jstor=2118402|s2cid=265951232 |issn=0033-5533|access-date=March 13, 2022}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Quah|first=Jon S.T.|date=2010|title=Curbing Corruption in the Philippines: Is this an Impossible Dream|url=https://journals.upd.edu.ph/index.php/pjpa/article/view/3783|journal=Philippine Journal of Public Administration|volume=54|issue=1–2|pages=1–43|via=University of the Philippines Diliman|access-date=September 1, 2020|archive-date=September 25, 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210925000037/https://journals.upd.edu.ph/index.php/pjpa/article/view/3783|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref name="Global Corruption Report">{{Cite book|url=https://images.transparencycdn.org/images/2004_GCR_PoliticalCorruption_EN.pdf|title=Global Corruption Report 2004|publisher=Pluto Press in association with Transparency International|year=2004|isbn=0-7453-2231-X|editor-last=Hodess|editor-first=Robin|location=Sterling, VA, USA|pages=13, 101|editor-last2=Inowlocki|editor-first2=Tania|editor-last3=Rodriguez|editor-first3=Diana|editor-last4=Wolfe|editor-first4=Toby|access-date=September 18, 2021|archive-date=May 13, 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220513102432/https://images.transparencycdn.org/images/2004_GCR_PoliticalCorruption_EN.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref> extravagance,<ref name="fpImmenseIllGottenWealthOfImelda">{{cite magazine|last1=Traywick|first1=Catherine|title=Shoes, Jewels, and Monets: The Immense Ill-Gotten Wealth of Imelda Marcos|url=https://foreignpolicy.com/2014/01/16/shoes-jewels-and-monets-the-immense-ill-gotten-wealth-of-imelda-marcos/|magazine=[[Foreign Policy]]|date=January 16, 2014|access-date=August 27, 2017|archive-date=August 16, 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170816230249/http://foreignpolicy.com/2014/01/16/shoes-jewels-and-monets-the-immense-ill-gotten-wealth-of-imelda-marcos/|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="theIndependentWeirdWorldImelda">{{cite news|title=The weird world of Imelda Marcos|url=https://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/asia/the-weird-world-of-imelda-marcos-347541.html|work=[[The Independent]]|date=February 25, 1986|access-date=July 9, 2017|archive-date=September 23, 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180923232319/https://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/asia/the-weird-world-of-imelda-marcos-347541.html|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="jimLaurieABCExcerpt">{{cite news|last1=Laurie|first1=Jim|title=Excerpt – Imelda Marcos from ABC 20/20 March 1986|url= https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=y3259VEA0Is  |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/varchive/youtube/20211211/y3259VEA0Is| archive-date=December 11, 2021 |url-status=live|work=ABC News|date=1986}}{{cbignore}}</ref> and brutality.<ref name="marcosFamilyReturnLimelight">{{cite news |url= https://www.nytimes.com/2007/07/08/world/asia/08iht-marcos.2.6550516.html?pagewanted=all |title= Marcos family returning to the limelight in the Philippines |last=Conde |first=Carlos H. |work= [[The New York Times]] |date= July 8, 2007 |access-date= February 7, 2017 |archive-date= June 28, 2018 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20180628044538/https://www.nytimes.com/2007/07/08/world/asia/08iht-marcos.2.6550516.html?pagewanted=all |url-status= live }}</ref><ref name="amnestyInternational1975" /><ref name="hartfordMcCoy">{{cite web |url=http://www.hartford-hwp.com/archives/54a/062.html |title=Alfred McCoy, Dark Legacy: Human rights under the Marcos regime |publisher=[[Ateneo de Manila University]] |date=September 20, 1999 |access-date=November 7, 2023 |archive-date=September 1, 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220901062823/http://www.hartford-hwp.com/archives/54a/062.html |url-status=live }}</ref>

Marcos gained political success by claiming to have been the "most decorated war hero in the Philippines",<ref name="marcosMedalsExplained">{{cite news|last1=Bueza|first1=Michael|title=Marcos' World War II 'medals' explained|url=http://www.rappler.com/newsbreak/iq/143592-ferdinand-marcos-world-war-ii-medals-explained|work=Rappler|date=August 20, 2016|access-date=July 20, 2017|archive-date=October 10, 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171010151453/https://www.rappler.com/newsbreak/iq/143592-ferdinand-marcos-world-war-ii-medals-explained|url-status=live}}</ref> but many of his claims have been found to be false,<ref>{{cite news|title=Marcos flees at last|url=http://www.inquirer.net/175/its-all-over-marcos-flees|access-date=June 29, 2017|newspaper=Philippine Daily Inquirer|archive-date=October 10, 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171010150644/http://www.inquirer.net/175/its-all-over-marcos-flees|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="fakeMedalsReduxII">{{cite web|url= http://asianjournalusa.com/marcos-fake-medals-redux-part-ii-p10766-168.htm |title=Marcos fake medals redux (Part II)|last=Maynigo|first=Benjamin|publisher=Asian Journal USA|url-status=dead|archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20160305025238/http://asianjournalusa.com/marcos-fake-medals-redux-part-ii-p10766-168.htm |archive-date=March 5, 2016}}</ref><ref name="marcosHeroism">{{cite news |url= http://www.philstar.com/opinion/673841/suspicions-resurface-about-marcos-heroism |title= Suspicions resurface about Marcos heroism |last=Bondoc |first=Jarius |date= April 8, 2011 |work= The Philippine Star |access-date= February 27, 2016 |archive-date= March 6, 2016 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20160306174149/http://www.philstar.com/opinion/673841/suspicions-resurface-about-marcos-heroism |url-status= live }}</ref> with [[United States Army]] documents describing his wartime claims as "fraudulent" and "absurd".<ref name="JeffGerth&JoelBrinkley19860123" /><ref name="fakeMedalsReduxI">{{cite web|url= http://asianjournalusa.com/marcos-fake-medals-redux-part-i-p10722-168.htm |title=Marcos fake medals redux (Part I)|last=Maynigo|first=Benjamin|publisher=Asian Journal USA |url-status= dead |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20170208013943/http://asianjournalusa.com/marcos-fake-medals-redux-part-i-p10722-168.htm |archive-date=February 8, 2017}}</ref> After World War II, he became a lawyer, and then served in the [[Philippine House of Representatives]] from 1949 to 1959 and the [[Philippine Senate]] from 1959 to 1965. He was elected president of the Philippines [[1965 Philippine presidential election|in 1965]] and presided over an economy that grew during the beginning of his 20-year rule<ref>{{cite web|url=http://data.worldbank.org/indicator/NY.GDP.MKTP.KN?end=1985&locations=PH&start=1964|title=GDP (constant LCU) – Data|website=data.worldbank.org|access-date=August 2, 2017|archive-date=August 2, 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170802123132/http://data.worldbank.org/indicator/NY.GDP.MKTP.KN?end=1985&locations=PH&start=1964|url-status=live}}</ref> but would end in the loss of livelihood, [[extreme poverty]] for almost half the Philippine population,<ref>{{Cite web|date=November 25, 2016|title=Under Marcos dictatorship unemployment worsened, prices soared, poverty persisted|url=https://www.ibon.org/under-marcos-employment-fell-prices-soared-poverty-persisted/|access-date=June 17, 2020|website=IBON Foundation|archive-date=June 17, 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200617061356/https://www.ibon.org/under-marcos-employment-fell-prices-soared-poverty-persisted/|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="truthAboutEconomy">{{Cite web|last=de Dios|first=Emmanuel S.|date=November 16, 2015|title=The truth about the economy under the Marcos regime|url=https://www.bworldonline.com/content.php?section=Opinion&title=the-truth-about-the-economy-under-the-marcos-regime&id=118661|access-date=June 17, 2020|website=Business World|archive-date=May 6, 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200506183245/https://www.bworldonline.com/content.php?section=Opinion&title=the-truth-about-the-economy-under-the-marcos-regime&id=118661|url-status=dead}}</ref> and a crushing debt crisis.<ref name="openSpyAgency">{{cite news|last1=Yamsuan|first1=Cathy|title=Open records of Marcos' spy agency, Enrile urges|url=http://newsinfo.inquirer.net/109377/open-records-of-marcos%27-spy-agency-enrile-urges|newspaper=Philippine Daily Inquirer|date=December 12, 2011|access-date=July 11, 2018|archive-date=November 7, 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231107161420/https://newsinfo.inquirer.net/109377/open-records-of-marcos%e2%80%99-spy-agency-enrile-urges|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="truthAboutEconomy" /> He pursued an aggressive program of infrastructure development funded by [[foreign debt]],<ref name="marcosEconomicDisaster">{{cite news |last1=Mendoza |first1=Ronald |title=Ferdinand Marcos' economic disaster |url=https://www.rappler.com/voices/thought-leaders/marcos-economic-disaster |publisher=[[Rappler]] |date=February 26, 2016 |access-date=February 25, 2021 |archive-date=September 22, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210922200609/https://www.rappler.com/voices/thought-leaders/marcos-economic-disaster |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name="Galang20110221">{{Cite news |work=GMA News|url=http://www.gmanetwork.com/news/story/213564/opinion/the-economic-decline-that-led-to-marcos-fall/ |title=The economic decline that led to Marcos' fall |last=Galang |first=Ping |date=February 21, 2011 |access-date=May 29, 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180529093920/http://www.gmanetwork.com/news/opinion/content/213564/the-economic-decline-that-led-to-marcos-fall/story/ |archive-date=May 29, 2018 |url-status=live }}</ref> making him popular during his first term, although it triggered an inflationary crisis which led to social unrest in his second term.<ref name="Balbosas1992">{{Cite journal |last=Balbosa |first=Joven Zamoras |date=1992 |title=IMF Stabilization Program and Economic Growth: The Case of the Philippines |journal=Journal of Philippine Development |volume=XIX |issue=35}}</ref><ref name="Cororaton1997">{{Cite journal |last=Cororaton |first=Cesar B. |title=Exchange Rate Movements in the Philippines |journal=DPIDS Discussion Paper Series 97-05 |pages=3, 19}}</ref> Marcos [[Proclamation No. 1081|placed the Philippines under martial law]] on September 23, 1972,<ref name="govPhDeclarationMartialLaw">{{cite web|url=https://www.officialgazette.gov.ph/featured/declaration-of-martial-law|title=Declaration of Martial Law|website=Official Gazette of the Republic of the Philippines|access-date=November 7, 2023|archive-date=October 15, 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231015111908/https://www.officialgazette.gov.ph/featured/declaration-of-martial-law/|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref name="fmDeclaresSundayExpress">{{cite web|website=Official Gazette of the Republic of the Philippines|url=https://www.officialgazette.gov.ph/featured/declaration-of-martial-law/fm-declares-martial-law/|title=FM Declares Martial Law|date=September 24, 1972|publisher=Philippines Sunday Express|access-date=November 7, 2023|archive-date=September 25, 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220925141914/https://www.officialgazette.gov.ph/featured/declaration-of-martial-law/fm-declares-martial-law/|url-status=dead}}</ref> shortly before the end of his second term. Martial law was ratified in 1973 through [[1973 Philippine martial law referendum|a fraudulent referendum]].<ref name="philippinesReadr">{{cite book |last1=Schirmer |first1=Daniel B. |url=https://archive.org/details/philippinesreade00schi |title=The Philippines Reader: A history of Colonialism, Neocolonialism, Dictatorship and Resistance |last2=Shalom |first2=Stephen Roskamm |date=1987 |publisher=[[South End Press]] |isbn=978-0-89608-275-5 |page= |url-access=registration}}</ref>{{Rp|page=191}} The constitution was revised, media outlets [[Journalism during the Marcos dictatorship|were silenced]],<ref name="ageSilence">{{cite news |url=https://news.google.com/newspapers?nid=1300&dat=19730313&id=GckQAAAAIBAJ&pg=4744,2971270 |title=The Mark of Marcos – Part I: A deafening silence in the Philippines |last=Rivett |first=Rohan |date=March 13, 1973 |work=[[The Age]] |access-date=September 3, 2020 |archive-date=November 30, 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221130134556/https://news.google.com/newspapers?nid=1300&dat=19730313&id=GckQAAAAIBAJ&pg=4744,2971270 |url-status=live }}</ref> and violence and oppression were used<ref name="hartfordMcCoy" /> against the political opposition,<ref name="kushidaStanford">{{cite web |url= https://web.stanford.edu/group/sjeaa/journal3/geasia2.pdf |title=The Political Economy of the Philippines Under Marcos – Property Rights in the Philippines from 1965 to 1986 |last=Kushida |first=Kenji |date=2003 |publisher=Stanford Journal of East Asian Affairs |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140801034500/https://web.stanford.edu/group/sjeaa/journal3/geasia2.pdf |archive-date=1 August 2014 |url-status=dead}}</ref><ref name=":2">{{Cite news|last=Panti|first=Llanesca|date=October 16, 2018|title=Imee done with apologizing for atrocities during Marcos regime|url=https://www.gmanetwork.com/news/news/nation/671410/imee-done-with-apologizing-for-atrocities-during-marcos-regime/story/|access-date=June 17, 2020|work=GMA News|archive-date=June 17, 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200617043024/https://www.gmanetwork.com/news/news/nation/671410/imee-done-with-apologizing-for-atrocities-during-marcos-regime/story/|url-status=live}}</ref> Muslims,<ref>{{Cite web|date=February 10, 1987|title=Philippine Church Leaders Fear Failure of Government-Muslim Negotiations|url=https://www.ucanews.com/story-archive/?post_name=/1987/02/11/philippine-church-leaders-fear-filure-of-governmentmuslim-negotiations&post_id=34970|access-date=June 17, 2020|website=UCA News|archive-date=June 26, 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200626060740/https://www.ucanews.com/story-archive/?post_name=/1987/02/11/philippine-church-leaders-fear-filure-of-governmentmuslim-negotiations&post_id=34970|url-status=live}}</ref> suspected communists,<ref name="darkDaysDictatorship">{{cite news |last1=Cortez |first1=Kath M. |title=Martial Law veterans recall fighting dark days of dictatorship |url=http://davaotoday.com/main/politics/martial-law-veterans-recall-fighting-dark-days-of-dictatorship/ |publisher=Davao Today |date=September 21, 2019 |access-date=September 22, 2020 |archive-date=November 6, 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201106171351/http://davaotoday.com/main/politics/martial-law-veterans-recall-fighting-dark-days-of-dictatorship/ |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|date=November 8, 2016|title=Why the Late Philippine Dictator Was No Hero|url=https://www.hrw.org/news/2016/11/08/why-late-philippine-dictator-was-no-hero|access-date=June 17, 2020|website=Human Rights Watch|archive-date=November 30, 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221130134605/https://www.hrw.org/news/2016/11/08/why-late-philippine-dictator-was-no-hero|url-status=live}}</ref> and ordinary citizens.<ref name=":2" />

After being elected for a third term in the [[1981 Philippine presidential election and referendum|1981 presidential election and referendum]], Marcos's popularity suffered greatly, due to the [[Economic history of the Philippines (1965–1986)#Economic nosedive and Marcos ouster (1981–1986)|economic collapse that began in early 1983]] and the public outrage over [[Assassination of Ninoy Aquino|the assassination]] of opposition leader Senator [[Ninoy Aquino|Benigno "Ninoy" Aquino Jr.]] later that year. This discontent, the resulting resurgence of the opposition in the [[1984 Philippine parliamentary election|1984 parliamentary election]], and the discovery of documents exposing his financial accounts and false war records led Marcos to call the [[1986 Philippine presidential election|snap election of 1986]]. Allegations of mass cheating, political turmoil, and [[Human rights abuses of the Marcos dictatorship|human rights abuses]] led to the [[People Power Revolution]] of February 1986, which removed him from power.<ref name="countryStudiesAquinoAssassination">{{cite web|url=http://countrystudies.us/philippines/29.htm|title=From Aquino's Assassination to People's Power|publisher=[[Federal Research Division]] of the [[Library of Congress]]|access-date=March 2, 2016|archive-date=October 10, 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171010145243/http://countrystudies.us/philippines/29.htm|url-status=live}}</ref> To avoid what could have been a military confrontation in Manila between pro- and anti-Marcos troops, Marcos was advised by US president [[Ronald Reagan]] through Senator [[Paul Laxalt]] to "cut and cut cleanly".<ref name="WPostCutcleanly">{{cite news |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/archive/politics/1986/02/26/in-crucial-call-laxalt-told-marcos-cut-cleanly/9329b85d-f7b0-4021-884d-5e5e659a4cb0/ |title=In Crucial Call, Laxalt Told Marcos: 'Cut Cleanly' |last1=Hoffman |first1=David |last2=Cannon |first2=Lou |last3=Coleman |first3=Milton |last4=Dewar |first4=Helen |last5=Goshko |first5=John M. |last6=Oberdorfer |first6=Don |last7=W |first7=George C. |newspaper=The Washington Post |date=February 26, 1986 |access-date=November 7, 2023 |archive-date=August 22, 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160822084009/https://www.washingtonpost.com/archive/politics/1986/02/26/in-crucial-call-laxalt-told-marcos-cut-cleanly/9329b85d-f7b0-4021-884d-5e5e659a4cb0/ |url-status=live }}</ref> Marcos then fled with his family to Hawaii.<ref name="marcosFlees">{{cite news|url= https://www.chicagotribune.com/1986/02/26/marcos-flees-aquino-rules-2/ |title=Marcos Flees, Aquino Rules – Peaceful Revolt Ends In Triumph|last=Reaves|first=Joseph A.|work=[[Chicago Tribune]]|date=February 26, 1986 | url-status = live | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20140306163639/http://articles.chicagotribune.com/1986-02-26/news/8601140956_1_marcos-final-destination-marcos-flight-ferdinand-e-marcos | archive-date = March 6, 2014}}</ref> He was succeeded as president by Aquino's widow, [[Corazon Aquino|Corazon "Cory" Aquino]].<ref name="undeliveredSpeech">{{cite news|url=https://www.officialgazette.gov.ph/1983/08/21/the-undelivered-speech-of-senator-benigno-s-aquino-jr-upon-his-return-from-the-u-s-august-21-1983/|title=The undelivered speech of Senator Benigno S. Aquino Jr. upon his return from the U.S., August 21, 1983|date=August 21, 1983|author=Benigno Aquino Jr.|website=Official Gazette of the Republic of the Philippines|access-date=November 7, 2023|archive-date=October 7, 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231007085456/http://www.officialgazette.gov.ph/1983/08/21/the-undelivered-speech-of-senator-benigno-s-aquino-jr-upon-his-return-from-the-u-s-august-21-1983/|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="laurieAssassionation">{{cite web|url= https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=1vADEDZpetY  |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/varchive/youtube/20211211/1vADEDZpetY| archive-date=December 11, 2021 |url-status=live|title=Last interview with and footage of Ninoy Aquino assassination|last=Laurie|first=Jim|author-link=Jim Laurie|publisher=YouTube|date=August 21, 1983|access-date=June 30, 2010}}{{cbignore}}</ref><ref name="aquinoFinalJourney">{{cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/1983/10/16/magazine/aquino-s-final-journey.html?pagewanted=all|title=Aquino's Final Journey|last=Kashiwara|first=Ken|date=October 16, 1983|work=[[The New York Times Magazine]]|access-date=February 7, 2017|archive-date=November 11, 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171111095016/http://www.nytimes.com/1983/10/16/magazine/aquino-s-final-journey.html?pagewanted=all|url-status=live}}</ref>

According to source documents provided by the [[Presidential Commission on Good Government]] (PCGG),<ref name="29Mrecovered">{{cite news|url=http://newsinfo.inquirer.net/577304/philippines-recovers-29m-from-marcos-accounts|title=PCGG recovers $29M from Marcos loot|last=Pazzibugan|first=Dona Z.|date=February 13, 2014|newspaper=Philippine Daily Inquirer|access-date=February 28, 2016|archive-date=August 2, 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170802000903/http://newsinfo.inquirer.net/577304/philippines-recovers-29m-from-marcos-accounts|url-status=live}}</ref> the [[Marcos family]] stole US$5 billion–$10 billion from the [[Central Bank of the Philippines]].<ref name="economistHailToTheThief2">{{cite news|date=November 12, 2016|title=Hail to the thief|newspaper=The Economist|url=https://www.economist.com/news/asia/21710015-philippine-government-offers-heros-burial-murderous-kleptocrat-hail-thief|access-date=July 9, 2017|archive-date=August 4, 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170804221029/https://www.economist.com/news/asia/21710015-philippine-government-offers-heros-burial-murderous-kleptocrat-hail-thief|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="asianJournalChronology">{{cite web|url= http://asianjournalusa.com/chronology-of-the-marcos-plunder-p10909-67.htm |title=Chronology of the Marcos Plunder|publisher=Asian Journal|access-date=March 1, 2016|url-status=dead|archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20151023074523/http://asianjournalusa.com/chronology-of-the-marcos-plunder-p10909-67.htm |archive-date=October 23, 2015}}</ref> The PCGG also maintained that the Marcos family enjoyed a decadent lifestyle, [[Unexplained wealth of the Marcos family|taking away billions of dollars]]<ref name="1billion30">{{cite news|last=Mogato|first=Manuel|date=February 24, 2016|title=Philippines still seeks $1 billion in Marcos wealth 30 years after his ouster|work=[[Reuters]]|url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-philippines-marcos-idUSKCN0VX0U5|access-date=July 26, 2017|archive-date=August 2, 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170802000815/https://www.reuters.com/article/us-philippines-marcos-idUSKCN0VX0U5|url-status=live}}</ref> from the Philippines<ref name="broughtToHawaii">{{cite news |url=http://www.gmanetwork.com/news/story/556744/news/specialreports/what-marcoses-brought-to-hawaii-after-fleeing-phl-in-86-717-m-in-cash-124-m-in-deposit-slips |title=What Marcoses brought to Hawaii after fleeing PHL in '86: $717-M in cash, $124-M in deposit slips |last1=Tantiangco |first1=Aya |last2=Bigtas |first2=Jannielyn Ann |work=GMA News |date=February 25, 2016 |access-date=March 1, 2016 |archive-date=February 8, 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170208024530/http://www.gmanetwork.com/news/story/556744/news/specialreports/what-marcoses-brought-to-hawaii-after-fleeing-phl-in-86-717-m-in-cash-124-m-in-deposit-slips |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name="politicalWill">{{cite web |url=http://www.swissinfo.ch/eng/hidden-bank-deposits_political-will-guides-marcos-case-in-philippines/41367100 |title=Political Will guides Marcos case in Philippines |last=Heilprin |first=John |date=April 13, 2015 |publisher=[[Swiss Broadcasting Corporation]] |access-date=February 28, 2016 |archive-date=July 11, 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150711221408/http://www.swissinfo.ch/eng/hidden-bank-deposits_political-will-guides-marcos-case-in-philippines/41367100 |url-status=live }}</ref> between 1965 and 1986. His wife, [[Imelda Marcos]], made infamous in her own right by the excesses that characterized her and her husband's "[[conjugal dictatorship]]",<ref name="conjugal">{{Cite book|last=Mijares|first=Primitivo|url=http://rizalls.lib.admu.edu.ph:8080/ebooks2/Primitivo%20Mijares.pdf|title=The Conjugal Dictatorship of Ferdinand and Imelda Marcos-1|publisher=Union Square Publications|year=1976|location=San Francisco|access-date=November 27, 2016|archive-date=February 18, 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180218231827/http://rizalls.lib.admu.edu.ph:8080/ebooks2/Primitivo%20Mijares.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="marcosToGaddafi">{{cite news|url=https://www.huffingtonpost.com/ibrahim-warde/gaddafi-mubarak-fortune_b_829390.html|title=From Marcos to Gaddafi: Kleptocrats, Old and New|last=Warde|first=Ibrahim|publisher=The World Post|date=May 25, 2011|access-date=February 20, 2020|archive-date=October 10, 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171010151655/https://www.huffingtonpost.com/ibrahim-warde/gaddafi-mubarak-fortune_b_829390.html|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="imeldificPaintings">{{cite news|url=http://newsinfo.inquirer.net/644229/imeldific-collection-of-artworks-partial-list|title='Imeldific' collection of artworks (partial list)|last=Doyo|first=Ma. Ceres P.|author-link=Maria Ceres Doyo|newspaper=Philippine Daily Inquirer|date=October 12, 2014|access-date=March 6, 2016|archive-date=August 1, 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170801201445/http://newsinfo.inquirer.net/644229/imeldific-collection-of-artworks-partial-list|url-status=live}}</ref> is the source of the term {{wikt-lang|en|Imeldific}}.<ref name="martialLawFashion">{{cite news|url=http://www.gmanetwork.com/news/story/275032/lifestyle/fashionandbeauty/martial-law-fashion-the-imeldific-and-the-third-world-look|title=Martial Law fashion: The Imeldific and the Third World look|last=Macapendeg|first=Mac|work=GMA News|date=September 21, 2012|access-date=March 6, 2016|archive-date=July 1, 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150701152933/http://www.gmanetwork.com/news/story/275032/lifestyle/fashionandbeauty/martial-law-fashion-the-imeldific-and-the-third-world-look|url-status=live}}</ref> Two of their children, [[Imee]] and [[Bongbong]], are active in Philippine politics, with Bongbong having been elected president in the [[2022 Philippine presidential election|2022 presidential election]]. Ferdinand and Imelda Marcos held the [[Guinness World Record]] for the largest-ever theft from a government for decades,<ref name="guiness2020">{{cite web|title=Greatest robbery of a Government|url=http://www.guinnessworldrecords.com/world-records/65607-greatest-robbery-of-a-government|access-date=January 7, 2021|website=[[Guinness World Records]]|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220221215510/https://www.guinnessworldrecords.com/world-records/65607-greatest-robbery-of-a-government|archive-date=February 21, 2022|ref=guinnessonline|url-status=dead}}</ref> although Guinness took the record down from their website while it underwent periodic review a few weeks before the 2022 election.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Patag |first=Kristine Joy |date=March 18, 2022 |title=Fact check: Guinness not disputing historical fact on 'greatest robbery of a gov't' |work=Philstar.com |url=https://www.philstar.com/headlines/2022/03/18/2168193/fact-check-guinness-not-disputing-historical-fact-greatest-robbery-govt |url-status=live |access-date=May 11, 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220415111214/https://www.philstar.com/headlines/2022/03/18/2168193/fact-check-guinness-not-disputing-historical-fact-greatest-robbery-govt |archive-date=April 15, 2022}}</ref>

==Personal life==
{{Main|Marcos family}}
[[File:Ferdinand Marcos with family 1920s.jpg|thumb|Ferdinand Marcos (right) with his family in the 1920s]]

Ferdinand Emmanuel Edralin Marcos was born on September 11, 1917, in the town of [[Sarrat, Ilocos Norte]], to [[Mariano Marcos]] (1897–1945) and [[Josefa Edralin Marcos|Josefa Edralin]] (1893–1988).<ref name="Steinberg2000pp115-116">{{cite book|last=Steinberg|first=David Joel|title=The Philippines: A Singular and a Plural Place|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=8mf8YUky_mMC|year=2000|publisher=Basic Books|isbn=978-0-8133-3755-5|pages=[https://books.google.com/books?id=8mf8YUky_mMC&pg=PA115 115–116]}}{{Dead link|date=September 2023 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref> Mariano Marcos was a [[lawyer]] and congressman from [[Ilocos Norte]], Philippines.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.pcij.org/stories/2001/ties.html |title=Families Remain Strong in Congress, but their Influence is Waning<!-- Bot generated title --> |access-date=October 16, 2019 |archive-date=December 10, 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151210193242/http://pcij.org/stories/2001/ties.html |url-status=dead}}</ref> He was executed by Filipino guerillas in 1945 for being a Japanese propagandist and [[Collaborationism|collaborator]] during World War II. [[Dismemberment#Tearing apart|Drawn and quartered]] with the use of [[carabao]]s, his remains were left hanging on a tree.<ref name="JohnSharkey19860124" /><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.philstar.com/other-sections/news-feature/2016/07/04/1599425/file-no-60-family-affair|title=File No. 60: A family affair|website=Philstar.com|access-date=November 7, 2023|archive-date=May 31, 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210531001502/https://www.philstar.com/other-sections/news-feature/2016/07/04/1599425/file-no-60-family-affair|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="LaphamsRaiders">{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=bmxHAgAAQBAJ&q=ferdinand+marcos+father+collaborator&pg=PT126|title=Lapham's Raiders: Guerrillas in the Philippines, 1942–1945|author=[[Robert Lapham]], Bernard Norling|publisher=University Press of Kentucky|isbn=9780813145709|date=December 6, 2013|access-date=October 25, 2020|archive-date=November 7, 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231107161419/https://books.google.com/books?id=bmxHAgAAQBAJ&q=ferdinand+marcos+father+collaborator&pg=PT126|url-status=live}}</ref> Josefa Marcos was a schoolteacher who would far outlive her husband – dying in 1988, two years after the Marcos family left her in Malacañang Palace when they fled into exile after the 1986 [[People Power Revolution]], and only one year before her son Ferdinand's death.<ref name="NYT19860330">{{Cite news |url=https://www.nytimes.com/1986/03/30/world/marcos-s-mother-and-her-hospital-bill-are-left-behind.html |title=Marcos's Mother, and Her Hospital Bill, Are Left Behind |date=March 30, 1986 |work=The New York Times |access-date=December 17, 2018 |issn=0362-4331 |archive-date=December 17, 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181217110656/https://www.nytimes.com/1986/03/30/world/marcos-s-mother-and-her-hospital-bill-are-left-behind.html |url-status=live }}</ref>

Ferdinand was first baptized and raised into the [[Philippine Independent Church]].<ref>{{cite book |author=Celoza, Albert F. |title=Ferdinand Marcos and the Philippines: the political economy of authoritarianism |publisher=Greenwood Publishing |year=1997 |isbn=978-0-275-94137-6 |page=23}}</ref> He subsequently converted to [[Catholic Church|Roman Catholicism]] in later life to marry [[Imelda Marcos|Imelda Trinidad Romualdez]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=Ferdinand Marcos |url=https://rpl.hds.harvard.edu/faq/ferdinand-marcos |publisher=Religious and Public Life, [[Harvard Divinity School]] |website=[[Harvard University]] official website |access-date=November 21, 2022 |archive-date=November 21, 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221121145120/https://rpl.hds.harvard.edu/faq/ferdinand-marcos |url-status=live }}</ref>

Marcos lived with a [[Common-law marriage|common-law wife]], Carmen Ortega, an [[Ilocano people|Ilocana]] [[Filipino Mestizos|mestiza]] who was 1949 Miss Press Photography. They had three children and resided for about two years at 204 Ortega Street in [[San Juan, Metro Manila|San Juan]]. In August 1953, their engagement was announced in Manila dailies.<ref name="loveLiesLoot">{{cite news |last1=Reyes |first1=Miguel Paolo P. |last2=Ariate |first2=Joel F. |title=Ferdie and Meldy's House of love, lies, and loot |url=https://verafiles.org/articles/ferdie-and-meldys-house-love-lies-and-loot |publisher=[[Vera Files]] |date=July 18, 2021 |access-date=November 7, 2023 |archive-date=December 16, 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221216141137/https://verafiles.org/articles/ferdie-and-meldys-house-love-lies-and-loot |url-status=live }}</ref>

Not much is known about what happened to Ortega and their children after, but Marcos married Imelda Trinidad Romualdez on April 17, 1954, only 11 days after they first met. They had three biological children: [[Bongbong Marcos|Ferdinand]], [[Imee Marcos|Imee]], and [[Irene Marcos]].<ref name="govph">{{cite web|title=Ferdinand E. Marcos |url=http://malacanang.gov.ph/presidents/fourth-republic/ferdinand-marcos/ |website=GOVPH |access-date=March 10, 2016 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120826033152/http://malacanang.gov.ph/presidents/fourth-republic/ferdinand-marcos/|archive-date=August 26, 2012}}</ref> Marcos's fourth child with Ortega was born after his marriage to Imelda.<ref name="conjugal" /> Marcos and Imelda later adopted a daughter, [[Aimee Marcos|Aimee]].<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.smh.com.au/lifestyle/a-dynasty-on-steroids-20121118-29kwy.html |title=A dynasty on steroids |date=November 24, 2012 |work=The Sydney Morning Herald |access-date=March 10, 2016 |archive-date=March 18, 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160318181437/http://www.smh.com.au/lifestyle/a-dynasty-on-steroids-20121118-29kwy.html |url-status=live }}</ref> Marcos had an affair with American actress [[Dovie Beams]] from 1968 to 1970. According to reports by the ''[[Sydney Morning Herald]]'', Marcos also had an affair with former ''Playboy'' model Evelin Hegyesi around 1970 and sired a child with her, Analisa Josefa.<ref name="formerModel">{{cite news |title=Hunt for tyrant's millions leads to former model's home |url=https://www.smh.com.au/national/hunt-for-tyrants-millions-leads-to-former-models-home-20040704-gdj9hj.html |publisher=[[The Sydney Morning Herald]] |date=July 24, 2004 |access-date=November 7, 2023 |archive-date=December 16, 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221216141131/https://www.smh.com.au/national/hunt-for-tyrants-millions-leads-to-former-models-home-20040704-gdj9hj.html |url-status=live }}</ref>

Marcos claimed that he was a descendant of [[Antonio Luna]], a Filipino general during the [[Philippine–American War]],<ref name="A.R. Ocampo 2010">{{cite book|last=Ocampo|first=Ambeth|title=Looking Back|publisher=Anvil Publishing, Inc|year=2010|isbn=978-971-27-2336-0|pages=20–22}}</ref> a claim which has since been debunked by genealogist Mona Magno-Veluz.<ref name="BaguioChronicle2022">{{Cite news |date=May 8, 2022 |title=FACT CHECK: Ferdinand Marcos Sr. is a descendant of General Antonio Luna #FactsFirstPH |work=The Baguio Chronicle |url=https://thebaguiochronicle.com/fact-check/fact-check-ferdinand-marcos-sr-is-a-descendant-of-general-antonio-luna-factsfirstph/ |access-date=July 7, 2022 |archive-date=December 19, 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221219141033/https://thebaguiochronicle.com/fact-check/fact-check-ferdinand-marcos-sr-is-a-descendant-of-general-antonio-luna-factsfirstph/ |url-status=live }}</ref> He also claimed that his ancestor was a 16th-century pirate, [[Limahong]] (Chinese: 林阿鳳), who used to raid the coasts of the [[South China Sea]].<ref>{{cite book|last=White|first=Lynn|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=4mvfBQAAQBAJ&pg=PA16|title=Philippine Politics: Possibilities and Problems in a Localist Democracy|date=2014|isbn=9781317574224|page=16|publisher=Routledge|access-date=November 7, 2023|archive-date=November 7, 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231107161422/https://books.google.com/books?id=4mvfBQAAQBAJ&pg=PA16#v=onepage&q&f=false|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="mijares255">{{Harvp|Mijares|1976|p=255}}.</ref> He is a [[Sangley|Chinese]] [[Filipino Mestizos|mestizo]] descendant, just like many other presidents.<ref name=":02">{{Cite journal|last=Tan|first=Antonio S.|date=1986|title=The Chinese Mestizos and the Formation of the Filipino Nationality|url=https://www.persee.fr/doc/arch_0044-8613_1986_num_32_1_2316|journal=Archipel|volume=32|pages=141–162|doi=10.3406/arch.1986.2316|via=Persée|access-date=October 20, 2021|archive-date=October 20, 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211020220412/https://www.persee.fr/doc/arch_0044-8613_1986_num_32_1_2316|url-status=live}}</ref>

==Education==
Marcos studied law at the [[University of the Philippines Manila|University of the Philippines]] (UP) in [[Manila]], attending the [[University of the Philippines College of Law|College of Law]]. He excelled in both curricular and extra-curricular activities, becoming a member of the university's swimming, boxing, and wrestling teams. He was also an accomplished [[Public speaking|orator]], debater, and writer for the student newspaper. While attending the UP College of Law, he became a member of the [[Upsilon Sigma Phi]], where he met his future colleagues in government and some of his staunchest critics.<ref>{{Cite book |title=Fraternities, sororities, societies : secrets revealed|last=Elefan |first=Ruben S. |date=1997 |publisher=St. Pauls |isbn=978-9715048477 |location=Metro Manila, Philippines |oclc=41049366}}</ref>{{page needed|date=June 2020}}<ref>{{Cite book |title=For every tear a victory |last=Spence |first=Hartzell |date=1964 |publisher=McGraw Hill |oclc=251371498}}</ref>{{page needed|date=June 2020}}

When he sat for the [[Philippine Bar Examination|1939 Bar Examinations]], he was a bar topnotcher (top scorer) with a score of 92.35%.<ref name="veraFilesMarcosBarExams">{{cite news |title=VERA FILES FACT CHECK: Post revives FALSE claim ex-president Marcos scored 98.01% in bar exams |url=https://verafiles.org/articles/vera-files-fact-check-post-revives-false-claim-ex-president |publisher=[[Vera Files]] |date=January 31, 2021 |access-date=February 8, 2021 |archive-date=February 12, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210212041443/https://verafiles.org/articles/vera-files-fact-check-post-revives-false-claim-ex-president |url-status=live }}</ref> He graduated ''[[cum laude]]'' and was in the top ten of his class, with future Chief Justice [[Felix Makasiar]] becoming their class [[salutatorian]].<ref>{{Cite web|title=Chief Justice Felix V. Makasiar|url=https://elibrary.judiciary.gov.ph/supremecourtjustices/chiefjustice/15#:~:text=About%20Him%3A,salutatorian%20for%20lack%20of%20residence.|access-date=November 7, 2023|archive-date=October 15, 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231015122514/https://elibrary.judiciary.gov.ph/supremecourtjustices/chiefjustice/15#:~:text=About%20Him%3A,salutatorian%20for%20lack%20of%20residence.|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=Ferdinand Edralin Marcos|url=http://legacy.senate.gov.ph/senators/former_senators/ferdinand_marcos.htm|website=Senate of the Philippines|access-date=September 19, 2021|archive-date=October 27, 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211027194904/http://legacy.senate.gov.ph/senators/former_senators/ferdinand_marcos.htm|url-status=live}}</ref> He was elected to the [[Pi Gamma Mu]] and the [[Phi Kappa Phi]] international [[Honour society|honor societies]], the latter giving him its Most Distinguished Member Award 37 years later.<ref>See page 32, {{cite web |url=http://www.utoledo.edu/as/pdfs/100years.pdf |title=Archived copy |access-date=February 6, 2011 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101227223116/http://www.utoledo.edu/as/pdfs/100years.pdf |archive-date=December 27, 2010}}</ref>

[[File:Ferdinand_Marcos_receiving_his_Doctor_of_Laws_degree_-_Central_Philippine_University.jpg|thumb|right|Ferdinand Marcos being conferred with a Doctor Laws, ''[[Honorary degree|honoris causa]]'' degree during the investiture of the first Filipino president of [[Central Philippine University]], Rex D. Drilon, on April 21, 1967.]]

Ferdinand Marcos received an honorary Doctor of Laws (LL.D.) ''([[Honorary degree|honoris causa]])'' degree in 1967 from [[Central Philippine University]].<ref name="Honorary Degree Recipients from 1905-1980s - Central Philippine University">{{Cite book |last1=Nelson |first1=Larry A. |title=Scientia et Fides: The Story of Central Philippine University |last2=Herradura |first2=Elma |publisher=National Press |year=1981 |location=Iloilo City |pages=265}}</ref>

==Assassination of Julio Nalundasan==
{{main|Julio Nalundasan}}
Marcos first gained national notoriety over the murder of [[Julio Nalundasan]]. Nalundasan, Mariano Marcos's political rival, was killed with a single rifle shot at his home in [[Batac]] on September 21, 1935, the day after he had defeated Marcos a second time for a seat in the [[National Assembly of the Philippines|National Assembly]].<ref name="conjugalAteneo">{{Cite book|last=Mijares |first=Primitivo|title=The Conjugal Dictatorship of Ferdinand and Imelda Marcos|date=2017|publisher=Ateneo de Manila University Press|isbn=9789715508117|oclc=1020636692}}</ref>

In December 1938, Ferdinand Marcos was prosecuted for the murder of Nalundasan. He was not the only accused from the Marcos clan. Also accused were his father, Mariano, and his uncles, Pio Marcos and Quirino Lizardo.<ref name="mijares237">{{Harvp|Mijares|1976|p=237}}.</ref> According to two witnesses, the four had conspired to assassinate Nalundasan, with Ferdinand Marcos eventually pulling the trigger. In late January 1939, they were finally denied bail.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.chanrobles.com/cralaw19391.htm|title=Chan Robles Virtual Law Library: Philippine Supreme Court Decisions On-Line|website=chanrobles.com|access-date=November 7, 2023|archive-date=October 15, 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231015122821/https://chanrobles.com/cralaw19391.htm|url-status=live}}</ref>

The evidence was strong against the young Marcos, who was a member of the University of the Philippines rifle team and a national rifle champion.<ref name="marcosOvercameMurder">{{cite news |last1=Killen |first1=Patrick J. |title=Marcos overcame murder conviction |url=https://www.upi.com/Archives/1986/02/02/Marcos-overcame-murder-conviction/7964507704400/ |publisher=[[United Press International]] |date=February 2, 1986 |access-date=June 30, 2021 |archive-date=September 20, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210920180659/https://www.upi.com/Archives/1986/02/02/Marcos-overcame-murder-conviction/7964507704400/ |url-status=live }}</ref> Though Marcos's rifle was found in its gun rack in the U.P. [[Reserve Officers' Training Corps (Philippines)|ROTC]] armory, the rifle of team captain [[Teodoro Kalaw#Personal life|Teodoro M. Kalaw Jr.]] was missing at the time and the [[National Bureau of Investigation (Philippines)|National Bureau of Investigation]] had evidence that it was the one used in the murder of Nalundasan. Of all the accused, only Ferdinand Marcos had access to the U.P. armory.<ref name="conjugalAteneo" />

Later in the year, Ferdinand and Lizardo were convicted of murder. Ferdinand was sentenced to 10 to 17 years in prison.<ref>{{Cite news |date=1940-01-11 |title=Convicted of Murder |pages=5 |work=Honolulu Star-Bulletin |url=https://www.newspapers.com/article/honolulu-star-bulletin-convicted-of-murd/12491985/ |access-date=2023-11-16}}</ref> The Marcos family took their appeal to the [[Supreme Court of the Philippines]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=Marcos overcame murder conviction - UPI Archives |url=https://www.upi.com/Archives/1986/02/02/Marcos-overcame-murder-conviction/7964507704400/ |access-date=2023-09-21 |website=UPI |language=en |archive-date=September 20, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210920180659/https://www.upi.com/Archives/1986/02/02/Marcos-overcame-murder-conviction/7964507704400/ |url-status=live }}</ref>

According to [[Primitivo Mijares]], Justice [[Jose P. Laurel]], who penned the majority decision, saw himself in the young Marcos in that he had almost killed a rival during a brawl during his youth, had been convicted by a trial court of frustrated murder, and was acquitted after appealing to the Supreme Court, and saw in Marcos an opportunity to [[Pay it forward|pay forward]] his debt to society. Dean of the UP College of Law [[George A. Malcolm]] was Laurel's professor and an Associate Justice of the Supreme Court. Malcolm had urged his colleagues to acquit the young Laurel because he knew him to be a bright student. Laurel thus reportedly saw in Marcos a mirror of himself and pleaded for his colleagues to acquit.<ref name="conjugalAteneo" />

The Supreme Court overturned the lower court's decision on October 22, 1940, acquitting the Marcos family of all charges except contempt.<ref>Justice Jose P. Laurel penned the ''ponencia'' (in [http://www.lawphil.net/judjuris/juri1940/oct1940/gr_l-47388_1940.html People vs. Mariano Marcos, et al., 70 Phil. 468] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090413015754/http://lawphil.net/judjuris/juri1940/oct1940/gr_l-47388_1940.html |date=April 13, 2009 }}) with which [[Chief Justice of the Supreme Court of the Philippines|Chief Justice]] [[Ramón Avanceña]], [[Associate Justice of the Supreme Court of the Philippines|Justices]] Imperial, [[Anacleto Díaz|Díaz]] and Horilleno all concurred.</ref><ref name="puppetPresident">{{cite news |last1=Ocampo |first1=Ambeth |title='Puppet president' |url=https://opinion.inquirer.net/87395/puppet-president |publisher=[[Philippine Daily Inquirer]] |date=August 7, 2015 |access-date=June 30, 2021 |archive-date=July 9, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210709182433/https://opinion.inquirer.net/87395/puppet-president |url-status=live }}</ref>

==World War II (1939–1945)==
{{Main|Military career of Ferdinand Marcos}}
[[File:Ferdinand Marcos as a soldier.jpg|thumb|Ferdinand Marcos as a soldier in the 1940s]]

Marcos's military service during [[World War II]] has been the subject of debate and controversy, both in the Philippines and in international military circles.<ref name="JeffGerth&JoelBrinkley19860123">{{cite web | url=https://www.nytimes.com/1986/01/23/world/marcos-s-wartime-role-discredited-in-us-files.html?pagewanted=all | title=Marcos's wartime role discredited in U.S. files | last1=Gerth | first1=Jeff | last2=Brinkley | first2=Joel | date=January 23, 1986 | work=The New York Times | access-date=February 7, 2017 | archive-date=January 4, 2018 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180104132439/http://www.nytimes.com/1986/01/23/world/marcos-s-wartime-role-discredited-in-us-files.html?pagewanted=all | url-status=live }}</ref>

Marcos, who had received ROTC training, was activated for service in the US Armed Forces in the Philippines (USAFIP) after the [[attack on Pearl Harbor]]. He served as a 3rd lieutenant during the mobilization in the summer and fall of 1941, continuing until April 1942, after which he was taken prisoner.<ref name="JohnSharkey19860124" /> According to Marcos's account, he was released from prison by the Japanese on August 4, 1942,<ref name="JohnSharkey19860124">{{Cite news |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/archive/politics/1986/01/24/new-doubts-on-marcos-war-role/40076661-fe6a-4695-88ea-1ee707e1c090/ |title=New Doubts on Marcos' War Role |last=Sharkey |first=John |date=January 24, 1986 |newspaper=[[The Washington Post]] |issn=0190-8286 |access-date=August 15, 2016 |archive-date=November 5, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211105151329/https://www.washingtonpost.com/archive/politics/1986/01/24/new-doubts-on-marcos-war-role/40076661-fe6a-4695-88ea-1ee707e1c090/ |url-status=live }}</ref> and US military records show that he rejoined USAFIP forces in December 1944.<ref name="JohnSharkey19860124" /> Marcos's military service then formally ended with his discharge as a major in the 14th Infantry, US Armed Forces, in the Philippines Northern Luzon, in May 1945.<ref name="Curtis1948">Capt. E.R. Curtis, "Check Sheet, Subject:Ferdinand E. Marcos" sent to Lt. Col. W.M. Hanes, March 24, 1948, in AMM-GURF. As cited in {{Cite book |title=Why Ferdinand E. Marcos Should Not Be Buried at the Libingan ng mga Bayani |date=July 12, 2016 |publisher=National Historical Commission of the Philippines |location=Manila}}</ref>

Controversies regarding Marcos's military service revolve around: the reason for his release from the Japanese POW camp;<ref name="JohnSharkey19860124" /> his actions between release from prison in August 1942 and return to the USAFIP in December 1944;<ref name="JohnSharkey19860124" /> his supposed rank upon discharge from USAFIP;<ref name="Curtis1948" /> and his claims to being the recipient of numerous military decorations, most of which were proven to be fraudulent.<ref name="JeffGerth&JoelBrinkley19860123" />

Documents uncovered by ''[[The Washington Post]]'' in 1986 suggested Marcos's release in August 1942 was effected because his father, former congressman and provincial governor [[Mariano Marcos]], had "cooperated with the Japanese military authorities" as publicist.<ref name="JohnSharkey19860124" />

After his release, Marcos claimed he had spent much of the period between his August 1942 release and his December 1944 return to USAFIP<ref name="JohnSharkey19860124" /> as the leader of a guerrilla organization called ''Ang Mga Mahárlika'' ([[Tagalog language|Tagalog]], "The Freemen") in Northern [[Luzon]].<ref name="Scott1992">{{cite book |last = [[William Henry Scott (historian)|Scott]] |first = William Henry |title = Looking for the Prehispanic Filipino and Other Essays in the Philippine History |publisher = New Day Publishers |year = 1992 |location = Quezon City |isbn = 978-971-10-0524-5 |url = https://books.google.com/books?id=Ebp2GQAACAAJ |access-date = September 3, 2020 |archive-date = November 7, 2023 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20231107161423/https://books.google.com/books?id=Ebp2GQAACAAJ |url-status = live }}</ref> According to Marcos's claim, this force had a strength of 9,000 men.<ref name="Scott1992" /> His account of events was later cast into doubt after a United States military investigation exposed many of his claims as either false or inaccurate.<ref name="McCoy1999">{{cite book|author=McCoy, Alfred W.|title=Closer than brothers: manhood at the Philippine Military Academy|publisher=Yale University Press|year=1999|isbn=978-0-300-07765-0|pages=[https://books.google.com/books?id=GNFRaSf1dP4C&pg=PA167 167–170]|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=GNFRaSf1dP4C}}</ref>

Another controversy arose in 1947, when Marcos began signing communications with the rank of lieutenant colonel, instead of major. This prompted US officials to note that Marcos was only "recognized as a major in the roster of the 14th Infantry USAFIP, NL as of 12 December 1944 to his date of discharge".<ref name="Curtis1948"/>

The biggest controversy arising from Marcos's service during World War II, however, would concern his claims during the 1962 Senatorial Campaign of being "most decorated war hero of the Philippines"<ref name="JeffGerth&JoelBrinkley19860123" /> He claimed to have been the recipient of 33 war medals and decorations, including the [[Distinguished Service Cross (United States)|Distinguished Service Cross]] and the [[Medal of Honor]], but researchers later found that stories about the wartime exploits of Marcos were mostly propaganda, being inaccurate or untrue.<ref name="MikasMatsuzawa2003" /> Only two of the supposed 33 awards – the Gold Cross and the Distinguished Service Star – were given during the war, and both had been contested by Marcos's superiors.<ref name="MikasMatsuzawa2003">{{Cite news |url=https://newslab.philstar.com/31-years-of-amnesia/war-hero |title=31 years of amnesia: Imagined heroism |last=Matsuzawa |first=Mikas |date=2003 |work=The Philippine Star|access-date=July 31, 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170627030538/https://newslab.philstar.com/31-years-of-amnesia/war-hero |archive-date=June 27, 2017 |url-status=live |quote=In a study released by the National Historical Commission of the Philippines (NHCP) on Independence Day last year, it said that Marcos lied about receiving three of his US medals: the Distinguished Service Cross, Silver Star and Order of the Purple Heart.<br /><br />Marcos' fabricated heroism was one of the reasons the state agency on the preservation of Philippine history disputed his burial at the Libingan ng mga Bayani.<br /><br />A doubtful record, it argued, does not serve as a sound basis of historical recognition, let alone burial in a space for heroes.<br /><br />"The rule in history is that when a claim is disproven—such as Mr. Marcos's claims about his medals, rank, and guerrilla unit—it is simply dismissed", NHCP said.}}</ref>

==Post-WWII and congressional career (1949–1965)==
{{Expand section|date=July 2018}}

After the surrender of the Japanese and the end of World War II, the American government became preoccupied with setting up the [[Marshall Plan]] to revive the economies of the western hemisphere, and quickly backtracked from its interests in the Philippines, granting the islands independence on July 4, 1946.<ref name="Wood1986">{{Cite book |title=From Marshall Plan to debt crisis : foreign aid and development choices in the world economy |last=Wood |first=Robert Everett |date=1986 |publisher=University of California Press |isbn=978-0520055261 |location=Berkeley |oclc=13358314}}</ref><ref name="Dubsky1993">{{Cite book |title=Technocracy and development in the Philippines |author=Roman Dubsky |date=1993 |publisher=University of the Philippines Press |isbn=978-9715420167 |location=Diliman, Quezon City |oclc=30679756}}</ref> After the war, Marcos was one of only eleven lawyers confirmed by the new government as a special prosecutor with the office of the Solicitor General tasked to try by "process of law and justice" all those accused of collaboration with the Japanese.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Hofileña |first=Saul Jr. |title=Under the Stacks|year=2011|isbn=978-971-95130-2-5|location=Philippines|pages=312}}</ref> Eventually, Marcos ran for his father's old post as representative of the [[Ilocos Norte's 2nd congressional district|2nd district]] of Ilocos Norte and won three consecutive terms, serving in the House of Representatives from 1949 to 1959.<ref name="Ferdinand Edralin Marcos">[http://www.senate.gov.ph/senators/former_senators/ferdinand_marcos.htm Ferdinand Edralin Marcos] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090224052613/http://senate.gov.ph/senators/former_senators/ferdinand_marcos.htm |date=February 24, 2009 }}. Philippines Senate</ref>

Marcos joined the "Liberal Wing" that split from the [[Nacionalista Party]], which eventually became the [[Liberal Party (Philippines)|Liberal Party]]. He eventually became the Liberal Party's spokesman on economic matters, and was made chairman of the House Neophytes Bloc which included future president [[Diosdado Macapagal]], future Vice President [[Emmanuel Pelaez]] and future Manila Mayor [[Arsenio Lacson]].<ref name="Ferdinand Edralin Marcos" />

Marcos became chairman of the House Committee on Commerce and Industry and a member of the House Committees on Defense, Ways and Means; Industry; Banks Currency; War Veterans; Civil Service; and on Corporations and Economic Planning. He was also a member of the Special Committee on Import and Price Controls and the Special Committee on Reparations, and of the House Electoral Tribunal.<ref name="Ferdinand Edralin Marcos" />

After he served as member of the House of Representatives for three terms, Marcos won his senate seat in the elections in 1959 and became the Senate minority floor leader in 1960. He became the executive vice president of the Liberal Party in and served as the party president from 1961 to 1964.

From 1963 to 1965, he was the [[Senate President of the Philippines|Senate President]]. Thus far, he is the last Senate President to become President of the Philippines. He introduced a number of significant bills, many of which found their way into the Republic statute books.<ref name="Ferdinand Edralin Marcos" />

During his election campaign in the [[1965 Philippine presidential election|1965 presidential election]], Marcos's life became the basis of the biographical film ''[[Iginuhit ng Tadhana: The Ferdinand E. Marcos Story|Iginuhit ng Tadhana (The Ferdinand E. Marcos Story)]]'', which starred [[Luis Gonzales]] as Marcos.

==Administration and cabinet==
{{Main|List of cabinets of the Philippines#Ferdinand Marcos (1965–1986)}}
{{Infobox President styles
|name = Ferdinand Marcos
|image = [[File:Sagisag ng Pangulo ng Pilipinas FM.png|50px]]
|dipstyle = [[Excellency|His Excellency]]
|offstyle = Your Excellency
|altstyle = Mr. President
}}

==First term (1965–1969)==
{{Main|First term of the presidency of Ferdinand Marcos}}

Marcos's first term began with his inauguration on December 30, 1965, and ended when he was inaugurated for his second term on December 30, 1969.<ref name="Kasaysayan9ch10">{{Cite book|title=Kasaysayan, The Story of the Filipino People Volume 9:A Nation Reborn.|publisher=Asia Publishing Company Limited|year=1998|editor-last=Magno|editor-first=Alexander R.|location=Hong Kong|chapter=Democracy at the Crossroads}}</ref>

By pursuing an aggressive program of infrastructure development funded by foreign loans, he remained popular for most of his first term,<ref name="Kasaysayan9ch10" /> with his popularity flagging only after his debt-driven spending during the campaign for his second term triggered an inflationary crisis in November and December 1969, before his second inauguration.<ref name="Balbosas1992" /><ref name="Cororaton1997" /> Among the major projects of the first term was the construction of the [[Cultural Center of the Philippines complex]], considered one of the earliest examples of what would come to be known as the Marcoses' [[edifice complex]].<ref>{{Cite news |last=Villa |first=Kathleen de |date=September 16, 2017 |title=Imelda Marcos and her 'edifice complex' |url=https://business.inquirer.net/236962/imelda-marcos-edifice-complex |access-date=December 17, 2020 |archive-date=November 11, 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181111133920/https://business.inquirer.net/236962/imelda-marcos-edifice-complex |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name="Lico2003">{{cite book|title=Edifice Complex: Power, Myth And Marcos State Architecture|last=Lico|first=Gerard|publisher=[[Ateneo de Manila]] University Press|date=January 30, 2003}}</ref>

Soon after being elected, Marcos developed close relations with the officers of the Philippine military,<ref name="Kasaysayan9ch10"/> and began expanding the armed forces by allowing loyal generals to stay in their positions past their retirement age, or giving them civilian government posts.<ref name="GovPh29thNinoyAnniv">{{Cite web |url=http://president.gov.ph/gov_at_work/phl-marks-29th-anniversary-of-aquinos-assassination-on-tuesday/ |title=PHL marks 29th anniversary of Aquino's assassination on Tuesday |date=August 20, 2012 |publisher=Office of the President of the Philippines |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160208022821/http://president.gov.ph/gov_at_work/phl-marks-29th-anniversary-of-aquinos-assassination-on-tuesday/ |archive-date=February 8, 2016 |url-status=dead}}</ref> He also gained the support of the Johnson administration in the US by allowing the limited Philippine involvement in the Vietnam war through the Philippine Civic Action Group.<ref name="McMahon1999"/>

Marcos's first term also saw the Philippine Senate's exposé of the [[Jabidah massacre]] in March 1968, where a Muslim man named Jibin Arula testified that he had been the lone survivor of a group of Moro army recruits which had been executed en-masse on Corregidor island on March 18, 1968.<ref name="Rappler">{{cite news|url=http://www.rappler.com/newsbreak/24025-jabidah-massacre-merdeka-sabah|title=Jabidah and Merdeka: The inside story|author1=Marites Dañguilan Vitug|author2=Glenda M. Gloria|work=Rappler|date=March 18, 2013|access-date=September 13, 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150913010948/http://www.rappler.com/newsbreak/24025-jabidah-massacre-merdeka-sabah|archive-date=September 13, 2015|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref name="George1980">{{cite book|author=T. J. S. George|title=Revolt in Mindanao: The Rise of Islam in Philippine Politics|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=HmYKAQAAIAAJ|year=1980|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=978-0-19-580429-4}}</ref> The allegations in the exposé became a major flashpoint which ignited the [[Moro insurgency in the Philippines]].<ref name="George1980"/>

===Presidential campaign===
{{Main|1965 Philippine presidential election}}
[[File:Marcos-1stInauguration.jpg|thumb|Ferdinand Marcos is sworn into his first term on December 30, 1965.]]

Marcos ran a populist campaign emphasizing that he was a bemedalled war hero emerging from World War II. In 1962, Marcos would claim to be the ''most decorated war hero of the Philippines'' by garnering almost every medal and decoration that the Filipino and American governments could give to a soldier.<ref name="mijares246">{{Harvp|Mijares|1976|p=246}}.</ref> Included in his claim of 27 war medals and decorations are that of the Distinguished Service Cross and the Medal of Honor.<ref name="mijares246" /><ref name="chicagoTribune1">{{cite news|url=https://www.chicagotribune.com/1989/09/29/marcos-was-more-than-just-another-deposed-dictator/|title=Marcos Was More Than Just Another Deposed Dictator|last=Reaves|first=Joseph A.|work=[[Chicago Tribune]]|date=September 29, 1989|access-date=August 31, 2014|archive-date=September 3, 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140903122449/http://articles.chicagotribune.com/1989-09-29/news/8901180123_1_mr-marcos-ferdinand-edralin-marcos-martial-law/2|url-status=live}}{{cite web |url=http://valor.defense.gov/Recipients/ArmyDistinguishedServiceCrossRecipients.aspx |title=US Department of Defense official database of Distinguished Service Cross recipients |access-date=November 28, 2014 |archive-date=August 23, 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200823010206/https://valor.defense.gov/Recipients/Army-Distinguished-Service-Cross-Recipients// |url-status=live }}</ref> According to Primitivo Mijares, author of the book ''[[Conjugal dictatorship|The Conjugal Dictatorship of Ferdinand Marcos and Imelda Marcos]]'', the opposition Liberal Party would later confirm that many of his war medals were only acquired in 1962 to aid in his reelection campaign for the Senate, not for his presidential campaign.<ref name="conjugal" /> Marcos won the presidency in 1965.<ref>{{cite book|author=Abinales, P.N.|title=Making Mindanao: Cotabato and Davao in the formation of the Philippine nation-state|publisher=Ateneo de Manila University Press|year=2000|isbn=978-971-550-349-5|page=156|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=nwDzRHOc7cwC&pg=PA156}}</ref>

=== Inauguration ===
Ferdinand Marcos was [[First inauguration of Ferdinand Marcos|inaugurated to his first term]] as the [[List of presidents of the Philippines|10th]] [[president of the Philippines]] on December 30, 1965, after winning the [[1965 Philippine presidential election|Philippine presidential election of 1965]] against the incumbent president, [[Diosdado Macapagal]]. His inauguration marked the beginning of his two-decade long stay in power, even though the 1935 Philippine Constitution had set a limit of only two four-year terms of office.

===Expansion of the Philippine military===
[[File:CongressBuilding SEATO.jpg|thumb|right|The leaders of some of the [[Southeast Asia Treaty Organization|SEATO]] nations in front of the [[Old Legislative Building (Manila)|Congress Building]] in Manila, hosted by Marcos on October 24, 1966]]

One of Marcos's earliest initiatives upon becoming president was to significantly expand the Philippine military. In an unprecedented move, Marcos chose to concurrently serve as his own defense secretary, allowing him to have a direct hand in running the military.<ref name="Kasaysayan9ch10"/> He also significantly increased the budget of the armed forces, tapping them in civil projects such as the construction of schools. Generals loyal to Marcos were allowed to stay in their positions past their retirement age, or were rewarded with civilian government posts, leading Senator [[Ninoy Aquino|Benigno Aquino Jr.]] to accuse Marcos in 1968 of trying to establish "a garrison state".<ref name="GovPh29thNinoyAnniv"/>

===Vietnam War===
[[File:LBJ meets with Ferdinand Marcos in Manila 1966-10-23.JPG|thumb|President Marcos (left) and his wife [[Imelda Marcos|Imelda]] (center) meet with US President [[Lyndon B. Johnson]] (right) in Manila in October 1966.]]

Under intense pressure from the administration of [[Lyndon B. Johnson]],<ref name="McMahon1999">{{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=lx0MWRuKtUkC&pg=PA141 |title=The Limits of Empire: The United States and Southeast Asia Since World War II |last1=McMahon |first1=Robert J. |authorlink=Robert J. McMahon |date=1999 |publisher=Columbia University Press |isbn=9780231108812 |page=141 |access-date=September 3, 2020 |archive-date=November 7, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231107161424/https://books.google.com/books?id=lx0MWRuKtUkC&pg=PA141#v=onepage&q&f=false |url-status=live }}</ref> Marcos reversed his pre-presidency position of not sending Philippine forces to Vietnam War,<ref name="McMahon1999" /><ref name="showingflag">{{cite web |last1=Jagel |first1=Matthew |title="Showing Its Flag": The United States, The Philippines, and the Vietnam War |url=https://tspace.library.utoronto.ca/bitstream/1807/91307/1/showing%20its%20flag_19836-Article%20Text-46661-1-10-20130711.pdf |publisher=Northern Illinois University |access-date=July 5, 2019 |archive-date=July 31, 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200731043832/https://tspace.library.utoronto.ca/bitstream/1807/91307/1/showing%20its%20flag_19836-Article%20Text-46661-1-10-20130711.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref> and consented to a limited involvement,<ref name="agoncillo508">{{Cite book|last=Agoncillo|first=Teodoro|title=History of the Filipino People|publisher=C & E Publishing|year=1990|edition=8th|location=Quezon City}}</ref> asking Congress to approve sending a [[combat engineer]] unit. Despite opposition to the new plan, the Marcos government gained Congressional approval and Philippine troops were sent from the middle of 1966 as the Philippines Civic Action Group (PHILCAG). PHILCAG reached a strength of some 1,600 troops in 1968 and between 1966 and 1970 over 10,000 Filipino soldiers served in South Vietnam, mainly being involved in civilian infrastructure projects.<ref name="Celoza1997">{{cite book |last1=Celoza |first1=Albert F. |title=Ferdinand Marcos and the Philippines: The Political Economy of Authoritarianism |date=1997 |publisher=Greenwood Publishing Group |isbn=978-0-275-94137-6 |pages=102–103 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Sp3U1oCNKlgC |access-date=June 2, 2020 }}</ref><ref>Lieutenant General Larsen, Stanley Robert (1985) [http://www.history.army.mil/books/Vietnam/allied/ch03.htm "Chapter III: The Philippines"] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080105005608/http://www.history.army.mil/books/Vietnam/allied/ch03.htm |date=January 5, 2008}} in ''Allied Participation in Vietnam'', US Department of the Army</ref>

===Loans for construction projects===
{{See also|Edifice complex}}
[[File:Emperor Hirohito in Philippines 1966.jpg|thumb|Marcos with Japanese Emperor [[Hirohito]] in 1966]]

With an eye toward becoming the first president of the third republic to be reelected to a second term, Marcos began taking up massive foreign loans to fund the "rice, roads, and school buildings" he promised in his reelection campaign. With tax revenues unable to fund his administration's 70% increase in infrastructure spending from 1966 to 1970, Marcos began tapping foreign loans, creating a budget deficit 72% higher than the Philippine government's annual deficit from 1961 to 1965.<ref name="Kasaysayan9ch10" />

This began a pattern of loan-funded spending which the Marcos administration would continue until the Marcoses were deposed in 1986, resulting in economic instability still being felt today, and of debts that experts say the Philippines will have to keep paying well into 2025.<ref name="Kasaysayan9ch10" /> The grandest infrastructure projects of Marcos's first term, especially the [[Cultural Center of the Philippines]] complex, also marked the beginning of what critics would call Marcos couple's [[edifice complex]], with grand public infrastructures projects prioritized for public funding because of their propaganda value.<ref name="Lico2003"/>{{page needed|date=June 2020}}

===Jabidah exposé and Muslim reactions===
{{Main|Jabidah massacre|Moro conflict}}

In March 1968 a Muslim man named Jibin Arula was fished out of the waters of Manila Bay, having been shot. He was brought to then-Cavite Governor Delfin N. Montano, to whom he recounted the story of the Jabidah massacre, saying that numerous [[Moro people|Moro]] army recruits had been executed en-masse by members of the [[Armed Forces of the Philippines]] (AFP) on March 18, 1968.<ref name="Rappler"/>{{better source needed|date=June 2020}} This became the subject of a senate exposé by opposition Senator Benigno Aquino Jr.<ref name="sfof">{{cite web|website=Official Gazette of the Republic of the Philippines|url=https://www.officialgazette.gov.ph/1968/03/28/jabidah-special-forces-of-evil-by-senator-benigno-s-aquino-jr/|title=Jabidah! Special Forces of Evil?|author=Senator Benigno S. Aquino Jr.|publisher=[[Government of the Philippines]]|date=March 28, 1968|access-date=November 7, 2023|archive-date=December 25, 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211225182831/https://www.officialgazette.gov.ph/1968/03/28/jabidah-special-forces-of-evil-by-senator-benigno-s-aquino-jr/|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|author=Nasser A. Marohomsalic|title=Aristocrats of the Malay Race: A Historic of the Bangsa Moro in the Philippines|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=s3ZwAAAAMAAJ|year=2001|publisher=N.A. Marohomsalic}}</ref>

Although the lack of living witnesses other than Arula severely hampered the probes on the incident, it became a major flashpoint that ignited the [[Moro insurgency in the Philippines]].<ref name="George1980"/> Despite undergoing numerous trials and hearings, none of the officers implicated in the massacre were ever convicted, leading many Filipino Muslims to believe that the "Christian" government in Manila had little regard for them.<ref name="Larousse2001">{{cite book|author=William Larousse|title=A Local Church Living for Dialogue: Muslim-Christian Relations in Mindanao-Sulu, Philippines : 1965–2000|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=qyo-Hti0-KAC|year=2001|publisher=Gregorian Biblical BookShop|isbn=978-88-7652-879-8|access-date=November 7, 2023|archive-date=November 7, 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231107162927/https://books.google.com/books?id=qyo-Hti0-KAC|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="Majul1985">{{cite book|author=Cesar Adib Majul|title=The contemporary Muslim movement in the Philippines|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=6rpwAAAAMAAJ|date=October 1985|publisher=Mizan Press|isbn=978-0-933782-16-7}}</ref>
This created a furor within the Muslim community in the Philippines, especially among the educated youth,<ref name="MuslimPresident1994">{{cite book|author1=Macapado Abaton Muslim|author2=Philippines. Office of the President|author3=Mindanao State University. College of Public Affairs|title=The Moro armed struggle in the Philippines: the nonviolent autonomy alternative|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=4ERxAAAAMAAJ|year=1994|publisher=Office of the President and College of Public Affairs, Mindanao State University|isbn=978-971-11-1130-4}}</ref>{{page needed|date=June 2020}} and among Muslim intellectuals, who had no discernible interest in politics prior to the incident.<ref name="George1980" /> Educated or not, the story of the Jabidah massacre led many Filipino Muslims to believe that all opportunities for integration and accommodation with the Christians were lost and further marginalised.<ref name="Smith2015">{{cite book|author=Paul J. Smith|title=Terrorism and Violence in Southeast Asia: Transnational Challenges to States and Regional Stability: Transnational Challenges to States and Regional Stability|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=nG6sBwAAQBAJ&pg=PT5|date=March 26, 2015|publisher=Taylor & Francis|isbn=978-1-317-45886-9|pages=5–}}</ref>

This eventually led to the formation of the [[Mindanao Independence Movement]] in 1968, the Bangsamoro Liberation Organization (BMLO) in 1969, and the consolidation of these various forces into the [[Moro National Liberation Front]] (MNLF) in October 1972.<ref name="BetweenIntegrationandSecession">{{Cite book|title = Between Integration and Secession: The Muslim Communities of the Southern Philippines, Southern Thailand and Western Burma/Myanmar|last = Yegar|first = Moshe|publisher = Lexington Books|year = 2002|pages = 267–268}}</ref>

===1969 presidential campaign===
{{Main|1969 Ferdinand Marcos presidential campaign}}

Ferdinand Marcos's campaign for a second term formally began with his nomination as the presidential candidate of the Nacionalista Party at its July 1969 general meeting. A meeting of the party's ruling junta had met a week earlier to assure that the nomination would be unanimous.<ref name="Joaquin2013">{{Cite book |title=Reportage on the Marcoses, 1964–1970 |first=Nick |last=Joaquin |publisher=Anvil Publishing |year=2013 |isbn=9789712728174 |location=Mandaluyong, Philippines |oclc=853430289}}</ref> Under the 1935 Constitution of the Philippines which was in force at the time, Marcos was supposed to be allowed a maximum of two four-year terms as president.<ref name="Kasaysayan9ch10" />

During the 1969 campaign, Marcos launched US$50 million worth in infrastructure projects in an effort to curry favor with the electorate.<ref name="Burton1989">{{Cite book |title=Impossible Dream: The Marcoses, the Aquinos, and the Unfinished Revolution |last=Burton |first=Sandra |publisher=Warner Books |year=1989 |isbn=978-0446513982 |url=https://archive.org/details/impossibledreamm00burt}}</ref> This rapid campaign spending was so massive that it would be responsible for the balance of payments crisis of 1970, whose inflationary effect would cause social unrest leading all the way up to the proclamation of martial law in 1972.<ref name="Balbosas1992" /><ref name="Cororaton1997" /> Marcos was reported to have spent PHP100 for every PHP1 that Osmeña spent, using up PHP24 million in Cebu alone.<ref name="DeQuiros1997" />

With his popularity already beefed up by debt-funded spending, Marcos's popularity made it very likely that he would win the election, but he decided, as National Artist for Literature [[Nick Joaquin]] reported in the ''[[Philippines Free Press]]'', to "leave nothing to chance."<ref name="Joaquin2013" /> ''[[Time (magazine)|Time]]'' and ''[[Newsweek]]'' would eventually call the 1969 election the "dirtiest, most violent and most corrupt" in Philippine modern history, with the term "Three Gs", meaning "[[guns, goons, and gold]]"<ref name="Parsa2000">{{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=41_EXD1hWlgC&q=guns+goons+and+gold+1969&pg=PA45 |title=States, Ideologies, and Social Revolutions: A Comparative Analysis of Iran, Nicaragua, and the Philippines |last=Parsa |first=Misagh |date=August 17, 2000 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=9780521774307 |access-date=October 25, 2020 |archive-date=November 7, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231107162927/https://books.google.com/books?id=41_EXD1hWlgC&q=guns+goons+and+gold+1969&pg=PA45#v=snippet&q=guns%20goons%20and%20gold%201969&f=false |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |url=http://library.fes.de/pdf-files/bueros/philippinen/50071.pdf |title=Election Violence in the Philippines |access-date=April 7, 2020 |archive-date=July 31, 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200731133052/http://library.fes.de/pdf-files/bueros/philippinen/50071.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref> coined<ref name="SunStarEditorial20160229">{{Cite news |url=http://www.sunstar.com.ph/article/60678/ |title=Editorial: Protecting the vote |date=February 29, 2016 |work=SunStar |access-date=May 22, 2018 |archive-date=May 30, 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180530034908/http://www.sunstar.com.ph/article/60678/ |url-status=live }}</ref> to describe administration's election tactics of vote-buying, terrorism and ballot snatching.<ref name="DeQuiros1997">{{Cite book|title=Dead Aim: How Marcos Ambushed Philippine Democracy|first=Conrado|last=De Quiros|date=1997|publisher=Foundation for Worldwide People's Power|others=Foundation for Worldwide People Power (Manila, Philippines)|isbn=978-9719167037|location=Pasig|oclc=39051509}}</ref>

===1969 balance of payments crisis===
{{Further|1969 Philippine balance of payments crisis}}
During the campaign, Marcos spent $50 million worth in debt-funded infrastructure, triggering a [[1969 Philippine balance of payments crisis|balance of payments crisis]].<ref name="PhilStar">{{Cite news |url=https://newslab.philstar.com/31-years-of-amnesia/golden-era |title=Debt, deprivation and spoils of dictatorship: 31 years of amnesia |last=Diola |first=Camille |work=The Philippine Star|access-date=May 2, 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170626200905/https://newslab.philstar.com/31-years-of-amnesia/golden-era |archive-date=June 26, 2017 |url-status=live}}</ref> The Marcos administration ran to the [[International Monetary Fund]] (IMF) for help, and the IMF offered a debt restructuring deal. New policies, including a greater emphasis on exports and the relaxation of controls of the peso, were put in place. The Peso was allowed to float to a lower market value, resulting in drastic inflation, and social unrest.<ref name="marcosMartialLawNeverAgain">{{cite book|last1=Robles|first1=Raissa|title=Marcos Martial Law: Never Again|date=2016|publisher=Filipinos for a Better Philippines, Inc.|location=[[Quezon City]]|isbn=978-621-95443-1-3|url=https://www.facebook.com/MarcosMartialLawNeverAgain/|access-date=July 19, 2017|archive-date=February 9, 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200209051128/https://www.facebook.com/MarcosMartialLawNeverAgain/|url-status=live}}</ref>

=== Informal diplomacy ===
From the 1960s, Ferdinand Marcos would engage in unofficial diplomacy with the [[Eastern Bloc|Soviet Bloc]], in ways that were shaped by the [[Sino-Soviet split]].<ref name=":16" /><ref name=":17">{{Cite journal |last=Scalice |first=Joseph |date=2021-06-28 |title=Cadre as informal diplomats: Ferdinand Marcos and the Soviet Bloc, 1965–1975 |url=https://doi.org/10.1080/02757206.2021.1946053 |journal=History and Anthropology |volume=33 |issue=3 |pages=355–371 |doi=10.1080/02757206.2021.1946053 |s2cid=237790445 |issn=0275-7206 |access-date=November 7, 2023 |archive-date=November 7, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231107163429/https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/02757206.2021.1946053 |url-status=live }}</ref> The [[Partido Komunista ng Pilipinas-1930]], an officially illegal organization, had endorsed Marcos in 1965. The formation of the China-aligned [[Communist Party of the Philippines]] led to government support of the Soviet-aligned Partido Komunista ng Pilipinas-1930. Some members of the PKP-1930 were appointed to positions within Marcos's government as salaried "researchers". Their transnational connections were used as another channel of negotiation with the Soviet Union on geopolitical and economic lines.<ref name=":17" />

==Second term (1969–1972)==
{{Main|Second term of the presidency of Ferdinand Marcos}}
{{See also|1969 Philippine presidential election}}
[[File:Ferdinand Marcos 1969 Inaugural.jpg|thumb|Ferdinand Marcos takes the Oath of Office for a second term before [[Chief Justice of the Philippines|Chief Justice]] [[Roberto Concepcion]] on December 30, 1969.]]
[[File:0238jfBaliuag Bulacan Landmark Interior Museum and Libraryfvf 08.jpg|thumb|right|150px|Marcos and Imelda with the Mayors of [[Baliwag]] in 1973]]

Presidential elections were held on November 11, 1969, and Marcos was reelected for a second term. He was the first and last Filipino president to win a second full term.<ref>{{cite book|last=Timberman|first=David G.|title=A changeless land: continuity and change in Philippine politics|publisher=Institute of Southeast Asian Studies|year=1991|page=63|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=NkBO2RhI4NUC&pg=PA63|isbn=9789813035867}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|author=Boudreau, Vincent|title=Resisting dictatorship: repression and protest in Southeast Asia|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2004|isbn=978-0-521-83989-1|page=7|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ZpoCNHhUe7QC&pg=PA7}}{{Dead link|date=September 2023 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref><ref>{{cite book|author=Hedman, Eva-Lotta E.|title=In the name of civil society: from free election movements to people power in the Philippines|publisher=University of Hawaii Press|year=2006|isbn=978-0-8248-2921-6|page=70|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=CIYn9_ZMMesC&pg=PA70}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|author=McCoy, Alfred W.|title=Policing America's empire: the United States, the Philippines, and the rise of the surveillance state|publisher=University of Wisconsin Press|year=2009|isbn=978-0-299-23414-0|page=52|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=QYj6WUGsRuEC&pg=PA52}}</ref> His running mate, incumbent Vice President [[Fernando Lopez]] was also elected to a third full term as [[Vice President of the Philippines]].

Marcos's second term was characterized by social unrest, beginning with the [[1969 Philippine balance of payments crisis]], which was already underway during the second inauguration.<ref name="Kasaysayan9ch10"/> Opposition groups began to form, with "moderate" groups calling for political reform and "radical" groups who espoused a more radical-left ideology.<ref name="Passionate" /><ref name="Daroy1988"/><ref name="GazetteHistoryProtest"/>

Marcos responded to both groups with military force. The most notable of these was the series of protests during the first three months of 1970 – a period that has since come to be known as the [[First Quarter Storm]].<ref name="Aureus 1985"/><ref name="RebellionRepressionPh" /><ref name="GazetteHistoryProtest" />

Another major event during Marcos's second term was the [[Philippine Constitutional Convention of 1971]], which was marred in May 1972 when a delegate exposed a bribery scheme in which delegates were paid to vote in favor of the Marcoses – with First Lady Imelda Marcos herself implicated in the alleged payola scheme.<ref name="Kasaysayan9ch10" />{{rp|page=133}}<ref name="BantayogQuintero"/>

On August 21, 1971, a political campaign rally of the opposition Liberal Party at Plaza Miranda in the district of Quiapo, Manila. Marcos blamed the then-still-nascent Communist Party of the Philippines, and issued Proclamation No. 889, through which he assumed emergency powers and suspended the writ of habeas corpus.<ref name="Simafrania2006" /> Oppositionists were arrested after being accused of being "radicals". Marcos's response further obscured the distinction between the moderates and radical opposition, which had already been blurred since the First Quarter storm. This brought about a massive expansion of the underground socialist resistance, when many moderate oppositionists saw no other choice than to join the radicals.<ref name="Rodis"/><ref name="Lacaba 1982 11–45, 157–178"/><ref name="GazetteHistoryProtest" /> In 1972 a series of bombings in Metro Manila took place, ratcheting up the tension. Marcos again blamed the communists, although the only suspects caught in connection to the explosions were linked to the Philippine Constabulary.<ref name="Brillantes1987" /><ref name="Overholt">{{Cite journal |last=Overholt |first=William H. |title=The Rise and Fall of Ferdinand Marcos |url=https://online.ucpress.edu/as/article-abstract/26/11/1137/22236/The-Rise-and-Fall-of-Ferdinand-Marcos?redirectedFrom=fulltext |journal=Asian Survey |year=1986 |volume=26 |issue=11 |pages=1137–1163 |doi=10.2307/2644313 |jstor=2644313 |issn=0004-4687 |access-date=November 7, 2023 |archive-date=October 15, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231015122513/https://online.ucpress.edu/as/article-abstract/26/11/1137/22236/The-Rise-and-Fall-of-Ferdinand-Marcos?redirectedFrom=fulltext |url-status=live }}</ref>

Marcos's second term effectively ended a little under two years and nine months later, when Marcos announced on September 23, 1972, that he had placed the Philippines under martial law.<ref name="govPhDeclarationMartialLaw" />

===Social unrest after the balance of payments crisis===
While Marcos had won the November 1969 election by a landslide, and was inaugurated on December 30 of that year, Marcos's massive spending during the [[Ferdinand Marcos presidential campaign, 1969|1969 presidential campaign]] triggered growing public unrest.<ref name="marcosMartialLawNeverAgain" />

Marcos's spending during the campaign led to opposition figures such as Senator [[Lorenzo Tañada]], Senator [[Jovito Salonga]], and Senator [[Jose W. Diokno]] to accuse Marcos of wanting to stay in power even beyond the two term maximum set for the presidency by the 1935 constitution.<ref name="marcosMartialLawNeverAgain" />

Opposition groups quickly grew in the campuses, where students had the time and opportunity to be aware of political and economic issues.<ref name="Passionate" /><ref name="Daroy1988" />

===="Moderate" and "radical" opposition====
The media reports of the time classified the various civil society groups opposing Marcos into two categories.<ref name="Passionate">Talitha Espiritu Passionate Revolutions: The Media and the Rise and Fall of the Marcos Regime Athens, OH: Ohio University Press, 2017.</ref><ref name="Daroy1988">{{Cite book |title=Dictatorship and revolution : roots of people's power |last=Daroy |first=Petronilo Bn. |date=1988 |publisher=Conspectus |isbn=978-9919108014 |editor-last=Javate -de Dios |editor-first=Aurora |edition= 1st |location=Metro Manila |chapter=On the Eve of Dictatorship and Revolution |oclc=19609244 |editor-last2=Daroy |editor-first2=Petronilo Bn. |editor-last3=Kalaw-Tirol |editor-first3=Lorna}}</ref> The "moderates", which included church groups, civil libertarians, and nationalist politicians, were those who wanted to create change through political reforms.<ref name="Passionate" /> The "radicals", including a number of labor and student groups, wanted broader, more systemic political reforms.<ref name="Passionate" /><ref name="GazetteHistoryProtest">{{Cite web |url=https://www.officialgazette.gov.ph/edsa/the-ph-protest-appendix/ |title=A History of the Philippine Political Protest |website=Official Gazette of the Republic of the Philippines|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170705180022/http://www.officialgazette.gov.ph/edsa/the-ph-protest-appendix/ |archive-date=July 5, 2017 |url-status=dead |access-date=December 10, 2018}}</ref>

=====The "moderate" opposition=====
{{See also|Movement of Concerned Citizens for Civil Liberties}}

With the Constitutional Convention occupying their attention from 1971 to 1973, statesmen and politicians opposed to the increasingly more-authoritarian administration of Ferdinand Marcos mostly focused their efforts on political efforts from within the halls of power.<ref name="Kasaysayan9ch10" />

Their concerns varied but usually included election reform, calls for a non-partisan constitutional convention, and a call for Marcos not to exceed the two presidential terms allowed him by the 1935 Constitution.<ref name="Kasaysayan9ch10" /><ref name="GazetteHistoryProtest" />

This notably included the National Union of Students in the Philippines,<ref name="GazetteHistoryProtest" /> the National Students League (NSL),<ref name="GazetteHistoryProtest" /> and later the [[Movement of Concerned Citizens for Civil Liberties]] or MCCCL, led by Senator [[Jose W. Diokno]].<ref name="Daroy1988" />

The MCCCL's rallies are particularly remembered for their diversity, attracting participants from both the moderate and radical camps; and for their scale, with the biggest one attended by as many as 50,000 people.<ref name="Daroy1988" />

=====The "radical" opposition=====
{{See also|National Democracy Movement (Philippines)}}

The other broad category of opposition groups during this period were those who wanted broader, more systemic political reforms, usually as part of the [[National Democracy Movement (Philippines)|National Democracy movement]]. These groups were branded "radicals" by the media,<ref name="Passionate" /><ref name="GazetteHistoryProtest" /> although the Marcos administration extended that term to "moderate" protest groups as well.<ref name=":1" />

Groups considered "radical" by the media of the time included:<ref name="GazetteHistoryProtest" />
* the [[Kabataang Makabayan]] (KM)
* the [[Samahang Demokratiko ng Kabataan]] (SDK)
* the Student Cultural Association of the University of the Philippines (SCAUP)
* the Movement for Democratic Philippines (MDP)
* the Student Power Assembly of the Philippines (SPAP)
* the [[Malayang Pagkakaisa ng Kabataang Pilipino]] (MPKP)

====Radicalization====
{{Main|Communist Party of the Philippines}}

When Marcos became president in 1965, Philippine policy and politics functioned under a post-World War II geopolitical framework.<ref name="WorldBank">{{cite web |url=http://www.cadtm.org/The-World-Bank-and-the-Philippines |title=The World Bank and the Philippines |last=Toussaint |first=Eric |date=October 7, 2014 |website=www.cadtm.org |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091109191929/http://www.cadtm.org/The-World-Bank-and-the-Philippines |archive-date=November 9, 2009 |url-status=live |access-date=June 14, 2018}}</ref> As a result, the Philippines was ideologically caught up in the [[Anti-communism|anti-communist]] scare perpetuated by the US during the Cold War.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Sen |first=Rabindra |date=June 2005 |journal=Jadavpur Journal of International Relations |volume=9 |issue=1 |pages=85–92 |doi=10.1177/0973598405110005 |issn=0973-5984|title=Philippines – U.S. Special Relationship: Cold War and Beyond|s2cid=157525312}}</ref> Marcos and the AFP thus emphasized the "threat" represented by the formation of the Communist Party of the Philippines in 1969, even if it was still a small organization.<ref name="RebellionRepressionPh">{{Cite book |title=Rebellion and repression in the Philippines |last=Kessler |first=Richard John |date=1989 |publisher=Yale University Press |isbn=978-0300044065 |location=New Haven |oclc=19266663 |url-access=registration |url=https://archive.org/details/rebellionrepress0000kess}}</ref>{{rp|page=43}} partly because doing so was good for building up the AFP budget.<ref name="RebellionRepressionPh" />{{rp|page=43}}<ref name="marcosMartialLawNeverAgain" /> As a result, notes security specialist Richard J. Kessler, this "mythologized the group, investing it with a revolutionary aura that only attracted more supporters."

The social unrest of 1969 to 1970, and the violent dispersal of the resulting "First Quarter Storm" protests were among the early watershed events in which large numbers of Filipino students of the 1970s were radicalized against the Marcos administration. Due to these dispersals, many students who had previously held "moderate" positions (i.e., calling for legislative reforms) became convinced that they had no other choice but to call for more radical social change.<ref name="Rodis">{{Cite news |url=https://globalnation.inquirer.net/118130/remembering-the-first-quarter-storm |title=Remembering the First Quarter Storm |last=Rodis |first=Rodel |newspaper=Philippine Daily Inquirer|access-date=January 27, 2020 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150131131959/http://globalnation.inquirer.net/118130/remembering-the-first-quarter-storm/ |archive-date=January 31, 2015 }}</ref><ref name="Lacaba 1982 11–45, 157–178">{{Cite book|title=Days of Disquiet, Nights of Rage: The First Quarter Storm & Related Events|last=Lacaba|first=Jose F.|publisher=Salinlahi Pub. House|year=1982|location=Manila|pages=11–45, 157–178}}</ref>

Other watershed events that would later radicalize many otherwise "moderate" opposition members include the February 1971 [[Diliman Commune]]; the August 1971 suspension of the writ of ''[[habeas corpus]]'' in the wake of the [[Plaza Miranda]] bombing; the September 1972 [[Proclamation No. 1081|declaration of martial law]]; the 1980 [[murder of Macli-ing Dulag]];<ref name="Aureus 1985">{{Cite book |title=The Philippine Press Under Siege II |year=1985 |editor-last=Aureus |editor-first=Leonor J.}}</ref> and the August 1983 [[assassination of Ninoy Aquino]].<ref name="GazetteHistoryProtest" />

By 1970, study sessions on Marxism–Leninism had become common in the campuses, and many student activists were joining various organizations associated with the National Democracy Movement (ND), such as the Student Cultural Association of the University of the Philippines (SCAUP) and the [[Kabataang Makabayan]] (KM, lit. ''Patriotic Youth'') which were founded by [[Jose Maria Sison]];<ref name=":8">{{Cite news|title=Finishing the Unfinished Revolution|last=Torrevillas-Suarez|first=Domini|date=March 29, 1970|work=Philippine Panorama}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.up.edu.ph/signposts-in-the-history-of-activism-in-the-university-of-the-philippines/|title=Signposts in the History of Activism in the University of the Philippines|last=Guillermo|first=Ramon|date=February 6, 2013|website=[[University of the Philippines]]|access-date=November 19, 2016|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161127024018/http://www.up.edu.ph/signposts-in-the-history-of-activism-in-the-university-of-the-philippines/|archive-date=November 27, 2016}}</ref> the [[Samahang Demokratiko ng Kabataan]] (SDK) which was founded as a separate organization from the SCAUP and KM by a group of young writer-leaders;<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.europe-solidaire.org/spip.php?article15837 |title=Samahang Demokratiko ng Kabataan: some basic information |website=Europe Solidaire Sans Frontières |access-date=April 7, 2020 |archive-date=July 31, 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200731131001/http://www.europe-solidaire.org/spip.php?article15837 |url-status=live }}</ref> and others.

The line between leftist activists and communists became increasingly blurred, as a significant number of radicalized activists also joined the [[Communist Party of the Philippines]]. Radicalized activists from the cities began to be more extensively deployed in rural areas were some became guerillas.<ref>{{Cite web|date=February 14, 2011|title=The Communist Insurgency in the Philippines: Tactics and Talks|url=https://d2071andvip0wj.cloudfront.net/202-the-communist-insurgency-in-the-philippines-tactics-and-talks.pdf|website=International Crisis Group|access-date=September 19, 2021|archive-date=September 19, 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210919162932/https://d2071andvip0wj.cloudfront.net/202-the-communist-insurgency-in-the-philippines-tactics-and-talks.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|last1=Santos|first1=Soliman M. Jr.|title=Primed and Purposeful: Armed Groups and Human Security Efforts in the Philippines|last2=Santos|first2=Paz Verdades M.|last3=Dinampo|first3=Octavio A.|last4=Kraft|first4=Herman Joseph S.|last5=Paredes|first5=Artha Kira R.|last6=Quilop|first6=Raymund Jose G.|publisher=Small Arms Survey, Graduate Institute of International and Development Studies|year=2010|isbn=978-2-940415-29-8|editor-last=Rodriguez|editor-first=Diana|location=Geneva|pages=3, 17–35}}</ref>

===First Quarter Storm===
{{Main|First Quarter Storm}}

By the time Marcos gave the first State of the Nation Address of his second term on January 26, 1970, the unrest born from the 1969–1970 balance of payments crisis exploded into a series of [[Demonstration (people)|demonstrations]], [[protest]]s, and marches against the government. Student groups – some moderate and some radical – served as the driving force of the protests, which lasted until the end of the university semester in March 1970, and would come to be known as the "[[First Quarter Storm]]".<ref name="Manila, My Manila">{{cite book|title=Manila, My Manila|publisher=Vera-Reyes, Inc.|year=1990|author=Joaquin, Nick}}</ref><ref name="marcosMartialLawNeverAgain" />

During Marcos's January 26, 1970, State of the Nation Address, the moderate National Union of Students of the Philippines organized a protest in front of Congress and invited student groups both moderate and radical to join them. Some of the students participating in the protest harangued Marcos as he and his wife Imelda as they left the Congress building, throwing a coffin, a stuffed alligator, and stones at them.<ref name="InquirerRememberingFQS">{{Cite news |url=https://globalnation.inquirer.net/118130/remembering-the-first-quarter-storm |title=Remembering the First Quarter Storm |last=Rodis |first=Rodel |newspaper=Philippine Daily Inquirer |access-date=November 27, 2018 |archive-date=January 31, 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150131131959/http://globalnation.inquirer.net/118130/remembering-the-first-quarter-storm/ |url-status=live }}</ref>

The next major protest took place on January 30, in front of the presidential palace,<ref name="Newsbreak">{{Cite news |url=https://www.rappler.com/newsbreak/51292-timeline-first-quarter-storm |title=Timeline: First Quarter Storm |last=Santos |first=Reynaldo Jr. |date=February 27, 2014 |work=Rappler |access-date=November 27, 2018 |archive-date=November 27, 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181127110629/https://www.rappler.com/newsbreak/51292-timeline-first-quarter-storm |url-status=live }}</ref> where activists rammed the gate with a fire truck and once the gate broke and gave way, the activists charged into the Palace grounds tossing rocks, pillboxes, and Molotov cocktails. At least two activists were confirmed dead and several were injured by the police.

Five more major protests took place in the Metro Manila area took place between then and March 17, 1970 – what some media accounts would later brand the "7 deadly protests of the First Quarter Storm".<ref name="7DeadlyProtests">{{Cite news |last=Dacanay |first=Barbara Mae Naredo |url=https://news.abs-cbn.com/ancx/culture/spotlight/02/24/20/the-7-deadly-protests-of-the-first-quarter-storm |title=The 7 deadly protests of the First Quarter Storm |date=February 24, 2020 |work=ABS CBN News and Public Affairs |access-date=February 28, 2020 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200228094412/https://news.abs-cbn.com/ancx/culture/spotlight/02/24/20/the-7-deadly-protests-of-the-first-quarter-storm |archive-date=February 28, 2020}}</ref> This included a February 12 rally at Plaza Miranda; a February 18 demonstration dubbed the "People's Congress", also supposed to be at the Plaza Miranda but dispersed early, resulting in protesters proceeding to the US Embassy where they set fire to the lobby;<ref name="Lacaba 1982 11–45, 157–178" /> a "Second People's Congress" demonstration on February 26; a "People's March" from [[Welcome Rotonda]] to [[Plaza Lawton]] on March 3; and the Second "People's March" at Plaza Moriones on March 17.<ref name="7DeadlyProtests" />

The protests ranged from 50,000 to 100,000 in number per weekly mass action.<ref name="ndfp.org">{{cite web|date=November 29, 2014|title=Historic role and contributions of Kabataang Makabayan » NDFP|url=http://www.ndfp.org/historic-role-and-contributions-of-kabataang-makabayan/|access-date=December 6, 2016|archive-date=August 2, 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170802164002/http://www.ndfp.org/historic-role-and-contributions-of-kabataang-makabayan/|url-status=dead}}</ref>{{Better source needed|reason=Partisan source|date=June 2020}} Students had declared a week-long boycott of classes and instead met to organize protest rallies.<ref name="Lacaba 1982 11–45, 157–178" />

Violent dispersals of various FQS protests were among the first watershed events in which large numbers of Filipino students of the 1970s were radicalized against the Marcos administration. Due to these dispersals, many students who had previously held "moderate" positions (i.e., calling for legislative reforms) became convinced that they had no choice but to call for more radical social change.<ref name="Rodis" />{{better source needed|date=June 2020}}

===Constitutional Convention of 1971===
{{Main|Philippine Constitutional Convention of 1971}}

Expressing opposition to the Marcos's policies and citing rising discontent over wide inequalities in society,<ref name="Kasaysayan9ch10" /> civil society groups and opposition leaders began campaigning in 1967 to initiate a [[constitutional convention (political meeting)|constitutional convention]] which would revise change the [[Constitution of the Philippines|1935 Constitution of the Philippines]].<ref name="DeanAndyBautista20141011">{{Cite news |url=https://www.philstar.com/opinion/2014/10/11/1378790/chartering-change-ii |title=Chartering change (II) |last=Bautista |first=Andy |date=October 11, 2014 |work=The Philippine Star |access-date=July 25, 2018 |archive-date=July 25, 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180725122825/https://www.philstar.com/opinion/2014/10/11/1378790/chartering-change-ii |url-status=live }}</ref> On March 16 of that year, the Philippine Congress constituted itself into a Constituent Assembly and passed Resolution No. 2, which called for a Constitutional Convention to change the 1935 Constitution.<ref name="ImbongvFerrer">{{Cite web |url=http://www.chanrobles.com/scdecisions/jurisprudence1970/sep1970/gr_32432_1970.php |title=G.R. No. L-32432 – Manuel B. Imbong vs. Jaime Ferrer |author=R.E. Diaz |website=www.chanrobles.com |access-date=July 25, 2018 |archive-date=July 25, 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180725122808/http://www.chanrobles.com/scdecisions/jurisprudence1970/sep1970/gr_32432_1970.php |url-status=live }}</ref>

Marcos surprised his critics by endorsing the move, but historians later noted that the resulting Constitutional Convention would lay the foundation for the legal justifications Marcos would use to extend his term past the two four-year terms allowable under the 1935 Constitution.<ref name="Kasaysayan9ch10" />

A special election was held on November 10, 1970, to elect the delegates of the convention.<ref name="Kasaysayan9ch10" />{{rp|page=130}} Once the winners had been determined, the convention was convened on June 1, 1971, at the newly completed [[Quezon City Hall]].<ref name="KatePedroso&MinervaGeneralao20160921">{{Cite news |url=https://newsinfo.inquirer.net/817651/september-1972-recalling-the-last-days-and-hours-of-democracy |title=September 1972: Recalling the last days and hours of democracy |last1=Pedroso |first1=Kate |date=September 21, 2016 |access-date=October 20, 2018 |last2=Generalao |first2=Minerva |newspaper=Philippine Daily Inquirer |archive-date=July 19, 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180719173917/http://newsinfo.inquirer.net/817651/september-1972-recalling-the-last-days-and-hours-of-democracy |url-status=live }}</ref> A total of 320 delegates were elected to the convention, the most prominent being former senators [[Raul Manglapus]] and [[Roseller T. Lim]]. Other delegates would become influential political figures, including [[Hilario Davide Jr.]], [[Marcelo Fernan]], [[Sotero Laurel]], [[Aquilino Pimentel Jr.]], [[Teofisto Guingona Jr.]], [[Raul Roco]], [[Edgardo Angara]], [[Richard Gordon (politician)|Richard Gordon]], [[Margarito Teves]], and Federico Dela Plana.<ref name="Kasaysayan9ch10" /><ref name="delegates">{{cite book|last1=De Leon|first1=Hector S.|last2=Lugue|first2=Emilio Jr. E.|title=Textbook on the new Philippine Constitution|date=1984|publisher=Rex Book Store}}</ref>

By 1972, the convention had already been bogged down by politicking and delays, when its credibility took a severe blow in May 1972 when a delegate exposed a bribery scheme in which delegates were paid to vote in favor of the Marcoses – with First Lady Imelda Marcos herself implicated in the alleged payola scheme.<ref name="Kasaysayan9ch10" />{{rp|page=133}}<ref name="BantayogQuintero">{{Cite news |url=http://www.bantayog.org/quintero-eduardo-t/ |title=Quintero, Eduardo T. – Bantayog ng mga Bayani |date=May 16, 2016 |work=Bantayog ng mga Bayani |access-date=June 2, 2018 |archive-date=June 21, 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180621000518/http://www.bantayog.org/quintero-eduardo-t/ |url-status=live }}</ref>

The investigation on the scheme was effectively shelved when Marcos [[Martial law under Ferdinand Marcos|declared martial law]] in September 1972, and had 11 opposition delegates arrested. The remaining opposition delegates were forced to go either into exile or hiding. Within two months, an entirely new draft of the constitution was created from scratch by a special committee.<ref name="PCIJ20060501">{{Cite news |url=http://pcij.org/stories/in-1971-and-2006-new-charters-designed-to-keep-embattled-presidents-in-power/ |title=In 1971 and 2006, new Charters designed to keep embattled presidents in power |date=May 1, 2006 |work=Philippine Center for Investigative Journalism Website |access-date=July 25, 2018 |archive-date=July 25, 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180725122900/http://pcij.org/stories/in-1971-and-2006-new-charters-designed-to-keep-embattled-presidents-in-power/ |url-status=dead }}</ref> The [[1973 Philippine constitutional plebiscite|1973 constitutional plebiscite]] was called to ratify the new constitution, but the validity of the ratification was brought to question because Marcos replaced the method of voting through secret ballot with a system of [[wikt:viva voce|viva voce]] voting by "citizen's assemblies".<ref name="Graham&Saunders2002">{{Cite book |title=Asia-Pacific constitutional systems |author=Graham Hassall |last2=Saunders |first2=Cheryl |date=2002 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=9780511549960 |location=Cambridge |oclc=715166703}}</ref>{{rp|page=213}} The ratification of the constitution was challenged in what came to be known as the [[Ratification Cases]].<ref name="Bernas2003">Bernas, Joaquin (2003). ''The 1987 Constitution of the Republic of the Philippines: a Commentary''. Rex Book Store, Manila</ref><ref name="Cruz2000">Cruz, Isagani A. (2000). ''Res Gestae: A Brief History of the Supreme Court''. Rex Book Store, Manila</ref>

===Early growth of the CPP New People's Army===
On December 29, 1970, [[Philippine Military Academy]] instructor Lt. Victor Corpuz led [[New People's Army]] rebels in a raid on the PMA armory, capturing rifles, machine guns, grenade launchers, a bazooka and thousands of rounds of ammunition in 1970.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.atimes.com/se-asia/CH30Ae02.html|archive-url=https://archive.today/20130117084811/http://www.atimes.com/se-asia/CH30Ae02.html|url-status=unfit|archive-date=January 17, 2013|title=Victor Corpus and Jose Almonte: The righteous spies|website=[[Asia Times]]}}</ref> In 1972, China, which was then actively supporting and arming communist insurgencies in Asia as part of [[Mao Zedong]]'s [[People's war#List of People's Wars|People's War Doctrine]], transported 1,200 M-14 and AK-47 rifles aboard the [[MV Karagatan incident|MV ''Karagatan'']] for the NPA to speed up its campaign to defeat the government.<ref>{{cite news|work=Rappler|url=http://www.rappler.com/nation/60279-ak47-communist-rebels|title=AK-47: NPA rebels' weapon of choice|access-date=September 20, 2016|archive-date=September 19, 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160919233513/http://www.rappler.com/nation/60279-ak47-communist-rebels|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=nNlJoXfAH3c |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/varchive/youtube/20211211/nNlJoXfAH3c| archive-date=December 11, 2021 |url-status=live|title=MV Karagatan, The Ship of the Chinese Communist |work =I-Witness |agency=GMA 7 |publisher=YouTube|date=November 18, 2013}}{{cbignore}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|work=The Philippine Star|url=http://www.philstar.com/entertainment/2012/07/30/832892/untold-story-karagatan-i-witness|title=Untold story of Karagatan in I-Witness |access-date=September 20, 2016|archive-date=September 28, 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160928020948/http://www.philstar.com/entertainment/2012/07/30/832892/untold-story-karagatan-i-witness|url-status=live}}</ref>

===Rumored coup d'état and assassination plot===
Rumors of [[coup d'état]] were also brewing. A report of the US Senate Foreign Relations Committee said that shortly after the [[1969 Philippine presidential election]], a group composed mostly of retired colonels and generals organized a revolutionary junta with the aim of first discrediting President Marcos and then killing him. The group was headed by Eleuterio Adevoso, an official of the opposition Liberal Party. A document given to the committee by a Philippine government official alleged that key figures in the plot were Vice President Fernando Lopez and Sergio Osmena Jr., whom Marcos defeated in the 1969 election.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/1973/02/18/archives/us-killer-reported-hired-in-a-plot-against-marcos-details-reported.html|title=U.S. Killer Reported Hired In a Plot Against Marcos|last=Finney|first=John W.|date=February 18, 1973|work=The New York Times|access-date=February 7, 2017|archive-date=September 19, 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170919052555/http://www.nytimes.com/1973/02/18/archives/us-killer-reported-hired-in-a-plot-against-marcos-details-reported.html|url-status=live}}</ref>

While a report obtained by ''[[The New York Times]]'' speculated that rumors of a coup could be used by Marcos to justify [[martial law]], as early as December 1969 in a message from the US Ambassador to the US Assistant Secretary of State, the ambassador said that most of the talk about revolution and even assassination has been coming from the defeated opposition, of which Adevoso is a leading activist. He also said that the information he has on the assassination plans are 'hard' or well-sourced and he has to make sure that it reaches President Marcos.<ref>{{cite book|title=Foreign relations of the United States, 1969–1976, V. 20: Southeast Asia|publisher=Government Printing Office|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=F5r7jrDoHM4C&q=Eleuterio+Adevoso+marcos&pg=PA429|isbn=9780160876387|access-date=October 25, 2020|archive-date=November 7, 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231107163429/https://books.google.com/books?id=F5r7jrDoHM4C&q=Eleuterio+Adevoso+marcos&pg=PA429#v=snippet&q=Eleuterio%20Adevoso%20marcos&f=false|url-status=live}}</ref>{{Primary source inline|date=August 2020}}<ref name="auto1">{{cite web|url=https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1969-76v20/d202|title=Foreign Relations of the United States, 1969–1976, Volume XX, Southeast Asia, 1969–1972 – Office of the Historian|website=history.state.gov|access-date=December 6, 2016|archive-date=December 20, 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161220120950/https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1969-76v20/d202|url-status=live}}</ref>{{Primary source inline|date=May 2022}}

===Plaza Miranda bombing===
{{Main|Plaza Miranda bombing}}

In interviews by ''[[The Washington Post]]'', unnamed former Communist Party of the Philippines officials alleged that "the Communist party leadership planned – and three operatives carried out – the [[Plaza Miranda bombing|Plaza Miranda attack]] in an attempt to provoke government repression and push the country to the brink of revolution. Communist Party Leader [[Jose Maria Sison]] had calculated that Marcos could be provoked into cracking down on his opponents, thereby driving thousands of political activists into the underground, the anonymous former officials said. Recruits were urgently needed, they said, to make use of a large influx of weapons and financial aid that China had already agreed to provide."<ref name="washingtonpost.com">{{cite news|title=Ex-Communists Party Behind Manila Bombing|url=https://washingtonpost.com/archive/politics/1989/08/04/ex-communists-party-behind-manila-bombing/b987c165-4f26-4609-aeb5-cd05134c0cec/|newspaper=The Washington Post|date=August 4, 1989|access-date=April 15, 2020|archive-date=July 31, 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200731050505/https://www.washingtonpost.com/archive/politics/1989/08/04/ex-communists-party-behind-manila-bombing/b987c165-4f26-4609-aeb5-cd05134c0cec/|url-status=live}}</ref> José María Sison continues to deny these claims,<ref>{{cite web |last=Distor |first=Emere |title=The Left and Democratisation in the Philippines |url=http://cpcabrisbane.org/Kasama/2003/V17n2/Quimpo.htm |access-date=October 27, 2007 |archive-date=October 31, 2007 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071031051141/http://cpcabrisbane.org/Kasama/2003/V17n2/Quimpo.htm |url-status=live }}</ref> and the CPP has never released any official confirmation of their culpability in the incident. Marcos and his allies claimed that Benigno Aquino Jr. was part of the plot, which was denied by CPP-NPA founding chair [[Jose Maria Sison]].<ref>{{Cite news |newspaper=Philippine Daily Inquirer |url=http://newsinfo.inquirer.net/777194/joma-sison-cpp-ninoy-have-no-role-in-plaza-miranda-bombing |title=Joma Sison: CPP, Ninoy have no role in Plaza Miranda bombing |last=Gonzales |first=Yuji Vincent |access-date=January 31, 2018 |archive-date=February 1, 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180201075438/http://newsinfo.inquirer.net/777194/joma-sison-cpp-ninoy-have-no-role-in-plaza-miranda-bombing |url-status=live }}</ref>

[[File:Richard Nixon with the Marcos family.png|thumb|[[Richard Nixon]] with the Marcos family in 1969]]

Some historians claim Marcos was responsible for the Plaza Miranda bombing as he is known to have used [[false flag]] operations as a pretext for martial law.<ref name="Donnely&Hassman1987">{{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=RmMCmvYBQtMC&pg=PA280 |title=International Handbook of Human Rights |last1=Donnelly |first1=Jack |last2=Howard-Hassmann |first2=Rhoda E. |date=1987 |publisher=ABC-CLIO |isbn=9780313247880 |pages=280–281 |access-date=January 31, 2018 |archive-date=November 7, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231107163431/https://books.google.com/books?id=RmMCmvYBQtMC&pg=PA280 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=3_0TBwAAQBAJ&pg=PT1225 |title=World Terrorism: An Encyclopedia of Political Violence from Ancient Times to the Post-9/11 Era: An Encyclopedia of Political Violence from Ancient Times to the Post-9/11 Era |last=Ciment |first=James |date=March 10, 2015 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=9781317451518 |access-date=January 31, 2018 |archive-date=November 7, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231107163430/https://books.google.com/books?id=3_0TBwAAQBAJ&pg=PT1225#v=onepage&q&f=false |url-status=live }}</ref> There were a series of deadly bombings in 1971, and the [[Central Intelligence Agency|CIA]] privately stated that Marcos was responsible for at least one of them.{{citation needed|date=June 2020}} US intelligence documents declassified in the 1990s contained further evidence implicating Marcos, provided by a CIA mole within the Philippine Army.<ref name="Blitz2000">{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=n2rdOhMdCDEC&pg=PA94|title=The Contested State: American Foreign Policy and Regime Change in the Philippines|last=Blitz|first=Amy|date=2000|publisher=Rowman & Littlefield|isbn=9780847699346|pages=106–112|access-date=January 31, 2018|archive-date=November 7, 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231107163430/https://books.google.com/books?id=n2rdOhMdCDEC&pg=PA94|url-status=live}}</ref>

Another false flag attack took place with the attempted assassination of Defense Minister [[Juan Ponce Enrile]] in 1972. [[Richard Nixon|President Nixon]] approved Marcos's martial law initiative immediately afterwards.<ref name="Blitz2000" />

===1971 suspension of the writ of ''habeas corpus''===
As a response to the Plaza Miranda bombing, Marcos issued ''Proclamation No. 889'', through which he assumed [[State of emergency|emergency powers]] and suspended the writ of habeas corpus<ref name="GovPH-PP889">{{cite web |title=Proclamation No. 889, s. 1971 |url=https://www.officialgazette.gov.ph/1971/08/21/proclamation-no-889-s-1971/ |website=Official Gazette of the Republic of the Philippines |access-date=June 2, 2020 |date=August 21, 1971 |archive-date=March 9, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210309005940/https://www.officialgazette.gov.ph/1971/08/21/proclamation-no-889-s-1971/ |url-status=live }}</ref> – an act which would later be seen as a prelude to the declaration of martial law more than a year later.<ref name="Simafrania2006">{{cite news |last=Simafrania |first=Eduardo D. |title=Commemorating Ninoy Aquino's assassination |work=[[The Manila Times]] |date=August 21, 2006 |url=http://www.manilatimes.net/national/2006/aug/21/yehey/opinion/20060821opi6.html |access-date=October 27, 2007 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071018070946/http://manilatimes.net/national/2006/aug/21/yehey/opinion/20060821opi6.html |archive-date=October 18, 2007}}</ref>

Marcos's suspension of the writ became the event that forced many members of the moderate opposition, such as [[Edgar Jopson]], to join the ranks of the radicals. In the aftermath of the bombing, Marcos lumped all of the opposition together and referred to them as communists, and many former moderates fled to the mountain encampments of the radical opposition to avoid being arrested by Marcos's forces. Those who became disenchanted with the excesses of the Marcos administration and wanted to join the opposition after 1971 often joined the ranks of the radicals, simply because they represented the only group vocally offering opposition to the Marcos government.<ref name="Pimentel2006">{{Cite book |title=U.G. an underground tale : the journey of Edgar Jopson and the first quarter storm generation |last=Pimentel |first=Benjamin |date=2006 |publisher=Anvil Publishing, Inc |isbn=978-9712715907 |location=Pasig |oclc=81146038}}</ref>{{Page needed|date=June 2020}}

===1972 Manila bombings===
{{Main|1972 Manila bombings}}

On the evening of September 23, 1972, President Ferdinand Marcos announced that he had placed the entirety of the Philippines under martial law.<ref name="govPhDeclarationMartialLaw" /> This marked the beginning of a 14-year period of one-man rule that would effectively last until Marcos was exiled from the country on February 25, 1986. Even though the formal document proclaiming martial law – Proclamation No. 1081 – was formally lifted on January 17, 1981, Marcos retained virtually all of his powers as dictator until he was ousted by the EDSA Revolution.<ref name="KaiFrancisco20160922">{{Cite news |url=https://www.rappler.com/newsbreak/iq/146939-martial-law-explainer-victims-stories |title=Martial Law, the dark chapter in Philippine history |last=Francisco |first=Katerina |date=September 22, 2016 |work=Rappler|access-date=June 29, 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160923155126/https://www.rappler.com/newsbreak/iq/146939-martial-law-explainer-victims-stories |archive-date=September 23, 2016 |url-status=live }}</ref> Plaza Miranda was soon followed by a series of about twenty explosions that took place in various locations in Metro Manila in the months immediately preceding [[Martial law under Ferdinand Marcos|Marcos's proclamation of martial law]].<ref name="KatePedroso160921">{{Cite news |url=http://newsinfo.inquirer.net/817651/september-1972-recalling-the-last-days-and-hours-of-democracy |title=September 1972: Recalling the last days and hours of democracy |author1=Minerva Generalao |author2=Kate Pedroso |newspaper=Philippine Daily Inquirer |date=September 21, 2016 |access-date=November 7, 2023 |archive-date=October 15, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231015122816/https://newsinfo.inquirer.net/817651/september-1972-recalling-the-last-days-and-hours-of-democracy |url-status=live }}</ref> The first of these bombings took place on March 15, 1972, and the last took place on September 11, 1972,<ref name="KatePedroso160921" /> twelve days before martial law was announced on September 23 of that year.

The Marcos regime officially attributed the explosions to communist "urban guerillas",<ref name="KatePedroso160921" /> and Marcos included them in the list of "inciting events" that served as rationalizations for his declaration of martial law.<ref name="Brillantes1987">{{Cite book |title=Dictatorship & martial law : Philippine authoritarianism in 1972 |last=Brillantes | first=Alex B. Jr. |date=1987 |publisher=[[University of the Philippines Diliman]] [[UP National College of Public Administration and Governance|School of Public Administration]] |isbn=978-9718567012 |location=Quezon City, Philippines}}</ref>{{additional citation needed|date=May 2020}} Marcos's political opposition at the time questioned the attribution of the explosions to the communists, noting that the only suspects caught in connection to the explosions were linked to the Philippine Constabulary.<ref name="Brillantes1987" />{{additional citation needed|date=May 2020}}

The sites of the 1972 Manila bombings included the Palace Theater and Joe's Department Store on Carriedo Street, both in Manila; the offices of the [[Philippine Long Distance Telephone Company]] (PLDT), Filipinas Orient Airways, and [[Philippine American Life and General Insurance Company]] (PhilamLife); the Cubao branch of the [[Philippine Trust Company]] (now known as PhilTrust Bank); the Senate Publication Division and the Philippine Sugar Institute in Quezon City, and the South Vietnamese embassy.<ref name="KatePedroso160921" />

However, only one of these incidents – the one in the Carriedo shopping mall – went beyond damage to property; one woman was killed and about 40 persons were injured.<ref name="Brillantes1987" />

==Martial law era (1972–1981)==
{{Main|Martial law under Ferdinand Marcos}}
{{See also|Proclamation No. 1081}}
[[File:Marcos Declares Martial Law.jpg|thumb|September 24, 1972, issue of the Sunday edition of the ''Philippine Daily Express'']]

Marcos's declaration of martial law became known to the public on September 23, 1972, when his press secretary, [[Francisco Tatad]], announced through the radio<ref name="nightDeclared">{{cite news |url=http://opinion.inquirer.net/78720/the-night-marcos-declared-martial-law |title=The night Marcos declared martial law |last=Doronila |first=Amando |date=September 24, 2014 |newspaper=Philippine Daily Inquirer |access-date=February 28, 2016 |archive-date=July 11, 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180711093515/http://opinion.inquirer.net/78720/the-night-marcos-declared-martial-law |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name="govPhDeclarationMartialLaw" /><ref name="fmDeclaresSundayExpress" /> that [[Proclamation № 1081]], which Marcos had supposedly signed two days earlier on September 21, had come into force and would extend Marcos's rule beyond the constitutional two-term limit.<ref>{{cite book|author=Mendoza Jr, Amado|chapter='People Power' in the Philippines, 1983–1986|editor1=Roberts, Adam |editor2=Ash, Timothy Garton|title=Civil resistance and power politics: the experience of non-violent action from Gandhi to the present |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2009 |isbn=978-0-19-955201-6 |page=181 |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=BxOQKrCe7UUC&pg=PA181}}</ref> [[Ruling by decree]], he almost dissolved [[freedom of the press|press freedom]] and other [[civil liberties]] to add propaganda machine, closed down Congress and media establishments, and ordered the arrest of opposition leaders and militant activists, including senators Benigno Aquino Jr., Jovito Salonga and Jose W. Diokno.<ref>{{cite book|author=Brands, H.W.|title=Bound to empire: the United States and the Philippines|publisher=Oxford University Press|year=1992|isbn=978-0-19-507104-7|page=[https://archive.org/details/boundtoempireuni00bran/page/298 298]|url=https://archive.org/details/boundtoempireuni00bran|url-access=registration}}</ref><ref name="uslc-28">{{cite book|editor-last=Dolan|editor-first=Ronald E.|title=Philippines: A Country Study|url=http://countrystudies.us/philippines/|chapter=28. Proclamation 1081 and Martial Law|chapter-url=http://countrystudies.us/philippines/28.htm|location=Washington|publisher=GPO for the Library of Congress|year=1991|access-date=January 24, 2011|archive-date=April 18, 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120418221927/http://countrystudies.us/philippines/|url-status=live}}</ref> Marcos claimed that martial law was the prelude to creating his ''Bagong Lipunan'', a "New Society" based on new social and political values.{{citation needed|date=June 2020}}

The early years of martial law gained public approval,<ref>{{cite book |work=United States Congress House Committee on Foreign Affairs Subcommittee on Asian and Pacific Affairs |title=The Situation and Outlook in the Philippines: Hearings Before the Subcommittee on Asian and Pacific Affairs of the Committee on Foreign Affairs, House of Representatives, Ninety-eighth Congress, Second Session, September 20 and October 4, 1984 |date=1985 |publisher=U.S. Government Printing Office |page=7 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=aXIOA1-mVg0C&pg=PA7 |access-date=March 27, 2022 }}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Case |first1=William |title=Politics in Southeast Asia: Democracy or Less |date=September 13, 2013 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-136-87121-4 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=is3bAAAAQBAJ&pg=PT217 |access-date=April 21, 2022 }}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Stern |first1=Tom |title=Nur Misuari: An Authorized Biography |date=November 1, 2017 |publisher=Anvil Publishing, Inc. |isbn=978-971-27-2934-8 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=GzWWDwAAQBAJ&pg=PT85 |access-date=April 21, 2022 }}</ref> as it was believed to have caused crime rates to drop.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Vreeland |first1=Nena |title=Area Handbook for the Philippines |date=1976 |publisher=U.S. Government Printing Office |pages=382–383 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=bfhuAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA383 |access-date=March 27, 2022 }}</ref>

===Arrests===
However, unlike Ninoy Aquino's Senate colleagues who were detained without charges, Ninoy, together with communist NPA leaders Lt. Corpuz and [[Bernabe Buscayno]], was charged with murder, illegal possession of firearms and subversion.<ref name="asianjournalusa.com">{{cite news|title=Max Soliven recalls Ninoy Aquino: Unbroken|url=http://asianjournalusa.com/max-soliven-recalls-ninoy-aquino-unbroken-p5828-87.htm|access-date=August 30, 2013|work=Philippines Star|date=October 10, 2008|archive-date=October 16, 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131016015855/http://asianjournalusa.com/max-soliven-recalls-ninoy-aquino-unbroken-p5828-87.htm|url-status=dead}}</ref>

===''Bagong Lipunan'' (New Society)===
{{Redirect|Bagong Lipunan|the song|Bagong Pagsilang}}
[[File:President Marcos and Hiroo Onoda.jpg|thumb|[[Imperial Japanese Army]] soldier [[Hiroo Onoda]] offering his military sword to Marcos on the day of his surrender on March 11, 1974]]

As one of his rationalizations for the declaration of martial law, Marcos said that there was a need to "reform society"<ref name="Brillantes1987" />{{rp|page=66}} by placing it under the control of a "benevolent dictator" which could guide the undisciplined populace through a period of chaos.<ref name="Brillantes1987" />{{rp|page=29}}<ref name="BeltranChingkawShadowsofTyrrany">{{Cite news |last1=Beltran |first1=J. C. A. |last2=Chingkaw |first2=Sean S. |date=October 20, 2016 |title=On the shadows of tyranny |work=The Guidon |url=https://www.theguidon.com/1112/main/2016/10/on-the-shadows-of-tyranny/ |access-date=June 20, 2020 |archive-date=July 31, 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200731095017/https://www.theguidon.com/1112/main/2016/10/on-the-shadows-of-tyranny/ |url-status=dead }}</ref> He referred to this social engineering exercise as the ''bagong lipunan'' or "new society"<ref name="OnyebadiMusicAsAPlatform">{{Cite book |last=Onyebadi |first=Uche |title=Music as a platform for political communication |date=February 14, 2017 |isbn=978-1-5225-1987-4 |location=Hershey, PA |oclc=972900349}}</ref>{{rp|page=13}} and the Marcos administration produced a range propaganda materials – including speeches, books, lectures, slogans, and numerous propaganda songs – to promote it.<ref name="OnyebadiMusicAsAPlatform" />{{rp|page=13}}<ref name="EsquireBagongSilangSong">{{Cite magazine |date=September 11, 2018 |title=Listen to 'Bagong Silang,' the Most Famous of Marcos-Era Propaganda Songs |url=https://www.esquiremag.ph/culture/music/the-bagong-lipunan-anthem-is-now-up-on-a-pro-fascism-youtube-channel-a00203-20180911 |magazine=[[Esquire (magazine)|Esquire Philippines]] |access-date=June 20, 2020 |archive-date=July 31, 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200731065137/https://www.esquiremag.ph/culture/music/the-bagong-lipunan-anthem-is-now-up-on-a-pro-fascism-youtube-channel-a00203-20180911 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name="NaveraMetaphorizingMartialLaw">{{Cite journal |last=Navera |first=G.S. |year=2019 |title=Metaphorizing Martial Law: Constitutional Authoritarianism in Marcos's Rhetoric (1972–1985) |journal=Philippine Studies |volume=66 |issue=4}}</ref>

According to Marcos's book ''Notes on the New Society'', it was a movement urging the poor and the privileged to work as one for the common goals of society and to achieve the liberation of the Filipino people through self-realization.{{citation needed|date=December 2018}}

The Marcos regime instituted a youth organization, known as the [[Kabataang Barangay]], which was led by Marcos's eldest daughter Imee. Presidential Decree 684, enacted in April 1975, encouraging youths aged 15 to 18 to go to camps and do volunteer work.<ref>{{cite book|author=McCoy, Alfred W.|title=An Anarchy of Families: State and Family in the Philippines|publisher=University of Wisconsin Press|year=2009|isbn=978-0-299-22984-9|page=17|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=fawaNZu-yqUC&pg=PA17}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|author=Wurfel, David|title=Filipino Politics: Development and Decay|publisher=Cornell University Press|year=1988|page=130|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=R-oK4ZetPIAC&pg=PA130|isbn=978-0-8014-9926-5}}</ref>

In October 1974, Marcos and the PKP-1930 entered into a "national unity agreement" by which the PKP-1930 would support New Society programs such as land reform, trade union reform, and including revitalized relations with the Soviet Bloc.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Wurfel |first=David |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=R-oK4ZetPIAC&pg=PA230 |title=Filipino Politics: Development and Decay |date=1991 |publisher=Cornell University Press |isbn=978-0-8014-9926-5 |pages=230 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last1=Quimpo |first1=Susan F. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=bd_FDAAAQBAJ |title=Subversive Lives: A Family Memoir of the Marcos Years |last2=Quimpo |first2=Nathan Gilbert |date=2016-07-29 |publisher=Ohio University Press |isbn=978-0-89680-495-1 |language=en |quote=The PKP viewed Marcos as a "nationalist capitalist" exercising a degree of independence from Washington. It made a negotiated settlement with Marcos in 1974. Thereafter, Marcos publicly announced the agreement as the surrender of the PKP. On the other hand, the PKP said that it achieved legality that it had long sought. |access-date=November 7, 2023 |archive-date=November 7, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231107165043/https://books.google.com/books?id=bd_FDAAAQBAJ |url-status=live }}</ref>

===Filipinization of Chinese schools===
To instill patriotism among Filipino citizens and prevent the growing number of Chinese schools from propagating foreign ideologies, Marcos issued Presidential Decree No. 176,<ref name="Lee-2013">{{cite book |last1=Lee |first1=Khoon Choy |title=Golden Dragon And Purple Phoenix: The Chinese And Their Multi-ethnic Descendants In Southeast Asia |date=March 26, 2013 |publisher=World Scientific |isbn=978-981-4518-49-9 |page=[https://books.google.com/books?id=wTa7CgAAQBAJ&pg=PA86 86] |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=wTa7CgAAQBAJ |access-date=May 3, 2022 |archive-date=November 7, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231107165044/https://books.google.com/books?id=wTa7CgAAQBAJ |url-status=live }}</ref> preventing any educational institution to be established exclusively for foreigners or offer any curriculum exclusively for foreigners,<ref>{{cite web |title=Presidential Decree No. 176, s. 1973 |url=https://www.officialgazette.gov.ph/1973/04/16/presidential-decree-no-176-s-1973/ |website=Official Gazette of the Republic of the Philippines |date=April 16, 1973 |access-date=May 3, 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170903160328/https://www.officialgazette.gov.ph/1973/04/16/presidential-decree-no-176-s-1973/ |archive-date=September 3, 2017}}</ref> and restricted the teaching of the [[Chinese language]] to not more than 100 minutes a day.<ref name="Suryadinata-2017">{{cite book |last1=Suryadinata |first1=Leo |title=Rise of China and the Chinese Overseas |date=January 26, 2017 |publisher=Flipside Digital Content Company Inc. |isbn=978-981-4762-66-3 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ax1qDwAAQBAJ&pg=PT154 |access-date=May 3, 2022 |archive-date=November 7, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231107165045/https://books.google.com/books?id=ax1qDwAAQBAJ&pg=PT154#v=onepage&q&f=false |url-status=live }}</ref>

===1973 martial law referendum===
Martial law was put on vote in July 1973 in the [[1973 Philippine martial law referendum]] and was marred with controversy<ref name="philippinesReadr" />{{Rp|page=191}}<ref name="politicalEconomyOfAuthoritarianism" /> resulting to 90.77% voting yes and 9.23% voting no.

===Rolex 12 and the military===
Along with Marcos, members of his [[Rolex 12]] circle like Defense Minister Juan Ponce Enrile, [[Chief of the Philippine Constabulary]] [[Fidel Ramos]], and [[Chief of Staff of the Armed Forces of the Philippines]] [[Fabian Ver]] were the chief administrators of martial law from 1972 to 1981, and the three remained President Marcos's closest advisers until he was ousted in 1986. Other peripheral members of the Rolex 12 included [[Eduardo Cojuangco Jr.|Eduardo "Danding" Cojuangco Jr.]] and [[Lucio Tan]].

Between 1972 and 1976, Marcos increased the size of the Philippine military from 65,000 to 270,000 personnel, in response to the fall of South Vietnam to the communists and the growing tide of communism in South East Asia. Military officers were placed on the [[board of directors|boards]] of a variety of media corporations, public utilities, development projects, and other private corporations, most of whom were highly educated and well-trained graduates of the Philippine Military Academy. At the same time, Marcos made efforts to foster the growth of a domestic weapons-manufacturing industry and heavily increased military spending.<ref>{{cite journal|author=Moran, Jon|title=Patterns of Corruption and Development in East Asia|journal=Third World Quarterly|volume=20|issue=3|date=June 1999|page=579|doi=10.1080/01436599913695}}</ref>

Many human rights abuses were attributed to the Philippine Constabulary which was then headed by future president Fidel Ramos. The [[Integrated Civilian Home Defense Forces|Civilian Home Defense Force]], a precursor of Civilian Armed Forces Geographical Unit (CAFGU), was organized by President Marcos to battle with the communist and Islamic insurgency problem, has particularly been accused of notoriously inflicting human right violations on leftists, the NPA, Muslim insurgents, and rebels against the Marcos government.<ref name="auto">{{cite book|author=Cesar Lumba|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=thzpCgAAQBAJ&pg=PT132|title=Once Upon a Blue Dot|date=November 6, 2015|publisher=AuthorHouse|isbn=9781504959117|access-date=November 7, 2023|archive-date=November 7, 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231107165046/https://books.google.com/books?id=thzpCgAAQBAJ&pg=PT132#v=onepage&q&f=false|url-status=live}}</ref>

===US foreign policy and martial law under Marcos===
By 1977, the armed forces had quadrupled and over 60,000 Filipinos had been arrested for political reasons. In 1981, Vice President [[George H. W. Bush]] praised Marcos for his "adherence to democratic principles and to the democratic processes".{{refn|name=BushMarcos|group=lower-alpha|There is some disagreement between sources about whether President Bush said ''principle''<ref>{{cite book|last=Smith|first=Tony|title=America's Mission: The United States and the Worldwide Struggle for Democracy|year=2012|publisher=Princeton University Press|isbn=978-1-4008-4202-5|page=281}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last=Shain|first=Yossi|title=Marketing the American Creed Abroad: Diasporas in the U.S. and Their Homelands|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=8pqj8GFCg7MC&pg=PA79|year=1999|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-0-521-64225-5|page=79}}</ref> or ''principles''<ref>{{cite book|last=Schmitz|first=David F.|title=The United States and Right-Wing Dictatorships, 1965–1989|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=1EV440YU6toC&pg=PA232|year=2006|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-1-139-45512-1|page=232}}</ref><ref name="Jones1983">{{cite journal |last1=Cheevers |first1=Jack |last2=Sherman |first2=Spencer A. |date=June 1983 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ZOYDAAAAMBAJ&pg=PT15 |title=The Palace Plot |journal=[[Mother Jones (magazine)|Mother Jones]] |page=35 |issn=0362-8841}}</ref>}} No American military or politician in the 1970s ever publicly questioned the authority of Marcos to help fight communism in South East Asia.{{citation needed|date=June 2020}}

From the declaration of martial law in 1972 until 1983, the US government provided $2.5 billion in bilateral military and economic aid to the Marcos regime, and about $5.5 billion through multilateral institutions such as the [[World Bank]].<ref>{{cite journal|author=Bello, Walden|title=Edging toward the Quagmire: The United States and the Philippine Crisis|journal=World Policy Journal|volume=3|issue=1|date=Winter 1985–1986|page=31}}</ref>

In a 1979 [[United States Senate|US Senate]] report, it was stated that US officials were aware, as early as 1973, that Philippine government agents were in the United States to harass Filipino dissidents. In June 1981, two anti-Marcos labor activists were assassinated outside of a union hall in Seattle. On at least one occasion, CIA agents blocked [[Federal Bureau of Investigation|FBI]] investigations of Philippine agents.<ref>{{cite book|author=Shalom, Stephen R.|title=Imperial alibis: rationalizing U.S. intervention after the cold war|publisher=[[South End Press]]|year=1993|isbn=978-0-89608-448-3|page=[https://archive.org/details/imperialalibisra0000shal/page/149 149]|url=https://archive.org/details/imperialalibisra0000shal|url-access=registration}}</ref>

===Withdrawal of Taiwan relations in favor of the People's Republic of China===
{{Main|Philippines–Taiwan relations|China–Philippines relations}}

Prior to the Marcos administration, the Philippine government had maintained a close relationship with the [[Kuomintang]]-ruled [[Republic of China]] (ROC) government which had fled to the island of [[Free area of the Republic of China|Taiwan]], despite the victory of the [[Chinese Communist Party]] in the 1949 [[Chinese Communist Revolution]]. Prior administrations had seen the [[People's Republic of China]] (PRC) as a security threat, due to its financial and military support of communist rebels in the country.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Zhao|first=Hong|url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/23595518|title=Sino-Philippines Relations: Moving beyond South China Sea Dispute?|journal=Journal of East Asian Affairs|volume=26|issue=2|year=2012|pages=57–76|jstor=23595518|access-date=September 14, 2021|url-access=|via=JSTOR|issn=1010-1608|archive-date=September 14, 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210914214220/https://www.jstor.org/stable/23595518|url-status=live}}</ref>

By 1969, however, Ferdinand Marcos started publicly asserting the need for the Philippines to establish a diplomatic relationship with the People's Republic of China. In his 1969 State of the Nation Address, he said:<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.officialgazette.gov.ph/1969/01/27/ferdinand-e-marcos-fourth-state-of-the-nation-address-january-27-1969/|title=Ferdinand E. Marcos, Fourth State of the Nation Address|date=January 27, 1969|website=Official Gazette of the Republic of the Philippines|publisher=Government of the Philippines|access-date=November 7, 2023|archive-date=May 23, 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220523184404/https://www.officialgazette.gov.ph/1969/01/27/ferdinand-e-marcos-fourth-state-of-the-nation-address-january-27-1969/|url-status=live}}</ref> {{blockquote|We, in Asia must strive toward a modus vivendi with Red China. I reiterate this need, which is becoming more urgent each day. Before long, Communist China will have increased its striking power a thousand fold with a sophisticated delivery system for its nuclear weapons. We must prepare for that day. We must prepare to coexist peaceably with Communist China.|Ferdinand Marcos|January 1969}}

In June 1975, President Marcos went to the PRC and signed a Joint Communiqué normalizing relations between the Philippines and China. Among other things, the Communiqué recognizes that "there is but one China and that Taiwan is an integral part of Chinese territory…" In turn, Chinese Prime Minister [[Zhou Enlai]] also pledged that China would not intervene in the internal affairs of the Philippines nor seek to impose its policies in Asia, a move which isolated the local communist movement that China had financially and militarily supported.<ref>{{cite journal|url=http://pascn.pids.gov.ph/files/Discussions%20Papers/1999/pascndp9916.pdf|title=The Political Economy of Philippines-China Relations|author=Benito Lim|journal=Discussion Paper|publisher=Philippine APEC Study Center Network|date=September 1999|access-date=September 21, 2016|archive-date=November 4, 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161104015927/http://pascn.pids.gov.ph/files/Discussions%20Papers/1999/pascndp9916.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="web.stanford.edu">{{cite web|url=https://web.stanford.edu/group/mappingmilitants/cgi-bin/groups/view/149|title=Communist Party of the Philippines–New People's Army – Mapping Militant Organizations|first=Daniel|last=Cassman|website=web.stanford.edu|access-date=September 18, 2021|archive-date=December 30, 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171230081441/https://web.stanford.edu/group/mappingmilitants/cgi-bin/groups/view/149|url-status=live}}</ref>

''The Washington Post'', in an interview with former Philippine Communist Party officials, revealed that, "they (local communist party officials) wound up languishing in China for 10 years as unwilling "guests" of the (Chinese) government, feuding bitterly among themselves and with the party leadership in the Philippines".<ref name="washingtonpost.com" />

The government subsequently captured NPA leaders Bernabe Buscayno in 1976 and Jose Maria Sison in 1977.<ref name="web.stanford.edu" />

===1978 Philippine parliamentary election===
By 1977, reports of "gross human rights violations" had led to pressure from the international community, including newly elected US President [[Jimmy Carter]], put pressure on the Marcos Administration to release Ninoy Aquino and to hold parliamentary elections to demonstrate that some "normalization" had begun after the declaration of martial law.<ref name="JenFrancoElectionsandDemocratization">{{Cite book |last=Franco |first=Jennifer |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=LIkECwAAQBAJ&pg=PT168 |title=Elections and Democratization in the Philippines |publisher=Routledge |year=2001 |isbn=978-1-136-54191-9 |access-date=September 3, 2020 |archive-date=November 7, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231107165046/https://books.google.com/books?id=LIkECwAAQBAJ&pg=PT168#v=onepage&q&f=false |url-status=live }}</ref>{{rp|page=168}} Marcos did not release Aquino, but announced that the [[1978 Philippine parliamentary election]] would be held in 1978.<ref name="JenFrancoElectionsandDemocratization" />{{rp|page=168}}

The elections were held on April 7, 1978, for the election of the 166 (of the 208) regional representatives to the [[Interim Batasang Pambansa]] (the nation's first parliament). The elections were contested by several parties including Ninoy Aquino's newly formed party, the ''[[Lakas ng Bayan]]'' (LABAN) and the regime's party known as the ''[[Kilusang Bagong Lipunan]]'' (KBL).

The Ninoy Aquino's LABAN party fielded 21 candidates for the Metro Manila area<ref name="Roces">{{cite news |work=The Philippine Star |url=http://www.philstar.com/opinion/354387/lakas-ng-bayan-candidates |title=Lakas ng Bayan candidates |first=Alejandro R. |last=Roces |access-date=September 25, 2016 |archive-date=October 5, 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161005063047/http://www.philstar.com/opinion/354387/lakas-ng-bayan-candidates |url-status=live }}</ref> including Ninoy himself, activist Jerry Barican, labor leader Alex Boncayao,<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/Alex-Boncayao-Brigade|title=Alex Boncayao Brigade &#124; Filipino death squad|website=Encyclopedia Britannica|access-date=September 25, 2016|archive-date=October 11, 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161011224348/https://www.britannica.com/topic/Alex-Boncayao-Brigade|url-status=live}}</ref> [[Neptali Gonzales]], Teofisto Guingona Jr. [[Ramon Mitra Jr.]], Aquilino Pimentel Jr., journalist [[Napoleon Rama]], publisher [[Alejandro Roces]], and poet-playwright [[Francisco Rodrigo]].

Irregularities noted during the election included "prestuffed ballot boxes, phony registration, 'flying voters', manipulated election returns, and vote buying",<ref name="Case2013">{{Cite book |last=Case |first=William |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=is3bAAAAQBAJ&q=lakas+ng+bayan+1978&pg=PT306 |title=Politics in Southeast Asia: Democracy or Less |date=September 13, 2013 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-136-87121-4 |access-date=October 25, 2020 |archive-date=November 7, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231107165047/https://books.google.com/books?id=is3bAAAAQBAJ&q=lakas+ng+bayan+1978&pg=PT306#v=onepage&q=lakas%20ng%20bayan%201978&f=false |url-status=live }}</ref> and LABAN's campaigning faced restrictions,<ref name="Case2013" /> including Marcos's refusal to let Aquino out of prison in order to campaign. All of the party's candidates, including Aquino, lost the election. 
[[File:His excellency the President welcomes the New Zealand Prime Minister, 27 January 1980.jpg|thumb|Marcos greeting [[Robert Muldoon]] on the latter's official visit to the Philippines, 1980. [[New Zealand]] was a valuable strategic partner for the country in the last years of Marcos's rule.]]
Marcos's KBL party won 137 seats, while Pusyon Bisaya led by [[Hilario Davide Jr.]], who later became the Minority Floor Leader, won 13 seats.

===Prime minister===
In 1978, Ferdinand Marcos became [[Prime Minister of the Philippines]], marking the return of the position for the first time since the terms of [[Pedro Paterno]] and [[Jorge B. Vargas|Jorge Vargas]] during the American occupation. Based on ''Article 9'' of the 1973 constitution, it had broad executive powers that would be typical of modern prime ministers in other countries. The position was the official head of government, and the commander-in-chief of the armed forces. All of the previous powers of the President from the 1935 Constitution were transferred to the newly restored office of prime minister. The prime minister also acted as head of the National Economic Development Authority. Upon his re-election to the presidency in 1981, Marcos was succeeded as prime minister by an American-educated leader and [[Wharton School of the University of Pennsylvania|Wharton]] graduate, [[Cesar Virata]], who was elected as an Assemblyman (Member of the Parliament) from Cavite in 1978. He is the eponym of the Cesar Virata School of Business, the business school of the [[University of the Philippines Diliman]].

===Proclamation No. 2045===
After putting in force amendments to the constitution and legislative action,<ref name="Celoza-1997" /> President Marcos issued ''Proclamation 2045'', which lifted martial law, on January 17, 1981,<ref name="GovPH-PP2045">{{cite web |title=Proclamation No. 2045, s. 1981 |url=https://www.officialgazette.gov.ph/1981/01/17/proclamation-no-2045-s-1981/ |website=Official Gazette of the Republic of the Philippines |access-date=June 2, 2020 |date=January 17, 1981 |archive-date=February 2, 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200202194842/https://www.officialgazette.gov.ph/1981/01/17/proclamation-no-2045-s-1981/ |url-status=live }}</ref> while retaining the suspension of the privilege of the writ of ''habeas corpus'' for rebellion and subversion-related crimes.<ref name="Celoza-1997" /> The lifting of martial law was timed with the election of US President [[Ronald Reagan]] and the visit of [[Pope John Paul II]], to get support from Reagan and minimize criticism from the Pope.<ref name="Celoza-1997">{{cite book |last1=Celoza |first1=Albert F. |title=Ferdinand Marcos and the Philippines: The Political Economy of Authoritarianism |date=1997 |publisher=Greenwood Publishing Group |isbn=978-0-275-94137-6 |page=[https://books.google.com/books?id=Sp3U1oCNKlgC&pg=PA73 73] |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Sp3U1oCNKlgC |access-date=April 21, 2022 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=In many tongues, pope championed religious freedoms|url=http://www.sptimes.com/2005/04/03/Worldandnation/In_many_tongues__pope.shtml |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20050424090414/http://www.sptimes.com/2005/04/03/Worldandnation/In_many_tongues__pope.shtml |url-status=dead |archive-date=April 24, 2005|work=[[St. Petersburg Times]]|access-date=August 21, 2006}}</ref>

==Third term (1981–1986)==
{{Main|1981 Philippine presidential election and referendum}}
[[File:Ferdinand Marcos and George Shultz DA-SC-84-05877.JPEG|thumb|Ferdinand Marcos with US Secretary of State [[George Shultz]], 1982]]

On June 16, 1981, six months after the lifting of martial law, the [[1981 Philippine presidential election and referendum|first presidential election in twelve years]] was held. President Marcos ran while the major opposition parties, the [[United Nationalists Democratic Organizations]] (UNIDO), a coalition of opposition parties and LABAN, boycotted the election. Marcos won a massive victory over the other candidates.<ref name="Steinberg">{{cite book|title=The Philippines: a singular and a plural place |first=David Joel |last=Steinberg|publisher=Westview Press |year=2000 |isbn=978-0-8133-3755-5 |page=135}}</ref>

The third inauguration took place on Tuesday, June 30, 1981, at the [[Quirino Grandstand]] in Manila.<ref>{{Cite speech |date=June 30, 1981 |title=Third Inaugural Address of President Marcos, June 30, 1981 |url=https://www.officialgazette.gov.ph/1981/06/30/third-inaugural-address-of-president-marcos-june-30-1981/ |access-date=June 2, 2023 |publisher=Official Gazette of the Republic of the Philippines}}</ref> The oath of office was administered by [[Chief Justice of the Supreme Court of the Philippines]] [[Enrique Fernando]]. The inauguration had then [[Vice President of the United States|U.S. Vice President]] [[George H. W. Bush]], [[Prime Minister of Singapore|Singaporean Prime Minister]] [[Lee Kuan Yew]], future [[President of the People's Republic of China|President of China]] [[Yang Shangkun]] and [[Prime Minister of Thailand|Thai Prime Minister]] [[Prem Tinsulanonda]] in attendance. This is when Bush made the infamous praise for Marcos: "We love your adherence to democratic principles and to the democratic process."<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20080304202331/http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,960545-4,00.html Time (magazine)] A Test for Democracy</ref> The inauguration ceremonies started at 6:50 AM [[Philippine Standard Time|PST]] ([[UTC+08:00|GMT+8]]) to avoid the heat and afternoon rains. The inauguration was also televised live.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Bonner |first1=Raymond |url=https://archive.org/details/unset0000unse_h4o8/page/310/mode/2up?q=The+inaugural+festivities+were+held+in+Luneta+Park%2C+beginning+at+6%3A50+A.M.+to+avoid+the+heat+and+afternoon+rains.+They+were+televised+live |title=Waltzing with a dictator : The Marcoses and the making of American policy |year=1988 |publisher=Vintage Books |isbn=9780394758350}}</ref>

===Armed conflict with the CPP–NPA===
The Martial Law period, which had lasted from September 1972 to January 1981, had been a period of significant growth for the Communist Party of the Philippines and the New People's army because the implementation of Martial Law had the effect of radicalizing otherwise moderate protesters.<ref name="RebellionRepressionPh" />{{rp|page=43}}<ref name="marcosMartialLawNeverAgain" /> This continued into the 1980s, with the NPA able to establish itself in urban areas and with the NDF able to form relationships with legal opposition organizations - all despite Marcos' claims in January 1981 that the conflict had been "substantially contained."<ref name="Celoza-1997" /><ref name="GovPH-PP2045"/> The killing of key leaders in Davao city in the opening years of the 1980s led the administration to claim that the CPP "backbone" in the south had broken,”<ref>Philippine News Agency. “Communist backbone in south broken.” Times Journal, Vol. X, No. 336, September 23, 1982.</ref>  But the remaining leaders soon began to experiment with new tactics including urban insurrectionism, leading the international press to label Davao City as the "Killing Fields, and as "the Philippines' "Murder Capital."<ref name="ChapmanPost">{{Cite news |last=Chapman |first=William |date=1985-05-19 |title=A Philippine Laboratory Of Revolution |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/archive/opinions/1985/05/19/a-philippine-laboratory-of-revolution/a91a2664-f069-4886-8247-3c14514d3ebf/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230401144754/https://www.washingtonpost.com/archive/opinions/1985/05/19/a-philippine-laboratory-of-revolution/a91a2664-f069-4886-8247-3c14514d3ebf/ |archive-date=2023-04-01 |access-date=2024-01-07 |newspaper=Washington Post |language=en-US |issn=0190-8286}}</ref>  The violence reached its peak in 1985 with 1,282 military and police deaths and 1,362 civilian deaths.<ref name="web.stanford.edu" />

===1980s economic collapse===
The Marcos administration's spending had relied heavily on debt since Marcos's first term in the 60s. This left the Philippines vulnerable when high inflation caused the US to raise interest rates from 1980 to 1982, which caused US recessions in 1980 and again in the 3rd quarter of 1981.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Recession of 1981–82 {{!}} Federal Reserve History |url=https://www.federalreservehistory.org/essays/recession-of-1981-82 |access-date=2024-03-08 |website=www.federalreservehistory.org}}</ref><ref name="EJGuido&CheDeLosReyes20170921" /> The Philippine economy also began going into decline in 1981, continuing to do so by the time of the Benigno Aquino Jr. assassination in 1983. The economic and political instability combined to produce the worst recession in Philippine history in 1984 and 1985, with the economy contracting by 7.3% for two successive years<ref name="EJGuido&CheDeLosReyes20170921" /> and poverty incidence at 49% or almost half the Philippine population.<ref name="povertyInequalityGrowthPhilippines">{{cite book |last1=Balisacan |first1=Arsenio M.|last2=Pernia|first2=Enresto |title=Poverty, Growth, and Institutions in Developing Asia |publisher=[[Palgrave Macmillan]] |isbn=978-1-349-51389-5 |pages=219–246 |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/304752126 |access-date=April 16, 2022}}</ref>

===Aquino's assassination===
{{Main|Assassination of Ninoy Aquino}}
[[File:MarcosinWashington1983.jpg|thumb|upright|President Ferdinand Marcos in Washington in 1982]]

On August 21, 1983, opposition leader Benigno Aquino Jr. was assassinated on the tarmac at [[Ninoy Aquino International Airport|Manila International Airport]]. He had returned to the Philippines after three years in exile in the United States, where he had a heart bypass operation to save his life after Marcos allowed him to leave the Philippines to seek medical care. Prior to his heart surgery, Ninoy, along with his two co-accused, NPA leaders Bernabe Buscayno (Commander Dante) and Lt. Victor Corpuz, were sentenced to death by a military commission on charges of murder, illegal possession of firearms and subversion.<ref name="asianjournalusa.com" />

A few months before his assassination, Ninoy had decided to return to the Philippines after his research fellowship from [[Harvard University]] had finished. The opposition blamed Marcos directly for the assassination while others blamed the military and his wife, Imelda. Popular speculation pointed to three suspects; the first was Marcos himself through his trusted military chief Fabian Ver; the second theory pointed to his wife Imelda who had her own burning ambition now that her ailing husband seemed to be getting weaker, and the third theory was that Danding Cojuangco planned the assassination because of his own political ambitions.<ref name="inquirerOrderedHit">{{cite news|url=http://globalnation.inquirer.net/columns/columns/view/20090819-221072/Who-ordered-the-hit-on-Ninoy-Aquino|title=Who ordered the hit on Ninoy Aquino?|last=Rodis|first=Rodel|newspaper=Philippine Daily Inquirer|date=August 19, 2009|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090822122022/http://globalnation.inquirer.net/columns/columns/view/20090819-221072/Who-ordered-the-hit-on-Ninoy-Aquino|archive-date=August 22, 2009}}</ref> The 1985 acquittals of Chief of Staff General Fabian Ver as well as other high-ranking military officers charged with the crime were widely seen as a [[Whitewash (censorship)|whitewash]] and a miscarriage of justice.

On November 22, 2007, Pablo Martinez, one of the soldiers convicted in the assassination of Ninoy Aquino, alleged that it was [[Cronies of Ferdinand Marcos|Marcos crony]] Danding Cojuangco who ordered the assassination of Ninoy Aquino Jr. while Marcos was recuperating from his kidney transplant. Cojuangco is the cousin of Aquino's wife Corazon Cojuangco Aquino. Martinez also alleged only he and Galman knew of the assassination, and that Galman was the actual shooter, which is not corroborated by other evidence of the case.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://archives.newsbreak-knowledge.ph/2007/11/23/transcript-of-abs-cbn-interview-with-pablo-martinez-co-accused-in-the-aquino-murder-case/|title=Transcript of ABS-CBN Interview with Pablo Martinez, co-accused in the Aquino murder case|access-date=April 19, 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150628232250/http://archives.newsbreak-knowledge.ph/2007/11/23/transcript-of-abs-cbn-interview-with-pablo-martinez-co-accused-in-the-aquino-murder-case/|archive-date=June 28, 2015|url-status=dead}}</ref>

After the February 1986 People Power revolution swept Aquino's widow to the presidency, the Supreme Court ordered a retrial of Aquino's assassination.<ref name=":7">{{Cite web|last=Grande|first=Gigi|date=August 20, 2018|title=A tale of two triggermen|url=https://news.abs-cbn.com/focus/08/21/18/a-tale-of-two-triggermen|access-date=May 6, 2021|website=ABS-CBN News|archive-date=May 6, 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210506205820/https://news.abs-cbn.com/focus/08/21/18/a-tale-of-two-triggermen|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|last=Panganiban|first=Artemio V.|date=August 26, 2018|title=Who masterminded Ninoy's murder?|url=https://opinion.inquirer.net/115635/masterminded-ninoys-murder|access-date=May 6, 2021|website=Inquirer|archive-date=May 6, 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210506120041/https://opinion.inquirer.net/115635/masterminded-ninoys-murder|url-status=live}}</ref> The Sandiganbayan convicted 16 military personnel for the murder, ruling that Constable 1st Class Rogelio Moreno, one of the military escorts assigned to Aquino, "fired the fatal shot" that killed Aquino, not Galman.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Gavilan|first=Jodesz|date=August 20, 2016|title=Look Back: The Aquino assassination|url=https://www.rappler.com/newsbreak/iq/look-back-ninoy-aquino-assassination|access-date=May 6, 2021|website=Rappler|archive-date=October 30, 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201030222807/https://www.rappler.com/newsbreak/iq/look-back-ninoy-aquino-assassination|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name=":7" />

===Impeachment attempt===
In August 1985, 56 Assemblymen signed a resolution calling for the [[impeachment]] of President Marcos for alleged diversion of US aid for personal use,<ref>{{cite book|author=Blitz, Amy|title=The contested state: American foreign policy and regime change in the Philippines|publisher=Rowman & Littlefield|year=2000|isbn=978-0-8476-9934-6|pages=167–168|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=n2rdOhMdCDEC&pg=PA167}}</ref> citing a July 1985 ''[[San Jose Mercury News]]'' exposé of the Marcos's multimillion-dollar investment and property holdings in the United States.

The properties allegedly amassed by the First Family were the Crown Building, Lindenmere Estate, and a number of residential apartments (in New Jersey and New York), a shopping center in New York, mansions (in London, Rome, and Honolulu), the Helen Knudsen Estate in Hawaii, and three condominiums in San Francisco, California.

The Assembly also included in the complaint the misuse and misapplication of funds "for the construction of the [[Manila Film Center]], where X-rated and pornographic films{{citation needed|date=September 2016}} are exhibited, contrary to public morals and Filipino customs and traditions." The impeachment attempt gained little real traction, however, even in the light of this incendiary charge; the committee to which the impeachment resolution was referred did not recommend it, and any momentum for removing Marcos under constitutional processes soon died.{{citation needed|date=May 2014}}

===Physical decline===
{{See also|People Power Revolution}}

During his third term, Marcos's health deteriorated rapidly due to kidney ailments, as a complication of a chronic autoimmune disease ''[[lupus erythematosus]]''. He had a kidney transplant in August 1983, and when his body rejected the first kidney transplant, he underwent a second transplant in November 1984.<ref name="Los Angeles Times">{{cite news|title=Marcos Underwent Kidney Transplants, Doctors Say|url=https://www.latimes.com/archives/la-xpm-1985-11-11-mn-3824-story.html|work=[[Los Angeles Times]]|date=November 11, 1985|access-date=February 20, 2020|archive-date=January 19, 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190119092425/http://articles.latimes.com/1985-11-11/news/mn-3824_1_kidney-transplants|url-status=live}}</ref> Marcos's regime was sensitive to publicity of his condition; a palace physician who alleged that during one of these periods Marcos had undergone a [[kidney transplant]] was shortly afterwards found murdered. Police said he was kidnapped and slain by communist rebels.<ref name="Los Angeles Times" /> Many people questioned whether he still had capacity to govern, due to his grave illness and the burgeoning political unrest.<ref>{{cite book|author=Wurfel, David|title=Filipino Politics: Development and Decay|publisher=Cornell University Press|year=1988|page=289|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=R-oK4ZetPIAC&pg=PA289|isbn=978-0-8014-9926-5}}</ref> With Marcos ailing, his powerful wife, Imelda, emerged as the government's main public figure. Marcos dismissed speculations of his ailing health as he used to be an avid golfer and fitness buff who liked showing off his physique.

By 1984, US President [[Ronald Reagan]] started distancing himself from the Marcos regime that he and previous American presidents had strongly supported even after Marcos declared martial law. The United States, which had provided hundreds of millions of dollars in aid, was crucial in buttressing Marcos's rule over the years,<ref>{{cite news|last=Pace|first=Eric|title=Autocrat With a Regal Manner, Marcos Ruled for 2 Decades|url=https://select.nytimes.com/gst/abstract.html?res=FA0715FE3A5E0C7A8EDDA00894D1484D81|archive-url=https://archive.today/20120714124930/http://select.nytimes.com/gst/abstract.html?res=FA0715FE3A5E0C7A8EDDA00894D1484D81|url-status=dead|archive-date=July 14, 2012|access-date=January 24, 2011|work=The New York Times|date=September 29, 1989}}</ref> although during the [[Presidency of Jimmy Carter|Carter administration]] the relationship with the US had soured somewhat when President Jimmy Carter targeted the Philippines in his [[human rights]] campaign.

==Economic performance==
{{Main|Economy of the Philippines under Ferdinand Marcos}}
[[File:GDP per capita development in the Philippines 1965-1986.svg|thumb|305px|right|Real GPD per capita development of the Philippines, 1965 to 1986]]
{{Infobox
|name =
|title = <small>Economy of the Philippines under</small><br />President Ferdinand Marcos<br /><small>1966–1971</small>
|titlestyle =
|above =
|imagestyle =
|captionstyle =
|image =
|caption =
|image2 =
|caption2 =
|bodystyle = width:26em; padding: 0px;
|abovestyle = background: lightblue;
|headerstyle = background: lightblue;
|labelstyle = font-weight: normal;
|header1 = Population
|label2 = '''1967'''
|data2 = <math>\approx</math> 33.71&nbsp;million
|header3 = Gross Domestic Product (1985 constant prices)
|label4 = '''1966'''
|data4 = {{increase}} [[Philippine peso|₱]]285,886 million
|label5 = '''1971'''
|data5 = {{increase}} ₱361,791 million
|label6 = '''Growth rate, 1966–71 average'''
|data6 = 4.75%
|header7 = Per capita income (1985 constant prices)
|label8 = '''1967'''
|data8 = {{increase}} ₱8,932
|label9 = '''1971'''
|data9 = {{increase}} ₱9,546
|header10 = Total exports
|label11 = '''1966'''
|data11 = {{increase}} ₱70,254 million
|label12 = '''1971'''
|data12 = {{decrease}} ₱63,626 million
|header13 = [[Exchange rate]]s
|data14 = USD1 = ₱6.44<br />₱1 = USD0.16
|data15 = ''Sources'':<ref name="malacanang.gov.ph">{{cite web|url=http://malacanang.gov.ph/presidents/fourth-republic/ferdinand-marcos/#efs-tabpane-1-3|title=malacanang.gov.ph|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120826033152/http://malacanang.gov.ph/presidents/fourth-republic/ferdinand-marcos/#efs-tabpane-1-3|archive-date=August 26, 2012}}</ref>
}}
{{Infobox
|name =
|title = <small>Economy of the Philippines under</small><br />President Ferdinand Marcos<br /><small>1972–1985</small>
|titlestyle =
|above =
|imagestyle =
|captionstyle =
|image =
|caption =
|image2 =
|caption2 =
|bodystyle = width:26em; padding: 0px;
|abovestyle = background: lightblue;
|headerstyle = background: lightblue;
|labelstyle = font-weight: normal;
|header1 = Population
|label2 = '''1985'''
|data2 = <math>\approx</math> 54.3&nbsp;million
|header3 = Gross Domestic Product (1985 constant prices)
|label4 = '''1972'''
|data4 = {{increase}} [[Philippine peso|₱]] 381,497 million
|label5 = '''1985'''
|data5 = {{increase}} ₱571,883 million
|label6 = '''Growth rate, 1972–85 average'''
|data6 = 3.43%
|header7 = Per capita income (1985 constant prices)
|label8 = '''1972'''
|data8 = {{increase}} ₱9,802
|label9 = '''1985'''
|data9 = {{increase}} ₱10,524
|header10 = [[Exchange rate]]s
|data11 = USD1 = ₱20<br />₱1 = USD0.05
|data12 = ''Sources'':<ref name="malacanang.gov.ph"/><ref name="wb">{{cite web|title=Philippines|url=http://data.worldbank.org/country/philippines|website=The World Bank|access-date=November 28, 2016|archive-date=November 27, 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161127121113/http://data.worldbank.org/country/philippines|url-status=live}}</ref>
}}

The 21-year period of Philippine economic history during Ferdinand Marcos's regime – from his election in 1965 until he was ousted by the People Power Revolution in 1986 – was a period of significant economic highs and lows.<ref>{{cite news|title=Martial law: costly lessons in economic development|url=http://www.gmanetwork.com/news/money/content/172779/martial-law-costly-lessons-in-economic-development/story/|access-date=December 14, 2018|date=September 21, 2009|work=GMA News|archive-date=November 3, 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181103210343/http://www.gmanetwork.com/news/money/content/172779/martial-law-costly-lessons-in-economic-development/story/|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="EJGuido&CheDeLosReyes20170921">{{cite news |last1=Guido |first1=Edson Joseph |last2=de los Reyes |first2=Che |title=The best of times? Data debunk Marcos's economic 'golden years' |work=ABS-CBN News |year=2017 |url=https://news.abs-cbn.com/business/09/21/17/the-best-of-times-data-debunk-marcoss-economic-golden-years |access-date=November 29, 2018 |archive-date=November 3, 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181103210619/https://news.abs-cbn.com/business/09/21/17/the-best-of-times-data-debunk-marcoss-economic-golden-years |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name="Kasaysayan9ch10" />

Philippine Annual Gross Domestic Product grew from $5.27 billion in 1964 to $37.14 billion in 1982, a year prior to the assassination of Ninoy Aquino. The GDP went down to $30.7 billion in 1985, after two years of economic recession brought about by political instability following Ninoy's assassination.<ref name="data.worldbank.org">{{cite web|url=http://data.worldbank.org/indicator/NY.GDP.MKTP.CD?locations=PH|title=GDP (current US$) – Data|website=data.worldbank.org|access-date=September 20, 2016|archive-date=September 23, 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160923182558/http://data.worldbank.org/indicator/NY.GDP.MKTP.CD?locations=PH|url-status=live}}</ref> A considerable amount of this money went to the Marcos family and friends in the form of behest loans.<ref>{{cite web | url=https://newsinfo.inquirer.net/1002394/sc-clears-marcoses-cronies-on-behest-loans#:~:text=Behest%20loans%20are%20those%20extended,tens%20of%20billions%20of%20pesos. | title=SC clears Marcoses, cronies on behest loans | publisher=Philippine Daily Inquirer | date=20 June 2018 | accessdate=12 November 2023 | author=Ramos, Marlon}}</ref>

===Poverty and inequality===
[[Susan Quimpo]] recounts that times were hard financially during the Marcos regime, so much so that citizens had to line up for rice rations due to rice shortage, and that the government told citizens to consume corn instead.<ref name="subversiveLives1">{{cite news|url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3DFD5TmBVAk| archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200902204056/https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3DFD5TmBVAk&gl=US&hl=en| archive-date=September 2, 2020 | url-status=dead|title=NTG: 'Subversive Lives,' libro tungkol sa pinagdaanan ng Pamilya Quimpo noong Martial Law|publisher=GMA News|date=September 23, 2014}}</ref>

In ''The Making of the Philippines,'' Frank Senauth (p.&nbsp;103) says:<ref>{{cite book|author=Frank Senauth|title=The Making of the Philippines|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=r-_X3Tn3NTQC&q=From+1972+to+1980,+agricultural+production+fell+by+30%25+philippines&pg=PA103|page=103|isbn=9781468552317|date=March 15, 2012|publisher=AuthorHouse|access-date=October 25, 2020|archive-date=November 7, 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231107165049/https://books.google.com/books?id=r-_X3Tn3NTQC&q=From+1972+to+1980,+agricultural+production+fell+by+30%25+philippines&pg=PA103|url-status=live}}</ref>

<blockquote>Marcos himself diverted large sums of government money to his party's campaign funds. Between 1972 and 1980, the average monthly income of wage workers had fallen by 20%. By 1981, the wealthiest 10% of the population was receiving twice as much income as the bottom 60%.<ref name="Morada-1998-p554">{{cite book|author1=Morada, Noel M. |author2=Collier, Christopher|chapter=The Philippines: State Versus Society?|editor=Alagappa, Muthiah|title=Asian security practice: material and ideational influences|publisher=Stanford University Press|year=1998|isbn=978-0-8047-3348-9|page=554|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=1t2DRZeDVx8C&pg=PA554}}</ref></blockquote>

===Debt===
To help finance a number of economic development projects, the Marcos government borrowed large amounts of money from international lenders.<ref name="Boyce-1993-p10" /><ref>See {{cite book|author=Hutchcroft, Paul David|title=Booty capitalism: the politics of banking in the Philippines|publisher=Cornell University Press|year=1998|isbn=978-0-8014-3428-0|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=IqlmT6BsFoQC}}</ref> The [[external debt of the Philippines]] rose more than 70-fold from $360 million in 1962 to $26.2 billion in 1985,<ref>{{cite book|series=Developing Country Debt and Economic Performance, Volume 3: Country Studies – Indonesia, Korea, Philippines, Turkey|title=Introduction to "The Marcos Legacy: Economic Policy and Foreign Debt in the Philippines"|publisher=National Bureau of Economic Research|date=1989|url=https://www.nber.org/chapters/c9047.pdf|access-date=March 9, 2018|archive-date=April 3, 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180403141748/http://www.nber.org/chapters/c9047.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref> making the Philippines one of the most indebted countries in Asia.<ref name="Boyce-1993-p10">{{cite book|author=Boyce, James K.|title=The political economy of growth and impoverishment in the Marcos era|publisher=Ateneo de Manila University Press|year=1993|isbn=978-971-550-096-8|page=10|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=IAL5Dx5SWy4C&pg=PA10}}</ref>

The country's total external debt rose from US$2.3 billion in 1970 to US$26.2 billion in 1985 during Marcos's term. Marcos's critics charged that policies have become debt-driven with rampant corruption and plunder of public funds by Marcos and his [[Marcos Cronies|cronies]]. This held the country under a debt-servicing crisis which is expected to be fixed by only 2025. Critics have pointed out an elusive state of the country's development as the period is marred by a sharp devaluing of the Philippine Peso from 3.9 to 20.53. The overall economy experienced a slower growth GDP per capita, lower wage conditions and higher unemployment especially toward the end of Marcos's term after the 1983–1984 recession. Economists have noted that poverty incidence grew from 41% in the 1960s at the time Marcos took the Presidency to 59% when he was removed from power.<ref name="nberc9047">{{cite book|title=Introduction to "The Marcos Legacy: Economic Policy and Foreign Debt in the Philippines"|publisher=National Bureau of Economic Research|date=1989|url=https://www.nber.org/chapters/c9047.pdf|access-date=March 9, 2018|archive-date=April 3, 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180403141748/http://www.nber.org/chapters/c9047.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://countrystudies.us/philippines/57.htm|publisher=US Library of Congress|title=Martial Law and Its Aftermath|access-date=December 6, 2016|archive-date=October 27, 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211027170506/http://countrystudies.us/philippines/57.htm|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://fdc.ph/programs/debt-and-public-finance/news-on-debt-and-public-finance/65-the-marcos-legacy-of-fraudulent-and-illegitimate-debts|title=The Marcos legacy of fraudulent and illegitimate debts|publisher=Freedom from debt coalition|access-date=January 19, 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160322223830/http://fdc.ph/programs/debt-and-public-finance/news-on-debt-and-public-finance/65-the-marcos-legacy-of-fraudulent-and-illegitimate-debts|archive-date=March 22, 2016}}</ref>

===Reliance on US trade===
As a former colony of the United States, the Philippines was heavily reliant on the American economy to purchase agricultural goods such as sugar,<ref name="Larkinsugar">{{cite web|url=http://publishing.cdlib.org/ucpressebooks/view?docId=ft4580066d&brand=ucpress=all|title=Sugar and the Origins of Modern Philippine Society|last=Larkin|first=John A.|date=1993|publisher=University of California Press|access-date=February 27, 2016|archive-date=March 7, 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160307144229/http://publishing.cdlib.org/ucpressebooks/view?docId=ft4580066d&brand=ucpress=all|url-status=live}}</ref> tobacco, coconut, bananas, and pineapple.<ref name="Quirinosugar">{{cite web|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=NCdLAAAAIAAJ&q=history+us+philippine+trade|title=History of the Philippine Sugar Industry|last=Quirino|first=Carlos|date=1974|publisher=Kalayaan|access-date=February 27, 2016|archive-date=November 7, 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231107165630/https://books.google.com/books?id=NCdLAAAAIAAJ&q=history+us+philippine+trade|url-status=live}}</ref>{{page needed|date=June 2020}}<ref name="Nadeausugar">{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=C7YyfxKKPzwC&q=history+us+philippine+trade|title=The History of the Philippines|author=Kathleen M. Nadeau|page=xiv, 57 Quirino|date=2008|publisher=Greenwood Publishing Group|isbn=9780313340901|access-date=October 25, 2020|archive-date=November 7, 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231107165556/https://books.google.com/books?id=C7YyfxKKPzwC&q=history+us+philippine+trade|url-status=live}}</ref>

===Economy during martial law (1973–1980)===
{{See also|Economy of the Philippines}}

According to World Bank Data, the Philippine's Annual Gross Domestic Product quadrupled from $8 billion in 1972 to $32.45 billion in 1980, for an inflation-adjusted average growth rate of 6% per year, while debt stood at US$17.2 billion by the end of 1980.<ref name="data.worldbank.org" /><ref name="nberc9047" /> According to [[The Heritage Foundation]] in the [[United States]], the Philippines enjoyed its best economic development since 1945 between 1972 and 1979.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.heritage.org/research/reports/1984/05/the-roots-of-the-philippines-economic-troubles|title=The Roots of the Philippines' Economic Troubles|first=Edward|last=L.|website=[[The Heritage Foundation]]|date=May 31, 1984|access-date=December 23, 2019|archive-date=June 16, 2010|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100616054032/http://www.heritage.org/research/reports/1984/05/the-roots-of-the-philippines-economic-troubles|url-status=live}}</ref> The economy grew amidsts two severe global oil shocks following the [[1973 oil crisis]] and [[1979 energy crisis]] – oil price was $3 / barrel in 1973 and $39.5 in 1979, or a growth of 1200%. By the end of 1979, debt was still manageable, with debt to Debt-GNP ratio about the same as South Korea, according to the [[US National Bureau of Economic Research]].<ref name="nberc9047" />

Foreign capital was invited to invest in certain industrial projects. They were offered incentives, including tax exemption privileges and the privilege of bringing out their profits in foreign currencies. One of the most important economic programs in the 1980s was the ''Kilusang Kabuhayan at Kaunlaran'' (Movement for Livelihood and Progress). This program was started in September 1981. It aimed to promote the economic development of the [[barangay]]s by encouraging its residents to engage in their own livelihood projects. The government's efforts resulted in the increase of the nation's economic growth rate to an average of six percent or seven percent from 1970 to 1980.<ref>Aniceto C. Orbeta Jr., [http://www3.pids.gov.ph/ris/pdf/pidsdps9604.PDF Structural Adjustment and Poverty Alleviation in the Philippines] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110719045259/http://www3.pids.gov.ph/ris/pdf/pidsdps9604.PDF |date=July 19, 2011}}, [[Philippine Institute for Development Studies]], April 1996.</ref>

===Economy after martial law (1981–1985)===
[[File:Heads of State Cancun Summit 1981.jpg|thumb|upright=1.4|Marcos at the [[North–South Summit]] on International Cooperation and Development in [[Cancun]] alongside other world leaders including [[Indira Gandhi|I. Gandhi]], [[François Mitterrand|F. Mitterrand]], [[Ronald Reagan|R. Reagan]], [[Margaret Thatcher|M. Thatcher]], [[Kurt Waldheim|K. Waldheim]], [[Zhao Ziyang]]; October 23, 1981]]

The Philippine economy, heavily reliant on exports to the United States, suffered a great decline after the Aquino assassination in August 1983.

In an attempt to launch a national economic recovery program and despite his growing isolation from American businesses, Marcos negotiated with foreign creditors including the [[International Bank for Reconstruction and Development]], World Bank, and the International Monetary Fund (IMF), for a restructuring of the country's foreign debts – to give the Philippines more time to pay the loans. Marcos ordered a cut in government expenditures and used a portion of the savings to finance the ''Sariling Sikap'' (Self-Reliance), a livelihood program he established in 1984.

However, the economy continued to shrink despite the government's recovery efforts due to a number of reasons. Most of the so-called government development programs failed to materialize. Government funds were often siphoned off by Marcos or his cronies. American investors were discouraged by the Filipino economic elite who were against the corruption that by now had become endemic in the Marcos regime.<ref name="albert">{{cite book|last1=Celoza|first1=Albert|title=Ferdinand Marcos and the Philippines: The Political Economy of Authoritarianism|date=November 25, 1997|publisher=Praeger|isbn=978-0275941376}}</ref>{{page needed|date=June 2020}} The failure of the recovery program was further augmented by civil unrest, rampant graft and corruption within the government, and Marcos's lack of credibility.{{citation needed|date=June 2020}} The unemployment rate increased from 3.9% in 1975 to 12.6% in 1985.<ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.ibon.org/under-marcos-employment-fell-prices-soared-poverty-persisted/ | title=Under Marcos dictatorship unemployment worsened, prices soared, poverty persisted | publisher=IBON Foundation | date=25 November 2016 | accessdate=12 November 2023}}</ref>

===Creation of the Credit Information Bureau===
{{Main|CIBI Information, Inc.}}
{{Overly detailed|section|date=December 2018}}

In 1981, Ferdinand Marcos issued ''Letter of Instructions No. 1107'' mandating the Central Bank of the Philippines to analyze the probability of establishing and funding the operation of a [[credit bureau in the Philippines]] due to the disturbing increase of failures on corporate borrowers.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.chanrobles.com/presidentialdecrees/presidentialdecreeno1941.html|title=PRESIDENTIAL DECREE NO. 1941|website=Chan Robles Virtual Law Library|access-date=September 28, 2015|archive-date=March 4, 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304084903/http://www.chanrobles.com/presidentialdecrees/presidentialdecreeno1941.html|url-status=live}}</ref> In adherence to the order, [[Central Bank of the Philippines]] organized the Credit Information Exchange System under the department of Loans and Credit. It was created to engage in collating, developing and analyzing credit information on individuals, institutions, business entities and other business concerns. It aims to develop and undertake the continuing exchange of credit data within its members and subscribers and to provide an impartial source of credit information for debtors, creditors and the public. On April 14, 1982, [[Credit Information Bureau, Inc.]] was incorporated as a non-stock, non-profit corporation. CIBI was created pursuant to LOI No. 1107 dated February 16, 1981, and was further strengthened by PD No. 1941 which recognizes and supports CIBI as a suitable [[credit bureau]] to promote the development and maintenance of rational and efficient credit processes in the financial system and in the economy as a whole. In 1997, Credit Information Bureau, Inc. was incorporated and transformed into a private entity and became [[CIBI Information, Inc.]] [[CIBI]] is a provider of information and intelligence for business, credit and individuals.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://acraa.com/images/pdf/DCRA.pdf|title=Code of Conduct Fundamentals for Domestic Credit Rating Agencies|date=April 2011|publisher=Association of Credit Rating Agencies in Asia|access-date=September 28, 2015|archive-date=March 4, 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304060121/http://acraa.com/images/pdf/DCRA.pdf|url-status=dead}}</ref> The company also supplies compliance reports before accrediting suppliers, industry partners and even hiring professionals.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.philstar.com/business/142269/rp%C2%92s-biggest-credit-research-firms-form-alliance|title=RP's biggest credit research firms form alliance|work=The Philippine Star|access-date=September 28, 2015|archive-date=September 29, 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150929122016/http://www.philstar.com/business/142269/rp%C2%92s-biggest-credit-research-firms-form-alliance|url-status=live}}</ref>

==Snap election, People Power Revolution, and ouster (1986)==

===1986 snap election===
{{Main|1986 Philippine presidential election}}
{{POV section|date=February 2023}}

In late 1985, in the face of escalating public discontent and under pressure from foreign allies, Marcos called a [[snap election]] with more than a year left in his term. He selected [[Arturo Tolentino]] as his running mate. The opposition to Marcos united behind two American-educated leaders, Aquino's widow, Corazon, and her running mate, [[Salvador Laurel]].<ref>{{cite book|author=Pollard, Vincent Kelly|title=Globalization, democratization and Asian leadership: power sharing, foreign policy and society in the Philippines and Japan|publisher=Ashgate Publishing|year=2004|isbn=978-0-7546-1539-2|page=50|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=L37RZlzA530C&pg=PA50}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|author=Parnell, Philip C.|chapter=Criminalizing Colonialism: Democracy Meets Law in Manila|editor1=Parnell, Philip C. |editor2=Kane, Stephanie C.|title=Crime's power: anthropologists and the ethnography of crime|publisher=Palgrave-Macmillan|year=2003|isbn=978-1-4039-6179-2|page=214|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=j2hpz4_fob4C&pg=PA214}}</ref>

[[File:Corazon Aquino inauguration.jpg|thumb|[[Corazon Aquino]], widow of the assassinated opposition leader [[Ninoy Aquino|Benigno Aquino Jr.]], takes the Oath of Office on February 25, 1986.]]

It was during this time that Marcos's World War II medals for fighting the Japanese Occupation were first questioned by the foreign press. During a campaign in Manila's [[Tondo, Manila|Tondo]] district, Marcos retorted:<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.latimes.com/archives/la-xpm-1986-01-23-mn-28079-story.html|title=Marcos Blasts U.S. Reports He Was a Phony War Hero: American Records Fail to Back Him|date=January 23, 1986|work=Los Angeles Times|access-date=February 20, 2020|archive-date=October 10, 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171010145000/http://articles.latimes.com/1986-01-23/news/mn-28079_1_war-record|url-status=live}}</ref>

{{Blockquote|You who are here in Tondo and fought under me and who were part of my guerrilla organization—you answer them, these crazy individuals, especially the foreign press. Our opponents say Marcos was not a real guerrilla. Look at them. These people who were collaborating with the enemy when we were fighting the enemy. Now they have the nerve to question my war record. I will not pay any attention to their accusation.|Ferdinand Marcos|January 1986}}

Marcos was referring to both presidential candidate Corazon Aquino's father-in-law [[Benigno Aquino Sr.]] and vice presidential candidate Salvador Laurel's father, former president [[José P. Laurel]].

The elections were held on February 7, 1986.<ref name="NSM">{{cite book|last1=Zunes|first1=Stephen|last2=Asher|first2=Sarah Beth|last3=Kurtz|first3=Lester|title=Nonviolent Social Movements: A Geographical Perspective|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=rlIH-NQbFQgC&pg=PA129|date=November 5, 1999|publisher=Wiley|isbn=978-1-57718-076-0|page=129|access-date=May 14, 2016|archive-date=November 7, 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231107165602/https://books.google.com/books?id=rlIH-NQbFQgC&pg=PA129|url-status=live}}</ref> The official election canvasser, the [[Commission on Elections]] (COMELEC), declared Marcos the winner. The final tally of the COMELEC had Marcos winning with 10,807,197 votes against Aquino's 9,291,761 votes. On the other hand, the partial 69% tally of the [[National Movement for Free Elections]] (NAMFREL), an accredited poll watcher, had Aquino winning with 7,502,601 votes against Marcos's 6,787,556 votes. Cheating was reported on both sides.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.namfrel.com.ph/v2/photogallery/1986-tallyboard2.php|title=NAMFREL|website=www.namfrel.com.ph|access-date=September 20, 2016|archive-date=August 9, 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160809053035/http://www.namfrel.com.ph/v2/photogallery/1986-tallyboard2.php|url-status=dead}}</ref> This electoral exercise was marred by widespread reports of violence and tampering of election results.

The fraud culminated in the walkout of 35 COMELEC computer technicians to protest their claim that the official election results were manipulated to favor Ferdinand Marcos, at least based from their testimonies which were never validated. The walkout of computer technicians was led by Linda Kapunan<ref name="militaryIntervention1986197">{{cite web|website=Official Gazette of the Republic of the Philippines|url=https://www.officialgazette.gov.ph/1990/10/03/the-final-report-of-the-fact-finding-commission-iv-military-intervention-in-the-philippines-1986-1987/|title=The Final Report of the Fact-Finding Commission: IV: Military Intervention in the Philippines: 1986 – 1987|date=October 3, 1990|publisher=Official Gazette of the Government of the Philippines|access-date=July 22, 2017|archive-date=October 21, 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171021023713/http://www.officialgazette.gov.ph/1990/10/03/the-final-report-of-the-fact-finding-commission-iv-military-intervention-in-the-philippines-1986-1987/|url-status=dead}}</ref> and the technicians were protected by [[Reform the Armed Forces Movement|Reform the Armed Forces Movement (RAM)]] officers led by her husband, Lt. Col. Eduardo "Red" Kapunan.

In the last months of Marcos's administration, the [[Soviet Union]] had stepped up long lasting relations and was the only major country to officially congratulate Marcos on his disputed election victory.<ref name=":14">{{Cite web |title=Collapes of Marcos regime ends Soviet courtship |url=https://www.upi.com/Archives/1986/03/02/Collapes-of-Marcos-regime-ends-Soviet-courtship/7612510123600/ |access-date=2022-09-02 |website=UPI |language=en |archive-date=March 11, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230311110225/https://www.upi.com/Archives/1986/03/02/Collapes-of-Marcos-regime-ends-Soviet-courtship/7612510123600 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |date=1986-02-20 |title=MARCOS REPORTS SOVIET GREETINGS |language=en-US |work=The New York Times |url=https://www.nytimes.com/1986/02/20/world/marcos-reports-soviet-greetings.html |access-date=2022-09-02 |issn=0362-4331 |archive-date=October 15, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231015123425/https://www.nytimes.com/1986/02/20/world/marcos-reports-soviet-greetings.html |url-status=live }}</ref> Marcos had provided favors to the Soviets such as allowing the banned [[Partido Komunista ng Pilipinas-1930|Philippine Communist Party]] to visit the Soviet Union for consultations.<ref name=":14" /><ref>{{Cite news |author=<!--Not stated--> |date=1986-02-23 |title=IN SOVIET, A SHIFT TO INCREASING SUPPORT FOR MARCOS |language=en-US |work=The New York Times |url=https://www.nytimes.com/1986/02/23/world/in-soviet-a-shift-to-increasing-support-for-marcos.html |access-date=2022-09-02 |issn=0362-4331 |archive-date=October 15, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231015121957/https://www.nytimes.com/1986/02/23/world/in-soviet-a-shift-to-increasing-support-for-marcos.html |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name=":16">{{Cite journal |last=Morris |first=Stephen J |date=1994 |title=The Soviet Union and the Philippine Communist Movement |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/45301887 |journal=Communist and Post-Communist Studies |volume=27 |issue=1 |pages=77–93 |doi=10.1016/0967-067X(94)90031-0 |jstor=45301887 |issn=0967-067X |access-date=November 7, 2023 |archive-date=October 15, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231015122611/https://www.jstor.org/stable/45301887 |url-status=live }}</ref> A [[United Press International|UPI]] article from March 1986 reported that "Diplomats in Moscow believe the Soviet government totally misjudged Marcos' power to control events. They speculate that Moscow considered his control of legal bodies and his readiness to be 'ruthless' would thwart any popular opposition."<ref name=":14" />

===1986 RAM coup and People Power Revolution===
{{Main|February 1986 Reform the Armed Forces Movement coup|People Power Revolution}}
{{POV section|date=February 2023}}

The failed election process gave a decisive boost to the "People Power movement". Enrile and Ramos would later abandon Marcos and switch sides and seek protection behind the 1986 People Power Revolution, backed by fellow-American educated [[Eugenio Lopez Jr.]], [[Jaime Augusto Zobel de Ayala]], and the old political and economic elites. RAM, led by Lt. Col. [[Gringo Honasan|Gregorio "Gringo" Honasan]] and backed by Enrile had plotted a [[coup d'état]] to seize Malacañang and kill Marcos and his family.<ref name="gringoPlot">{{cite news|url=http://www.rappler.com/nation/84953-gringo-plot-kill-marcos-almonte-memoir|title=Gringo plotted to kill Marcos – Almonte|work=Rappler|access-date=September 11, 2016|archive-date=January 28, 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170128120522/http://www.rappler.com/nation/84953-gringo-plot-kill-marcos-almonte-memoir|url-status=live}}</ref>

At the height of the revolution, Juan Ponce Enrile revealed that a purported and well-publicized ambush attempt against him years earlier was in fact faked, and in his claim, it was in order for Marcos to have a pretext for imposing martial law. Enrile would later take retract this statement, and in 2012, he claimed that the ambush actually happened.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://news.abs-cbn.com/blogs/insights/11/06/12/enrile-retracts-act-contrition-he-made-when-he-thought-he-was-facing-death-1|title=Enrile retracts 'Act of Contrition' he made when he thought he was facing death in 1986|first=Raïssa |last=Robles|date=November 6, 2012|website=ABS-CBN News|access-date=June 17, 2020|archive-date=June 17, 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200617172750/https://news.abs-cbn.com/blogs/insights/11/06/12/enrile-retracts-act-contrition-he-made-when-he-thought-he-was-facing-death-1|url-status=live}}</ref> Despite all this, Marcos never ceased to maintain that he was the duly elected and proclaimed president of the Philippines for a fourth term, but unfairly and illegally deprived of his right to serve it. On February 25, 1986, rival presidential inaugurations were held,<ref>{{Citation |last=Crisostomo |first=Isabelo T. |title=Cory, Profile of a President: The Historic Rise to Power of Corazon |publisher=Branden Books |isbn=978-0-8283-1913-3 |page=257 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=iW_ddLowBYkC&pg=PA257 |access-date=December 3, 2007 |date=April 1, 1987 |archive-date=November 7, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231107165557/https://books.google.com/books?id=iW_ddLowBYkC&pg=PA257 |url-status=live }}.</ref> but as Aquino supporters overran parts of Manila and seized state broadcaster [[PTV-4]], Marcos was forced to flee.<ref>{{Citation |author1=Paul Sagmayao Mercado |author2=Francisco S. Tatad |title=People Power: The Philippine Revolution of 1986: An Eyewitness History |publisher=The James B. Reuter, S.J., Foundation |year=1986 |location=[[Manila]], [[Philippines]] |oclc=16874890}}</ref>

==Exile in Hawaii (1986–1989)==

===Fleeing to Hawaii ===
[[File:President Ronald Reagan with President of the Philippines Ferdinand Marcos and Imelda Marcos.jpg|thumb|Ferdinand and Imelda Marcos at the White House with US President [[Ronald Reagan]] in 1982]]

At 15:00 [[Philippine Standard Time|PST]] ([[GMT+8]]) on February 25, 1986, Marcos talked to United States Senator [[Paul Laxalt]], a close associate of the United States President, Ronald Reagan, asking for advice from the [[White House]]. Laxalt advised him to "cut and cut cleanly", to which Marcos expressed his disappointment after a short pause.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.chicagotribune.com/1986/02/26/marcos-flees-aquino-rules/ |title=Marcos Flees, Aquino Rules |work=Chicago Tribune |date=February 26, 1986 |last1=de Lama |first1=George |last2=Collin |first2=Dorothy |access-date=February 3, 2014 |archive-date=October 10, 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171010145555/http://articles.chicagotribune.com/1986-02-26/news/8601140956_1_marcos-final-destination-marcos-flight-ferdinand-e-marcos |url-status=live }}</ref> In the afternoon, Marcos talked to Enrile, asking for safe passage for him and his family, and included his close allies like General Ver. Finally, at 9:00&nbsp;p.m., the Marcos family was transported by four [[Sikorsky S-61R|Sikorsky HH-3E]] [[helicopter]]s<ref name="Halperin">{{cite book|author=Halperin, Jonathan J.|title=The Other Side: How Soviets and Americans Perceive Each Other|publisher=Transaction Publishers|isbn=978-0-88738-687-9|page=63|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=H1so7Od--csC&pg=PA63|year=1987|access-date=September 3, 2020|archive-date=November 7, 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231107165558/https://books.google.com/books?id=H1so7Od--csC&pg=PA63#v=onepage&q&f=false|url-status=live}}</ref> to [[Clark Air Base]] in [[Angeles City]], about 83&nbsp;kilometers north of Manila, before boarding [[United States Air Force|US Air Force]] [[C-130]] planes bound for [[Andersen Air Force Base]] in [[Guam]], and finally to [[Hickam Air Force Base]] in [[Hawaii]] where Marcos arrived on February 26.

When he fled to Hawaii by way of Guam,<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/1986/02/26/world/marcos-flees-and-is-taken-to-guam-us-recognizes-aquino-as-president.html|title=Marcos Flees and is Taken to Guam; U.S. Recognizes Aquino As President|first1=Seth|last1=Mydans|newspaper=The New York Times|date=February 26, 1986|access-date=September 11, 2020|archive-date=September 15, 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200915140004/https://www.nytimes.com/1986/02/26/world/marcos-flees-and-is-taken-to-guam-us-recognizes-aquino-as-president.html|url-status=live}}</ref> he also brought with him 22 crates of cash valued at $717 million, 300 crates of assorted [[jewelry]] with undetermined value, $4 million worth of unset precious gems contained in Pampers diaper boxes, 65 Seiko and Cartier watches, a 12 by 4&nbsp;ft box crammed full of real [[pearl]]s, a 3&nbsp;ft solid [[gold]] statue covered in [[diamond]]s and other precious stones, $200,000 in gold bullion and nearly $1 million in Philippine pesos, and deposit slips to banks in the US, Switzerland, and the Cayman Islands worth $124 million, which he all amassed during his [[dictatorship]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.gmanetwork.com/news/story/556744/news/specialreports/what-marcoses-brought-to-hawaii-after-fleeing-phl-in-86-717-m-in-cash-124-m-in-deposit-slips/|title=What Marcoses brought to Hawaii after fleeing PHL in '86: $717-M in cash, $124-M in deposit slips|website=GMA News Online|date=February 25, 2016|access-date=November 7, 2023|archive-date=February 8, 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170208024530/http://www.gmanetwork.com/news/story/556744/news/specialreports/what-marcoses-brought-to-hawaii-after-fleeing-phl-in-86-717-m-in-cash-124-m-in-deposit-slips|url-status=live}}</ref>

Initially, there was confusion in Washington as to what to do with Marcos and the 90 members of his entourage.<ref name="AP">{{cite news |title=List of Marcos' Companions Released With PM-Philippines Bjt |url=https://apnews.com/article/c7e5627bdace0aeb2197fc1cad669a75 |access-date=June 11, 2021 |work=Associated Press |date=March 11, 1986 |archive-date=June 11, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210611035612/https://apnews.com/article/c7e5627bdace0aeb2197fc1cad669a75 |url-status=live }}</ref> Given the special relations Marcos nurtured with Reagan, the former had expectations of favorable treatment. However, Reagan was to distance himself from the Marcoses. The [[State Department]] in turn assigned former Deputy Chief of Mission to Manila, [[Robert G. Rich Jr.]] to be the point of contact. The entourage were first billeted inside the housing facilities of [[Hickam Air Force Base]]. Later on the State Department announced the Marcoses were not immune from legal charges, and within weeks hundreds of cases had been filed against them.<ref name="ADST - Handholding a Dictator">{{cite web |title=The End of an Era—Handholding Ferdinand Marcos in Exile |url=https://adst.org/2015/02/the-end-of-an-era-handholding-ferdinand-marcos-in-exile/ |website=Association for Diplomatic Studies & Training |date=February 18, 2015 |publisher=Association of Diplomatic Studies & Training |access-date=June 11, 2021 |archive-date=June 11, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210611035613/https://adst.org/2015/02/the-end-of-an-era-handholding-ferdinand-marcos-in-exile/ |url-status=live }}</ref>

Throughout his stay in Hawaii, he and his family enjoyed a high life, living in a luxurious house in [[Makiki Heights]] while shopping and eating in one of the state's most expensive sections, as his wife Imelda entertained guests through various costly parties,<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/1988/11/16/us/marcos-and-wife-enjoy-the-high-life-in-hawaii.html|title=Marcos and Wife Enjoy The High Life in Hawaii|first1=Kendall J.|last1=Wills|newspaper=The New York Times|date=November 16, 1988|access-date=September 11, 2020|archive-date=March 2, 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210302202248/https://www.nytimes.com/1988/11/16/us/marcos-and-wife-enjoy-the-high-life-in-hawaii.html|url-status=live}}</ref> while Filipinos back in the Philippines suffered from the debt the Marcos family incurred during their rule, which experts say may be fully paid only by 2025, almost four decades after the downfall of the Marcos authoritarian regime.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://newsinfo.inquirer.net/774774/well-pay-marcos-debt-until-2025|title='We'll pay Marcos debt until 2025'|date=March 18, 2016|website=INQUIRER.net|access-date=September 11, 2020|archive-date=September 13, 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200913031320/https://newsinfo.inquirer.net/774774/well-pay-marcos-debt-until-2025|url-status=live}}</ref>

Other specifics about the things Marcos brought to Hawaii were also identified through the 23-page US Customs record. These include 23 wooden crates; 12 suitcases and bags, and various boxes, whose contents included enough clothes to fill 67 racks; 413 pieces of jewelry; 24 gold bricks, inscribed "To my husband on our 24th anniversary"; and more than 27 million Philippine pesos in freshly printed notes. The jewelry included 70 pairs of jewel-studded cufflinks; an ivory statue of the infant Jesus with a silver mantle and a diamond necklace. The total value of these items was $15 million.<ref name="The10BQuestion">{{cite news|url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2016/may/07/10bn-dollar-question-marcos-millions-nick-davies|title=The $10bn question: what happened to the Marcos millions?|author=Nick Davies|date=May 7, 2016|work=[[The Guardian]]|access-date=September 16, 2016|archive-date=May 8, 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160508114514/https://www.theguardian.com/world/2016/may/07/10bn-dollar-question-marcos-millions-nick-davies|url-status=live}}</ref> Meanwhile, when protestors stormed Malacañang Palace shortly after their departure, it was famously discovered that Imelda had left behind over 2,700 pairs of shoes in her closet.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia |encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica |title=Ferdinand E. Marcos |url=https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/364302/Ferdinand-E-Marcos |access-date=November 19, 2007 |archive-date=May 12, 2008 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080512072139/http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/364302/Ferdinand-E-Marcos |url-status=live }}</ref> The protesters who stormed Malacañang Palace would later loot it, many would steal documents, jewelries, food from the pantries, typewriters, and so on. Other than looting, cases of vandalism and destruction also took place.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.upi.com/Archives/1986/02/25/Jubilant-Filipinos-loot-Marcos-Malacanang-palace/2403509691600/|title=Jubilant Filipinos loot Marcos' Malacanang palace|website=UPI|access-date=November 7, 2023|archive-date=May 7, 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210507064304/https://www.upi.com/Archives/1986/02/25/Jubilant-Filipinos-loot-Marcos-Malacanang-palace/2403509691600/|url-status=live}}</ref>

The Catholic hierarchy and Manila's [[middle class]] were crucial to the success of the massive crusade. Contrary to the widely-held notion that the protests were secluded only within Metro Manila, protests against Marcos also occurred in the provinces and islands of Visayas and Mindanao.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.mindanews.com/mindaviews/2021/03/reflections-edsa-from-the-eyes-of-a-mindanawon/|title=REFLECTIONS: EDSA from the Eyes of a Mindanawon|first=Mags Z.|last=Maglana|date=March 7, 2021|access-date=March 11, 2021|archive-date=March 8, 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210308121827/https://www.mindanews.com/mindaviews/2021/03/reflections-edsa-from-the-eyes-of-a-mindanawon/|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://mindanaogoldstardaily.com/people-power-was-not-just-on-edsa/|title=People Power was not just on Edsa|website=[[Mindanao Gold Star Daily]]|date=February 28, 2020|access-date=March 11, 2021|archive-date=May 31, 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210531001738/https://mindanaogoldstardaily.com/people-power-was-not-just-on-edsa/|url-status=live}}</ref>

===Plans to return and "The Marcos Tapes"===
More than a year after the People Power Revolution, it was revealed to the [[United States House Foreign Affairs Subcommittee on Asia and the Pacific|United States House Foreign Affairs subcommittee]] in 1987 that Marcos held an intention to fly back to the Philippines and overthrow the Aquino government. Two Americans, namely attorney Richard Hirschfeld and business consultant Robert Chastain, both of whom posed as arms dealers, gained knowledge of a plot by gaining Marcos's trust and secretly tape recorded their conversations with the ousted leader.

According to Hirschfeld, he was first invited by Marcos to a party held at the latter's family residence in Oahu, Hawaii. After hearing that one of Hirschfeld's clients was Saudi Sheikh Mohammad Fassi, Marcos's interest was piqued because he had done business with Saudis in the past. A few weeks later, Marcos asked for help with securing a passport from another country, in order to travel back to the Philippines while bypassing travel restrictions imposed by the Philippines and United States governments. This failed, however, and subsequently Marcos asked Hirschfeld to arrange a $10-million loan from Fassi.

On January 12, 1987, Marcos stated to Hirschfeld that he required another $5-million loan "in order to pay 10,000 soldiers $500 each as a form of "combat life insurance". When asked by Hirschfeld if he was talking about an invasion of the Philippines, Marcos responded, "Yes". Hirschfeld also recalled that the former president said that he was negotiating with several arms dealers to purchase up to $18 million worth of weapons, including tanks and heat-seeking missiles, and enough ammunition to "last an army three months".

Marcos had thought of being flown to his hometown in Ilocos Norte, greeted by his loyal supporters, and initiating a plot to kidnap Corazon Aquino. "What I would like to see happen is we take her hostage", Marcos told Chastain. "Not to hurt her&nbsp;... no reason to hurt her&nbsp;... to take her."

Learning of this plan, Hirschfeld contacted the [[US Department of Justice]], and was asked for further evidence. This information eventually reached President Ronald Reagan, who placed Marcos under "island arrest", further limiting his movement.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.apnews.com/1b750440d5a491184f5b2a91533774c1|title=Former Philippine President Marcos Reveals Plan to Invade Homeland|work=AP News|access-date=July 8, 2018|archive-date=July 8, 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180708191844/https://www.apnews.com/1b750440d5a491184f5b2a91533774c1|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.latimes.com/archives/la-xpm-1987-07-10-mn-1939-story.html|title=10,000 Troops, Billions in Gold: House Panel Hears Tapes of Marcos Plotting coup|last=GETLIN|first=JOSH|date=July 10, 1987|work=Los Angeles Times|access-date=July 8, 2018|issn=0458-3035|archive-date=November 7, 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231107165526/https://www.latimes.com/archives/la-xpm-1987-07-10-mn-1939-story.html|url-status=live}}</ref>

In response, the Aquino government dismissed Marcos's statements as being a mere propaganda ploy.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.upi.com/Archives/1987/07/10/Aquino-government-says-Marcos-invasion-plan-a-propaganda-ploy/2836552888000/|title=Aquino government says Marcos invasion plan a propaganda ploy|work=UPI|access-date=July 8, 2018|archive-date=July 8, 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180708191816/https://www.upi.com/Archives/1987/07/10/Aquino-government-says-Marcos-invasion-plan-a-propaganda-ploy/2836552888000/|url-status=live}}</ref>

===Legal cases===
Within two weeks of his arrival to the United States, the Marcos family and their cronies received hundred of criminal and civil cases filed in Hawaii, San Francisco, and New York.<ref name="ADST - Handholding a Dictator" /> Marcos made personal appeals with Pres. Ronald Reagan to intervene and put a stop to these cases. In June 1988 [[United States National Security Advisor|National Security Advisor]] [[Colin Powell]] recommended proceeding with the indictment of the Marcoses, as he reviewed the cases as forwarded by the [[United States Attorney for the Southern District of New York]] [[Rudy Giuliani]]. Pres. Reagan gave his tacit approval to this.<ref name="RRPL - Box 153">{{cite web |title=Collection: WHORM Subject Files Folder Title:CO 125 (Philippines) 560000-574999 Box 153 |url=https://www.reaganlibrary.gov/public/digitallibrary/whormsubject/co125/box-153/40-654-6282802-153-009-2018.pdf |website=Ronald Reagan Presidential Library |publisher=Ronald Reagan Presidential Library Digital Library Collections |access-date=June 14, 2021 |archive-date=June 14, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210614013620/https://www.reaganlibrary.gov/public/digitallibrary/whormsubject/co125/box-153/40-654-6282802-153-009-2018.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref> On August 4, Marcos stated that he had [[Immunity from prosecution (international law)|head of state immunity]] to resist the subpoenas by a [[Grand juries in the United States#Federal law|federal grand jury]] to produce his finger and palm prints, and failed to consent to investigators to go into his foreign bank accounts. By August 18, a bench warrant of arrest was released against the Marcoses. By October that year, Pres. Reagan personally wrote to Marcos informing him that he believed his innocence of the charges against him, but reminding him that the case was out of his hands. He also assured him that they will have every opportunity to prove their innocence in the US justice system.<ref name="RRPL - CO125">{{cite web |title=Folder Title:CO 125 (Philippines) 589090 (1) Box: 153 |url=https://www.reaganlibrary.gov/public/digitallibrary/whormsubject/co125/box-153/40-654-6282802-153-012-2018.pdf |website=Ronald Reagan Presidential Library |access-date=June 14, 2021 |archive-date=June 14, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210614020802/https://www.reaganlibrary.gov/public/digitallibrary/whormsubject/co125/box-153/40-654-6282802-153-012-2018.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref>

Rudy Giuliani pressed for indicting of the Marcoses for violating the [[Racketeer Influenced and Corrupt Organizations Act]] (RICO). The RICO Act focuses specifically on [[racketeering]] and allows the leaders of a syndicate to be tried for the crimes they [[Dirty hands|ordered]] others to do [[Enmund v. Florida|or assisted them in doing]], closing a perceived loophole. For example, before RICO, a person who instructed someone else to [[murder]] could be exempt from prosecution because they did not personally commit the crime. In his next letter to Pres. Reagan on October 20, Marcos complained that Giuliani was giving them nothing but an ultimatum to plead guilty, and even to testify against others including his own family.<ref name="RRPL - CO125" />

==Death and burial==
{{See also|Burial of Ferdinand Marcos}}
[[File:Ferdinand E. Marcos Presidential Center sign.jpg|thumb|The body of Ferdinand Marcos was stored in a refrigerated crypt at the [[Ferdinand E. Marcos Presidential Center]] in Batac, Ilocos Norte until 2016.]]

Marcos was admitted to the hospital on January 15, 1989, with pneumonia and underwent a series of operations.<ref>{{Cite web|title=The Glasgow Herald – Google News Archive Search|url=https://news.google.com/newspapers?id=BTFAAAAAIBAJ&pg=4150,3739287|access-date=September 22, 2020|website=news.google.com|archive-date=April 30, 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220430014904/https://news.google.com/newspapers?id=BTFAAAAAIBAJ&pg=4150,3739287|url-status=live}}</ref> In his dying days, Marcos was visited by Vice President Salvador Laurel.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.nytimes.com/1989/02/04/world/aquino-s-vice-president-asks-sympathy-for-ailing-marcos.html |title=Aquino's Vice President Asks Sympathy for Ailing Marcos |journal=The New York Times |date=February 4, 1989 |access-date=February 7, 2017 |archive-date=February 8, 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170208051042/http://www.nytimes.com/1989/02/04/world/aquino-s-vice-president-asks-sympathy-for-ailing-marcos.html |url-status=live }}</ref> During the meeting with Laurel, Marcos offered to return 90% of his ill-gotten wealth to the Filipino people in exchange for being buried back in the Philippines beside his mother, an offer also disclosed to [[Enrique Zobel]]. However, Marcos's offer was rebuffed by the [[Presidency of Corazon Aquino|Aquino government]] and by Imelda Marcos.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.doylaurel.ph/from_the_lips_of_a_dying_president.html|title=Two Great Activities in the Philippines|publisher=doylaurel.ph|access-date=July 22, 2017|archive-date=November 21, 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161121194550/http://www.doylaurel.ph/from_the_lips_of_a_dying_president.html|url-status=live}}{{verify source|date=July 2017}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.philstar.com/opinion/142497/doy-macoy-yorac-corner|title=Doy on Macoy|work=The Philippine Star|access-date=September 20, 2016|archive-date=September 24, 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160924071551/http://www.philstar.com/opinion/142497/doy-macoy-yorac-corner|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://ireport.cnn.com/docs/DOC-1036706|title=Marcos' message to Mrs. Aquino|website=CNN iReport|access-date=September 11, 2016|archive-date=October 10, 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171010145627/http://ireport.cnn.com/docs/DOC-1036706|url-status=live}}</ref>

Marcos died at St. Francis Medical Center in [[Honolulu]] at 12:40 a.m ([[Hawaii–Aleutian Time Zone|HST]]) on September 28, 1989, of kidney, heart, and lung ailments, 17 days after his 72nd birthday.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Manila Standard – Google News Archive Search|url=https://news.google.com/newspapers?nid=8cBNEdFwSQkC&dat=19890929&printsec=frontpage&hl=en|access-date=October 13, 2021|website=news.google.com|archive-date=November 27, 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221127081601/https://news.google.com/newspapers?nid=8cBNEdFwSQkC&dat=19890929&printsec=frontpage&hl=en|url-status=live}}</ref> Moments after, [[Bongbong Marcos|the younger Ferdinand]] eulogised his late father by stating, "Hopefully friends and detractors alike will look beyond the man to see what he stood for his vision, his compassion and his total love of country".<ref>{{Cite web|last=Donnelly|first=Christine|date=September 29, 1989|title=Marcos Dies in Exile at 72; 'Father's Not Here Anymore'|url=https://apnews.com/article/65c33b6132f2f56bc2f813655f200aae|access-date=October 13, 2021|website=[[Associated Press]]|archive-date=April 20, 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210420112714/https://apnews.com/article/65c33b6132f2f56bc2f813655f200aae|url-status=live}}</ref>

Marcos was interred in a private mausoleum at [[Byodo-In (Hawaii)|Byodo-In Temple]] on the island of Oahu where his remains were visited daily by the Marcos family, political allies and friends.

The Aquino government refused to allow Marcos's body to be brought back to the Philippines. The body was only brought back to the Philippines four years after Marcos's death during the term of President Fidel Ramos.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.latimes.com/archives/la-xpm-1993-07-20-mn-15027-story.html |title=4 Years After Death, Marcos' Body to Go Home for Burial |first=Bob |last=Drogin |date=July 20, 1993 |work=Los Angeles Times |access-date=February 20, 2020 |archive-date=October 10, 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171010145008/http://articles.latimes.com/1993-07-20/news/mn-15027_1_imelda-marcos |url-status=live }}</ref>

From 1993 to 2016, Marcos's remains were interred inside a refrigerated, frozen crypt in Batac, Ilocos Norte, where his son, [[Bongbong Marcos|Ferdinand Jr.]], and eldest daughter, [[Imee Marcos|Imee]], have since become the local governor and congressional representative, respectively. [[Bust of Ferdinand Marcos|A large bust]] of Ferdinand Marcos (inspired by [[Mount Rushmore]]) was commissioned by the tourism minister, [[Jose D. Aspiras|Jose Aspiras]], and carved into a hillside in Benguet. It was subsequently destroyed; suspects included left-wing activists, members of a local tribe who had been displaced by construction of the monument, and looters hunting for the legendary [[Yamashita's gold|Yamashita treasure]].<ref>{{cite news |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/asia-pacific/2612709.stm |title=Philippines blast wrecks Marcos bust |date=December 29, 2002 |work=BBC News |access-date=November 19, 2007 |archive-date=December 14, 2007 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071214141522/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/asia-pacific/2612709.stm |url-status=live }}</ref>[[File:Marcos burial Ateneans protest.jpg|thumb|Students of the [[Ateneo de Manila University]] along [[Katipunan Avenue]] protesting against the burial of Marcos insisting that the former president is not a hero, but a dictator]]On November 18, 2016, the remains of Marcos were buried at the [[Libingan ng mga Bayani]] ordered by President [[Rodrigo Duterte]] despite opposition from various groups. The burial came as unexpected to many, as the Supreme Court's ruling still allowed 15 days for the opposition to file a motion for reconsideration. On the morning of November 18, using Philippine Armed Forces helicopters, his family and their supporters flew his remains from Ilocos to Manila for a private burial. There has been actual controversy as to the physical interment, for the body in frozen display at Batac was then said to be a hoax and the real body was already sent to Taguig. However, according to lawyer [[Chel Diokno]] and in other media coverage, there were no reports, records, or sightings of any actual transfer of the frozen body in Batac to the Libingan ng Mga Bayani, thereby raising speculation as to the truth of the location of Marcos's real remains.<ref name="contested">{{Cite web|last=Merez|first=Arianne|title=DLSU law dean: Was Marcos' body really buried at LNMB?|url=https://news.abs-cbn.com/news/11/19/16/dlsu-law-dean-was-marcos-body-really-buried-at-lnmb|date=2016-11-19|access-date=November 7, 2023|archive-date=April 27, 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230427052340/https://news.abs-cbn.com/news/11/19/16/dlsu-law-dean-was-marcos-body-really-buried-at-lnmb|url-status=live}}</ref>

In the months prior, opinion on Marcos's burial at the Libingan ng Mga Bayani had been split: 50 percent of the 1,800 respondents of a survey conducted by [[Social Weather Stations|SWS]] in February 2016 said Marcos "was worthy to be buried at the Libingan ng Mga Bayani" while the other half rejected a hero's burial, calling him a "thief".<ref name="ABS-CBN">{{cite news|url=http://news.abs-cbn.com/halalan2016/focus/03/13/16/is-philippines-ready-for-a-state-burial-for-marcos/|title=Is Philippines ready for a state burial for Marcos?|date=March 14, 2016|work=ABS-CBN News}}</ref>

Various protest groups formed immediately upon hearing the news of the unexpected burial. Among those who gathered to oppose the burial were youth groups and opponents of the burial of Marcos in the ''Libingan ng mga Bayani''. The League of Filipino Students described the transfer of Marcos's remains as being done like "a thief in the night". They also criticized the government's involvement in the burial of the former president who they described as a "fascist dictator". The [[Kabataan Partylist]] also condemned the burial, labeling it as a "grave travesty" and as "''galawang Hokage''" in reference to the burial of Marcos being planned and conducted unbeknownst to the public.<ref>{{cite news|title=Galawang Hokage: Youth protest sudden Marcos burial at LNMB|url=http://www.gmanetwork.com/news/story/589346/news/nation/galawang-hokage-youth-protest-sudden-marcos-burial-at-lnmb|work=GMA News}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=https://newsinfo.inquirer.net/845680/congressmen-slash-litigants-denounce-marcos-sneak-burial|title=Solons hit dictator's burial, suspect Duterte knew of Marcos plans|newspaper=Philippine Daily Inquirer|date=November 18, 2016|quote=Hanggang huling hantungan, galawang magnanakaw pa rin itong si Marcos. Sa salita nga ng mga millennial, galawang Hokage (Up to his final resting place, Marcos moves like a thief. Or in the words of the millennial, moves like a Hokage)}}</ref>

==Trials and reparations==

===''Roxas v. Marcos''===
[[Rogelio Roxas]], a Filipino treasure hunter, discovered a 3-foot-tall golden Buddha statue in tunnels under the Baguio General Hospital in 1971. Roxas was later arrested and tortured by members of the military, and the statue was taken away. Upon exile of the Marcoses, Roxas assigned his rights to a friend in the United States and formed the Golden Buddha Corporation (GBC) who pursued the case against the former president. In 1996, the lower court awarded US$22 billion in favor of GBC, making this the largest award in any civil case in the history of the United States. In November 1998, the [[Hawaii Supreme Court]] overturned the ruling, but still maintained the award of US$6 million for the illegal arrest and torture experienced by Roxas.<ref name="AP - $22B Award Reversed">{{cite news |last1=Tighe |first1=Michael |title=$22B Award Against Marcos Reversed |url=https://apnews.com/article/73bf26f810dce8f2157374743043ed10 |access-date=June 11, 2021 |work=Associated Press}}</ref><ref name="uniset.ca">{{cite web|url=http://uniset.ca/other/cs6/969P2d1209.html|title=Roxas v. Marcos|author=|date=|website=uniset.ca}}</ref>

===Sandiganbayan, Supreme Court, and international trials===
[[File:Ferdinand Marcos with Emmanuel Pelaez.jpg|thumb|Ferdinand Marcos with Emmanuel Pelaez]]

On November 9, 2018, Imelda Marcos was found "guilty beyond reasonable doubt" by the Sandiganbayan of seven counts of graft for the private organizations set up in Switzerland during her active duty as a government official from 1968 to 1986. In less than 20 days however, the Sandiganbayan listed Imelda's "advanced age" and health condition as considerations for allowing the accused to post bail. The Fifth Division's (of the Sandiganbayan) ruling read that "the fact that she is of advanced age and for health reasons, consistent with the doctrine in Enrile vs Sandiganbayan, bail is allowed for these seven cases."<ref>{{Cite news|title=Sandiganbayan defends grant of bail to Imelda Marcos|work=The Philippine Star|url=https://www.philstar.com/headlines/2018/12/04/1874021/sandiganbayan-defends-grant-bail-imelda-marcos|access-date=April 19, 2019}}</ref> The Supreme Court of the Philippines affirms that the Marcoses' assets, that are beyond the legal and declared government salaries, are considered as ill-gotten wealth. In 1998 however, the Supreme Court acquitted Imelda Marcos of corruption charges from a previous graft conviction in 1993.

Some US Court of Appeals of the Ninth Circuit confirmed a contempt judgement in relation to the assets of Imelda and her son Bongbong in the United States. Although on a different subject matter, this judgement awarded $353.6 million to human rights victims, which was arguably the largest contempt award ever affirmed by an appellate court.

===Reparations===
In 1995, some 10,000 Filipinos won a US [[class-action]] lawsuit filed against the Marcos estate. The claims were filed by victims or their surviving relatives consequent on torture, execution, and disappearances.<ref>{{cite book|author=Brysk, Alison|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=p955OKtyCbIC&pg=PA82|title=Human rights and private wrongs: constructing global civil society|publisher=Psychology Press|year=2005|isbn=978-0-415-94477-9|page=82}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|last=Hranjski|first=Hrvoje|date=September 12, 2006|title=No hero's resting place as Imelda Marcos finds site for husband's grave|work=The Scotsman|location=UK|url=http://news.scotsman.com/ViewArticle.aspx?articleid=2809885|access-date=November 19, 2007|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080105131654/http://news.scotsman.com/ViewArticle.aspx?articleid=2809885|archive-date=January 5, 2008}}</ref>

The [[Government of Switzerland|Swiss government]], initially reluctant to respond to allegations that stolen funds were held in Swiss accounts,<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=NhIfiWyK9gEC&pg=PA99|title=Corruption and anti-corruption|publisher=Asia-Pacific Press|year=2001|isbn=978-0-7315-3660-3|editor1=Larmour, Peter|pages=99–110|editor2=Wolanin, Nick}}</ref> has returned $684 million of Marcos's stash.<ref name="star">{{cite web|title=Stolen Asset Recovery Initiative: Ferdinand and Imelda Marcos (Switzerland)|url=http://star.worldbank.org/corruption-cases/node/18497|publisher=World Bank|access-date=March 2, 2016|archive-date=April 15, 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160415070921/http://star.worldbank.org/corruption-cases/node/18497|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|title=Marcos victims seek accounting of funds|work=INQ7.net|publisher=Philippine Daily Inquirer, GMA News|url=http://www.inq7.net/brk/2004/jul/18/brkpol_1-1.htm|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20040911032835/http://www.inq7.net/brk/2004/jul/18/brkpol_1-1.htm|archive-date=September 11, 2004}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|date=July 4, 2004|title=Hunt for tyrant's millions leads to former model's home|work=Sydney Morning Herald|location=Australia|url=https://www.smh.com.au/articles/2004/07/03/1088488200806.html|access-date=October 20, 2008}}</ref>

Corazon Aquino repealed many of the repressive laws that had been enacted during Marcos's dictatorship. She restored the right of access to ''habeas corpus'', repealed anti-labor laws and freed hundreds of [[political prisoners]].<ref name="philippinesReadr" />{{Rp|page=361}}

From 1989 to 1996, a series of suits were brought before US courts against Marcos and his daughter Imee, alleging that they bore responsibility for executions, torture, and disappearances. A jury in the [[Ninth Circuit Court of Appeals|Ninth Circuit Court]] awarded US$2 billion to the plaintiffs and to a [[class action lawsuit|class]] composed of human rights victims and their families.<ref>{{cite book|author=Stephens, Beth|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=isF30B-VCH0C&pg=PA13|title=International human rights litigation in U.S. courts|publisher=BRILL|year=2008|isbn=978-1-57105-353-4|page=13}}</ref> On June 12, 2008, the [[Supreme Court of the United States|US Supreme Court]] (in a 7–2 ruling penned by Justice [[Anthony Kennedy]] in ''[[Republic of Philippines v. Pimentel]]'') held that: "The judgment of the Court of Appeals for the Ninth Circuit is reversed, and the case is remanded with instructions to order the District Court to dismiss the [[interpleader]] action." The court dismissed the interpleader lawsuit filed to determine the rights of 9,500 Filipino human rights victims (1972–1986) to recover US$35 million, part of a US$2 billion judgment in US courts against the Marcos estate, because the Philippines government is an indispensable party, protected by [[sovereign immunity]]. The Philippines government claimed ownership of the funds transferred by Marcos in 1972 to [[Arelma S.A.]], which invested the money with [[Merrill Lynch]], Pierce, Fenner & Smith Inc., in New York.<ref>{{cite web|title=jurist.law.pitt.edu, Supreme Court rules in Marcos assets|url=http://jurist.law.pitt.edu/paperchase/2008/06/supreme-court-rules-in-marcos-assets.php|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090103180040/http://jurist.law.pitt.edu/paperchase/2008/06/supreme-court-rules-in-marcos-assets.php|archive-date=January 3, 2009}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.supremecourt.gov/opinions/07pdf/06-1204.pdf|title=supremecourt.gov, Republic of Philippines et al. v. Pimentel, June 12, 2008, No. 06–1204}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|date=June 12, 2008|title=Court ruling hinders Marcos victims seeking funds|work=USA Today|url=https://www.usatoday.com/news/washington/2008-06-12-902506041_x.htm}}</ref> In July 2017, the Philippine Court of Appeals rejected the petition seeking to enforce the United States court decision that awarded the $2 billion in compensation to human rights victims during the term of former president Ferdinand Marcos.<ref>{{cite news|title=CA rejects Marcos victims' claims for $2B damages|work=GMA News|url=http://www.gmanetwork.com/news/news/nation/618333/ca-rejects-marcos-victims-claims-for-2b-damages/story/}}</ref>

In 2013, Philippine Congress passed Republic Act 10368 or the Human Rights Victims Reparation and Recognition Act of 2013.<ref name=":0">{{Cite web|last=Gavilan|first=Jodesz|date=May 10, 2021|title=11,103 victims of human rights violations under Martial Law to get compensation|url=https://www.rappler.com/nation/human-rights-victims-claims-board-final-list-eligible-claimants-released|access-date=July 6, 2021|website=Rappler}}</ref> The law created the Human Rights Violations Claims Board and provided reparations to victims of summary execution, torture, enforced disappearances, and other human rights violations committed under the regime of the late dictator Ferdinand Marcos.<ref name=":9">{{Cite web|last=Subingsubing|first=Krixia|date=October 19, 2020|title=Marcos victims push for second claims board|url=https://newsinfo.inquirer.net/1349577/marcos-victims-push-for-second-claims-board|access-date=July 6, 2021|website=Inquirer}}</ref> Compensation came from P10 billion of stolen wealth seized by the government from the Marcoses.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Agoncillo|first=Jodee A.|date=May 9, 2018|title=Final list of Marcos victims qualified for funds released|url=https://newsinfo.inquirer.net/988689/final-list-of-marcos-victims-qualified-for-funds-released|access-date=July 6, 2021|website=Inquirer}}</ref> A total of 11,103 victims of human rights violations under Martial Law received compensation in 2018.<ref name=":0" /> A bill filed in Congress in 2020 proposes to compensate tens of thousands of people who are still not officially recognized as victims of state-sponsored violence during the Marcos regime.<ref name=":9" />

==Legacy==
{{Too many sections|section|date=September 2023}}

Marcos left an economic legacy of debt, hardship and excess of dictatorship.<ref name="PhilstarMarcosLegacy">{{cite news|url=https://newslab.philstar.com/31-years-of-amnesia/golden-era|title=Debt, Deprivation and the Spoils of Dictatorship|last=Diola |first=Camille|work=Philstar|access-date=16 July 2022}}</ref>

===Authoritarianism===
While Ferdinand Marcos was not the first Philippine executive to institute an authoritarian form of government, he was the first to do so since the immediate post-WWII era, and the first to do so throughout the whole archipelago since the war itself.<ref name="politicalEconomyOfAuthoritarianism" />

Comparisons have been made between Ferdinand Marcos and Lee Kuan Yew's authoritarian style of governance and Singapore's success,<ref name="cnnLegaciesMarcosLKY">{{cite news|url=http://cnnphilippines.com/news/2015/03/24/different-legacies-marcos-lyk.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150520193004/http://cnnphilippines.com/news/2015/03/24/different-legacies-marcos-lyk.html|url-status=dead|archive-date=May 20, 2015|title=Different legacies: Ferdinand Marcos and Lee Kuan Yew|last=Taruc|first=Paolo|work=CNN Philippines|date=March 24, 2015}}</ref> but in his autobiography, ''From Third World to First: The Singapore Story: 1965–2000'', Lee relates:

{{Blockquote|It is a soft, forgiving culture. Only in the Philippines could a leader like Ferdinand Marcos, who pillaged his country for over 20 years, still be considered for a national burial. Insignificant amounts of the loot have been recovered, yet his wife and children were allowed to return and engage in politics.|Lee Kuan Yew<ref name="LKY15thingsPhilStar">{{cite news|url=http://www.philstar.com/news-feature/2015/03/23/1436680/15-things-lee-kuan-yew-said-about-philippines|title=15 things Lee Kuan Yew said about the Philippines|last=Diola|first=Camille|work=The Philippine Star|date=March 23, 2015}}</ref>}}

===Human rights abuses===
{{Main|Human rights abuses of the Marcos dictatorship}}

As many student activists like Edgar Jopson and Rigoberto Tiglao, farmers like Bernabe Buscayno, journalists like [[Satur Ocampo]], legal political opposition ([[Ninoy Aquino]]<ref>{{cite news|last=Claudio |first=Lisandro |title=Ninoy networked with everyone, Reds included |url=http://www.gmanetwork.com/news/story/198820/news/specialreports/ninoy-networked-with-everyone-reds-included |work=GMANews|date=August 18, 2010}}</ref> and fellow candidate in 1978 election Alex Boncayao<ref name="Roces" />), and priest and nuns joined or developed relationships with [[New People's Army|communist rebels]],<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/1986/03/02/world/nuns-and-priests-working-with-communists-divide-church.html|title=Nuns and Priests Working With Communists Divide Church |first=Fox |last=Butterfield |newspaper=The New York Times |date=March 2, 1986}}</ref> many farmers,<ref>{{Cite web|date=October 4, 2015|title=So Why Samar?|url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=H6vw6rFaabA |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/varchive/youtube/20211211/H6vw6rFaabA| archive-date=December 11, 2021|url-status=live|publisher=Philippine Commission on Human Rights with the help of Swiss Embassy Manila}}{{cbignore}}</ref> student protesters,<ref name="iSawMartialLaw">{{cite news|last=Quimpo |first=Susan |title=I saw martial law up close and personal |url=http://newsinfo.inquirer.net/723654/i-saw-martial-law-up-close-and-personal |newspaper=[[Philippine Daily Inquirer]]|date=September 20, 2015}}</ref> leftists,<ref name="auto" /> political opponents,<ref name="tortyur" /> journalists and members of the media<ref name="mediaAndMartialLaw">{{cite speech |last=Teodoro |first=Luis |title=FORGETTING, OR NOT KNOWING: MEDIA AND MARTIAL LAW |event=Memory, Truth-telling and the Pursuit of Justice: A Conference on the Legacies of the Marcos Dictatorship |date=September 20, 1999 |location=Ateneo de Manila University |url=http://www.luisteodoro.com/forgetting-or-not-knowing-media-and-martial-law/ |access-date=July 22, 2017 }}</ref><ref name="writersJournalists">{{cite news|title=Writers, journalists as freedom heroes|url=http://newsinfo.inquirer.net/810571/writers-journalists-as-freedom-heroes|newspaper=[[Philippine Daily Inquirer]]|date=August 29, 2016}}</ref> accused of being members or sympathizing with the CPP, NPA or MNLF<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=kpsDPvaCOCAC&q=alleged+members+or+sympathyzers+of+NPA+MNLF+became+the+main+targets+of+human+rights+violations&pg=PA139|title=The Power of Human Rights: International Norms and Domestic Change|first1=Thomas |last1=Risse-Kappen |first2=Stephen C. |last2=Ropp |first3=Kathryn |last3=Sikkink |date=August 5, 1999|publisher=Cambridge University Press|via=Google Books|isbn=9780521658829}}</ref> or of plotting against the government were frequent targets of human rights violations. Victims would simply be rounded up with no arrest warrant nor reading of prisoners' rights and kept indefinitely locked up with no charges filed against them.<ref name="marcosMartialLawNeverAgain" /> In a keynote speech at the [[University of the East]], journalist Raissa Robles described how anyone could just be arrested (or abducted) with ease through pre-signed Arrest Search and Seizure Orders (ASSO),<ref name="whyWeShouldWorry">{{cite news|last=Robles |first=Raissa |title=Why we should worry about martial law |url=http://news.abs-cbn.com/blogs/opinions/02/18/17/opinion-why-we-should-worry-about-martial-law |publisher=[[ABS-CBN News]] |date=February 19, 2017}}</ref> which allowed the military or police to detain victims on trumped up charges or unclear allegations according to [[Rappler]] research.<ref name="pcUnderMarcos">{{cite news|last=Francisco |first=Katerina |title=Look Back: The Philippine Constabulary under Marcos|url=http://www.rappler.com/newsbreak/iq/146867-look-back-philippine-constabulary-marcos |work=[[Rappler]] |date=September 21, 2016}}</ref> Anybody could be picked up at any time for any reason by the military or the police, according to Raissa's husband, journalist Alan Robles.<ref name="whatMartialLawWasLike">{{cite web|last=Robles |first=Alan |title=What Martial Law was like |url=http://www.hotmanila.ph/content/ironfist/what-martial-law-was |website=Hot Manila |date=March 27, 2000}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.raissarobles.com/about-us/|title=– About me|first=Raissa|last=Robles|website=www.raissarobles.com|date=July 22, 2011 }}</ref>

A 1976 [[Amnesty International]] report had listed 88 government torturers, including members of the Philippine Constabulary and the Philippine Army, which was respectively under the direct control of Major General Fidel V. Ramos and Defense Minister Juan Ponce Enrile.<ref name="amnestyInternational1975">{{cite web|url=https://www.amnesty.org/download/Documents/204000/asa350191977en.pdf|title=Report of an Amnesty International Mission to the Republic of the Philippines 22 November – 5 December 1975|date=September 1976|publisher=Amnesty International Publications}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.manilatimes.net/why-not-ask-ramos-and-enrile-about-martial-law-abuses/247486/ |title=Why not ask Ramos and Enrile about Martial Law |date=February 28, 2016 |access-date=June 29, 2017|work=The Manila Times}}</ref> According to torture victim Rigoberto Tiglao, nearly all of the human rights abuses President Marcos has been accused of were undertaken by Philippine Constabulary units, especially through its national network of "Constabulary Security Units", whose heads reported directly to Fidel V. Ramos. The most dreaded of these was the Manila-based 5th Constabulary Security Unit (CSU), which featured the dreaded torturer Lt. Rodolfo Aguinaldo,<ref name="hartfordMcCoy" /><ref name="marcosMartialLawNeverAgain" /> credited with capturing most of the Communist Party leaders including Jose Ma. Sison and the communist's Manila-Rizal Regional Committee he headed,<ref name="manilatimes.net">{{cite web|url=http://www.manilatimes.net/ramos-apologize-martial-law-abuses/296752/|title=It is Ramos who should apologize over Martial Law 'abuses' |website=The Manila Times |date=November 15, 2016}}</ref> the [[Metrocom Intelligence and Security Group|Metrocom Intelligence and Security Group (MISG)]]<ref name="pcUnderMarcos" /> under the command of Col. Rolando Abadilla,<ref name="hartfordMcCoy" /> and the Intelligence Service, Armed Forces of the Philippines (ISAFP).<ref name="marcosMartialLawNeverAgain" />

There are various statistics for human rights abuses committed during the Marcos regime.

[[Task Force Detainees of the Philippines]] (TFDP) has recorded:<ref name="karinyoMilitar">{{cite news|last1=Magsaysay|first1=Jing|title=Karinyo militar|agency=The Correspondents|publisher=ABS-CBN News|date=1999}}</ref>
* 2,668 incidents of arrests
* 398 disappearances
* 1,338 ''salvagings''
* 128 frustrated ''salvagings''
* 1,499 killed or wounded in massacres

Amnesty International reports:<ref name="batasMilitar">{{cite web|last1=Tiongson|first1=Lito|title=Batas militar: A documentary about martial law in the Philippines|url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=SG2Mx7Y5vzc |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/varchive/youtube/20211211/SG2Mx7Y5vzc| archive-date=December 11, 2021 |url-status=live|date=1997|publisher=Foundation for World Wide People Power}}{{cbignore}}</ref>
* 70,000 imprisoned
* 34,000 tortured
* 3,240 documented as killed

Historian [[Alfred W. McCoy|Alfred McCoy]] gives a figure of 3,257 recorded [[extrajudicial killing]]s by the military from 1975 to 1985, 35,000 tortured and 70,000 incarcerated.<ref name="hartfordMcCoy" /><ref name="factChecking3257">{{cite news|last1=Reyes|first1=Rachel|title=3,257: Fact checking the Marcos killings, 1975–1985|url=http://www.manilatimes.net/3257-fact-checking-the-marcos-killings-1975-1985/255735/|work=The Manila Times |date=April 12, 2016}}</ref> The newspaper ''Bulatlat'' places the number of victims of [[arbitrary arrest and detention]] at 120,000, the extrajudicial execution of activists under martial law at 1,500 and ''Karapatan'' (a local human rights group)'s records show 759 involuntarily disappeared with their bodies never found.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.bulatlat.com/news/6-32/6-32-specter.htm |title=The Specter of Martial Law |work=Bulatalat |last=Oliveros|first=Benjie|date=September 17, 2006 |access-date=November 19, 2007}}</ref>

According to the late Susan Quimpo, co-author of ''Subversive Lives'', 80,000 was a low figure for the number of persons incarcerated during the Marcos regime.<ref name="subversiveLives1" />

In addition to these, up to 10,000 Moro Muslims were [[#Muslim massacres|killed in massacres]] by the [[Philippine Army]], Philippine Constabulary, and the [[Ilaga]] pro-government paramilitary group.<ref name="pcijMindanaoMemoryMassacres">{{cite news|last1=Mariveles|first1=Julius D.|title=Mindanao: A memory of massacres|url=https://pcij.org/blog/2015/02/13/mindanao-a-memory-of-massacres|publisher=[[Philippine Center for Investigative Journalism]]|date=February 3, 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160207182211/https://pcij.org/blog/2015/02/13/mindanao-a-memory-of-massacres|archive-date=February 7, 2016}}</ref>

====Abductions====
{{Expand section|date=July 2017}}

Victims were often taken to military "safehouses",<ref name="martialLawVictimHealing">{{cite news|last1=Pasion|first1=Patty|title=A Martial Law victim's story of healing|url=http://www.rappler.com/nation/146881-martial-law-hilda-narciso-human-rights|work=[[Rappler]]|date=September 21, 2016}}</ref> a euphemism for hidden places of torture,<ref name="mostUnsafe">{{cite news|last1=Cardinoza|first1=Gabriel|title=Most unsafe in military safe house|url=http://newsinfo.inquirer.net/639751/most-unsafe-in-military-safe-house|newspaper=[[Philippine Daily Inquirer]]|date=September 22, 2014}}</ref> often blindfolded.<ref name="marcosMartialLawNeverAgain" /><ref name="detentionAndTorture">{{cite news|last1=Sorio|first1=Christopher|title=Detention and torture by Marcos military|url=http://philippinereporter.com/2011/09/09/detention-and-torture-by-marcos-military/|publisher=Philippine Reporter|date=September 9, 2011|access-date=July 22, 2017|archive-date=October 10, 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171010145623/http://philippinereporter.com/2011/09/09/detention-and-torture-by-marcos-military/|url-status=dead}}</ref> In a document titled "Open Letter to the Filipino People", martial law martyr Edgar "Edjop" Jopson described safehouses as such: "Safehouses usually have their windows always shut tight. They are usually covered with high walls. One would usually detect [safehouses] through the traffic of motorcycles and cars, going in and out of the house at irregular hours. Burly men, armed with pistols tucked in their waists or in clutch bags, usually drive these vehicles."<ref name="atenistaMarcosTortureMachine">{{cite news|last=Pimentel |first=Benjamin |title=Atenista who exposed the Marcos torture machine|url=http://globalnation.inquirer.net/115284/atenista-who-exposed-the-marcos-torture-machine |newspaper=[[Philippine Daily Inquirer]] |date=December 9, 2014}}</ref>

====Torture====
{{See also|List of torture methods used by the Marcos dictatorship}}

Various forms of torture were used by the military, and these forms of torture were usually combined with each other.<ref name="tortyur">{{cite web|last1=Chua|first1=Michael Charleston|title=TORTYUR: Human Rights Violations During The Marcos Regime, published in 'For Democracy & Human Rights, Rekindling Lessons from Martial Law & People Power Revolt'|url=https://www.academia.edu/7968581|publisher=Center for Youth Advocacy and Networking, [[Friedrich Ebert Foundation]]|date=2012}}</ref>

====Killings====

====="Salvagings"=====
{{Expand section|date=July 2017}}
{| class="wikitable sortable floatright" style="text-align:right;"
|+Number of "salvage" cases (TFDP)<ref name="marcosMartialLawNeverAgain" /><ref name="tfdpPumipiglas" />
|-
! scope="col" | Year
! scope="col" | No. of cases
|-
! scope="row" | 1980
| 139
|-
! scope="row" | 1981
| 218
|-
! scope="row" | 1982
| 210
|-
! scope="row" | 1983
| 368
|-
! scope="row" | 1984
| 538
|-
! scope="row" | Total
| style="background-color:#eaecf0;" | '''1,473'''
|}

[[Summary execution]]s were prevalent during the martial law era with bodies being recovered in various places and often bearing signs of torture and mutilation.<ref name="atenistaMarcosTortureMachine" /><ref name="toYoungFilipinos">{{cite news|last1=Pimentel|first1=Benjamin|title=To young Filipinos who never knew martial law and dictatorship |url=http://globalnation.inquirer.net/49932/to-young-filipinos-who-never-knew-martial-law-and-dictatorship |newspaper=[[Philippine Daily Inquirer]] |date=September 12, 2012}}</ref> Such cases were referred to as "salvaging" with the term widely believed to have originated from the Spanish word ''salvaje'', meaning ''savage''.<ref name="onSalvaging">{{cite web|last1=Ela|first1=Nathan|title=On Salvaging |url=http://main.tfdp.net/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=35&Itemid=30 |website=[[Task Force Detainees of the Philippines]]|access-date=July 19, 2017}}</ref> Mutilated remains were often dumped on roadsides in public display in order to spread a sense of fear and to intimidate opponents from encouraging actions against the government – turning the Philippines into a theater state of terror.<ref name="hartfordMcCoy" />

Anyone could be "salvaged": communist rebels, suspects, innocent civilians and priests included. TFDP documented 1,473 "salvage" cases from 1980 to 1984 alone.<ref name="marcosMartialLawNeverAgain" /><ref name="tfdpPumipiglas">{{cite book|title=Pumipiglas: Political Detention and Military Atrocities in the Philippines 1981–1982 |year=1986 |publisher=[[Task Force Detainees of the Philippines]] |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=CkbMtAEACAAJ}}</ref>

Victims included [[Pamantasan ng Lungsod ng Maynila]] student [[Liliosa Hilao]],<ref>{{cite web|url=http://newsinfo.inquirer.net/718061/liliosa-hilao-first-martial-law-detainee-killed|title=Liliosa Hilao: First Martial Law detainee killed |last1=Pedroso |first1=Kate |last2=Medina |first2=Marielle |date=September 1, 2015 |work=inquirer.net}}</ref> [[Imee Marcos#Torture and murder of Archimedes Trajano|Archimedes Trajano]] and [[Juan Escandor]].<ref name="marcosMartialLawNeverAgain" /> Also included in the list of summary execution victims was 16-year-old [[Conjugal Dictatorship|Luis Manuel "Boyet" Mijares]], who was tortured brutally with his body found with burn marks, all his nails pulled and removed, 33 ice pick wounds around his body, skull bashed in, eyeballs gouged out, and genitals mutilated before being dropped from a helicopter.<ref name="44yearsTooLong">{{cite news|last=Cepeda |first=Cody |title=44 years too long: The martial-law victims, 'desaparecidos' and the families left behind|url=http://www.businessmirror.com.ph/44-years-too-long-the-martial-law-victims-desaparecidos-and-the-families-left-behind/|work=[[BusinessMirror]]|date=September 16, 2016}}</ref><ref name="familySecretMijares">{{cite news|last1=Zamora|first1=Fe|title=Family secret: How Primitivo Mijares disappeared|url=http://newsinfo.inquirer.net/872907/family-secret-how-primitivo-mijares-disappeared|newspaper=[[Philippine Daily Inquirer]]|date=February 19, 2017}}</ref><ref name="marcosMartialLawNeverAgain" />

=====Enforced disappearances=====
{{See also|Extrajudicial killings and forced disappearances in the Philippines}}
{{Expand section|date=July 2017}}

Enforced disappearances, also known ''"desaparecidos"'' or "the disappeared" – people who suddenly went missing, sometimes without a trace and with bodies never recovered.<ref name="noGraveNoJustice">{{cite news|last1=Panti|first1=Llanesca|title=No grave, no justice for martial law victims|url=http://www.manilatimes.net/no-grave-no-justice-martial-law-victims/294444/|work=The Manila Times |date=November 2, 2016}}</ref>

Victims include [[Primitivo Mijares|Primitivo "Tibo" Mijares]],<ref name="44yearsTooLong" /> Emmanuel Alvarez, Albert Enriquez, Ma. Leticia Ladlad, Hermon Lagman,<ref name="44yearsTooLong" /> Mariano Lopez, Rodelo Manaog, Manuel Ontong, Florencio Pesquesa, Arnulfo Resus, Rosaleo Romano, [[Carlos Tayag]], Emmanuel Yap,<ref name="bantayog1999">{{cite journal|title=Souvenir issue: Annual celebration in honor of martyrs and heroes|journal=Bantayog Ng Mga Bayani|date=December 7, 1999|issue=Souvenir Issue|pages=16–29|publisher=Bantayog ng mga Bayani Foundation}}</ref> Jan Quimpo,<ref name="44yearsTooLong" /> [[Rizalina Ilagan]], Christina Catalla, [[Jessica Sales]] and Ramon Jasul.<ref name="andManyDisappeared">{{cite news|title=And many disappeared in the prime of youth|url=http://newsinfo.inquirer.net/718800/and-many-disappeared-in-the-prime-of-youth|newspaper=[[Philippine Daily Inquirer]]|date=September 3, 2015}}</ref>

=====Notable murders=====
{{Expand section|date=July 2017}}

While the numbers of political detainees went down, the number of people killed rose and spiked in 1981, the year martial law was officially lifted by Marcos according to Task Force Detainees of the Philippines. According to Senator Jose W. Diokno, "As torture (cases) declined, a more terrible tactic emerged; unofficial executions" – suspected dissidents were simply arrested and vanished.<ref name="marcosMartialLawNeverAgain" />

Murder victims include:
* Senator [[Ninoy Aquino]], August 21, 1983. [[Assassination of Benigno Aquino Jr.|Assassinated]] on the tarmac of [[Ninoy Aquino International Airport|Manila International Airport]]
* NPA commander Alex Boncayao,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.encyclopedia.com/politics/legal-and-political-magazines/alex-boncayao-brigade-abb|title=Alex Boncayao Brigade (ABB) – Dictionary definition of Alex Boncayao Brigade (ABB) – Encyclopedia.com: FREE online dictionary|website=www.encyclopedia.com}}</ref>
* [[Macliing Dulag|Macli-ing Dulag]]
* [[Tullio Favali|Fr. Tulio Favali]]<ref name="tortyur" />
* [[Liliosa Hilao]]
* [[Evelio Javier]]
* [[Edgar Jopson]]
* [[Emmanuel F. Lacaba|Emmanuel "Eman" Lacaba]]

=====Civilian massacres=====
{{Expand section|date=October 2017}}
[[File:1986 rally against the Marcos Dictatorship in which protesters hold up images of Escalante Massacre victims.jpg|thumb|protesters hold up images of Escalante Massacre victims]]

It is hard to judge the full extent of massacres and atrocities that happened during the Marcos regime due to a heavily censored press at the time.<ref name="inqWarPeaceValor">{{cite news|last1=Tan|first1=Michael L.|title=War, peace and valor|url=http://opinion.inquirer.net/73439/war-peace-and-valor|newspaper=[[Philippine Daily Inquirer]]|date=April 9, 2014}}</ref>

Some of the civilian massacres include the following:
* [[Guinayangan]], [[Quezon]]. February 1, 1981 – coconut farmers<ref name="ReyesAriateFQSAnniv20200311">{{Cite web|url=https://verafiles.org/articles/marcos-and-first-quarter-storm-part-ii-pillboxes-and-firearm|title=Marcos and the First Quarter Storm Part II: Of Pillboxes and Firearms|website=Vera Files|date=March 11, 2020 }}</ref> marched to air their grievances against the [[Coco Levy Fund scam|coco levy fund scam]].<ref name="marcosMartialLawNeverAgain" /> The military opened fire on a group of 3000 farmers<ref name="marcosMartialLawNeverAgain" /> that neared Guinayangan plaza. Two people died<ref name="GavilanMassacresList">{{cite web| url = https://www.rappler.com/newsbreak/iq/214987-list-massacres-incidents-of-violence-against-farmers-philippines| title = Massacres, incidents of violence against farmers| date = October 23, 2018}}</ref> and 27 were wounded.<ref name="inqMartialLawMassacres">{{cite news|last1=Doyo|first1=Ma. Ceres P.|title=Martial law massacres|url=http://opinion.inquirer.net/97552/martial-law-massacres|newspaper=[[Philippine Daily Inquirer]]|date=September 22, 2016}}</ref>
* [[Tudela, Misamis Occidental]]. August 24, 1981 – A [[Subanon people|Subanon]] family, the Gumapons, were asleep in Sitio Gitason, Barrio Lampasan when paramilitary members of the "Rock Christ", a fanatical pseudo-religious sect, strafed their house. 10 of the 12 persons in the house were killed, including an infant.<ref name="inqMartialLawMassacres" /><ref>{{Cite report |url=https://www.amnesty.org.ph/wp-content/uploads/2014/11/asa350251982en.pdf |title=Report of an Amnesty International Mission to the Republic of the Philippines, 11 – 28 Nov 1981 |date=November 28, 1981 |publisher=[[Amnesty International]]}}</ref>
* [[Las Navas, Northern Samar]]. September 15, 1981 – Known as the [[Sag-od massacre]], 18 heavily armed security men of the San Jose Timber Corp. (owned by [[Juan Ponce Enrile]] who were also members of the Special Forces of the [[Integrated Civilian Home Defense Forces|Civilian Home Defense Force (CHDF)]] and allied with the Lost Command (a paramilitary group pursuing insurgents) ordered residents of Barrio Sag-od to come out of their homes. They opened fire, killing 45 men, women and children. Only 13 inhabitants of Barrio Sag-od survived.<ref name="marcosMartialLawNeverAgain" /><ref name="inqMartialLawMassacres" />
* [[Culasi, Antique]]. December 19, 1981 – More than 400 of Culasi's mountain barangays held a protest to raise two issues: complaint against a new Philippine Constabulary company in their area and the reduction of taxes on farm products. The protesters were warned, but they pushed on. Soldiers opened fire while they were on the bridge. Five farmers died and several were injured.<ref name="inqMartialLawMassacres" />
* [[Talugtug, Nueva Ecija]]. January 3, 1982 – Five men in their twenties were rounded up by military elements at around 7pm. The next day, their corpses were found. The military had suspected them to be communist supporters.<ref name="inqMartialLawMassacres" />
* [[Dumingag, Zamboanga del Sur]]. February 12, 1982 – Members of the [[Ilaga]] killed 12 persons to avenge the death of their leader who was reportedly killed by the NPA.<ref name="inqMartialLawMassacres" />
* [[Hinunangan, Southern Leyte]]. March 23, 1982 – Troopers of the 357th PC company killed eight people in Masaymon barrio. Six of the eight victims were 3–18 years of age.<ref name="inqMartialLawMassacres" />
* [[Bayog, Zamboanga del Sur]]. May 25, 1982 – Airplanes dropped bombs on Barangay Dimalinao as military reprisal against the community because communist rebels killed 23 soldiers two days earlier.<ref name="marcosMartialLawNeverAgain" /> Three people died and eight people were injured. Days later, two men from the community were picked up and killed. Months later, the residence of Bayog's [[Jesuit]] parish priest was strafed with bullets. He had written letters protesting the torture and harassment of [[Subanon people|Subanon]] who were suspected to be supporters of armed communists.<ref name="inqMartialLawMassacres" />
* [[Daet, Camarines Norte]]. June 14, 1982 – People from different barrios marched to denounce "fake elections", [[Coco Levy Fund scam|Cocofed]], and to demand an increase in [[copra]] prices. Soldiers opened fire as marchers moved forward. Four people died on the spot, at least 50 were injured, and 2 of the seriously wounded died two months later.<ref name="inqMartialLawMassacres" />
* [[Pulilan, Bulacan]]. June 21, 1982 – In a dimly lit house, six peasant organizers were discussing and assessing their work when 25–35 uniformed military men with firearms burst in. While one of them was able to slip away, 5 of the peasants were taken by elements of the 175th PC Company to Pulo in [[San Rafael, Bulacan|San Rafael]] town. By midnight, five bullet-riddled corpses lay at the municipal hall of San Rafael.<ref name="inqMartialLawMassacres" />
* [[Labo, Camarines Norte]]. June 23, 1982 – Five men were gunned down by soldiers of the 45th Infantry Battalion's Mabilo detachment to avenge the death of a friend of one of the soldiers in the hands of unidentified gunmen.<ref name="inqMartialLawMassacres" />
* Roxas, [[Zamboanga del Norte]].<ref name="inqMartialLawMassacres" /> A week before Fr. [[Tullio Favali]] was murdered, 8 members of a family, including a three-year-old child were murdered by soldiers and militia men. All of them were parishioners of Favali. The massacre was never investigated.<ref name="marcosMartialLawNeverAgain" />
* [[Gapan|Gapan, Nueva Ecija]].<ref name="inqMartialLawMassacres" /> The Bautista family of five were strafed in their house by men in camouflaged uniforms.<ref name="marcosMartialLawNeverAgain" />
* [[Escalante, Negros Occidental]]. September 20, 1985. A crowd of 5000 farmers, students, fisherfolk, religious clergy gathered in front of the plaza of the city hall to protest the 13th anniversary of martial law's imposition. It was the second day of a three-day ''Welga ng Bayan''. About 50 firemen, armed soldiers of the Regional Special Action Forces (RSAF) and member of the [[Civilian Home Defense Forces|Civilian Home Defense Force]] (CHDF) attempted to disperse the crowd. They hosed demonstrators from firetrucks, soldiers used tear gas, and the CHDF opened fire with assault rifles and a machine gun.<ref name="marcosMartialLawNeverAgain" /> Between 20<ref name="marcosMartialLawNeverAgain" /> and 30 people were killed, and 30 were wounded.<ref name="bulatlat-Escalante">{{Cite web|url=http://www.bulatlat.com/news/4-33/4-33-escalante.html |title=19 Years After 'Bloody Thursday,' Terror Still Stalks Escalante |last=Ombion |first=Karl G. |date= September 19, 2004 |website=www.bulatlat.com |access-date=June 14, 2018}}</ref> This is now known as the [[Escalante massacre]], or "Bloody Thursday", even though the massacre happened on a Friday.<ref name="bulatlat-Escalante" />

=====Muslim massacres=====
{{Expand section|date=October 2017}}

The Marcos regime had started to kill hundreds of Moros even before the imposition of martial law in 1972.<ref name="abscbnTacubMassacre">{{cite news|last1=Mawallil|first1=Amir|title=Before Martial Law, there was the Tacub Massacre|url=http://news.abs-cbn.com/blogs/opinions/10/06/16/opinion-before-martial-law-there-was-the-tacub-massacre|date=October 7, 2016|ref=[[ABS-CBN News]]}}</ref> Thousands of Moros were killed during the Marcos regime, prompting them to form insurgent groups and separatist movements such as the Moro National Liberation Front (MNLF) and the [[Moro Islamic Liberation Front]] (MILF), which became more radical with time due to atrocities against Muslims.<ref name="inqMuslimsMartialLaw">{{cite news|last=Tan |first=Michael L. |title=Muslims, martial law |url=http://opinion.inquirer.net/61357/muslims-martial-law |newspaper=[[Philippine Daily Inquirer]]|date=September 17, 2013}}</ref> According to the study ''The Liberation Movements in Mindanao: Root Causes and Prospects for Peace'', a doctoral dissertation by Marjanie Salic Macasalong, the number of Moro victims killed by the Army, Philippine Constabulary, and the Ilaga (a notorious government-sanctioned<ref name="veraPalimbangMassacre">{{cite news|title=VERA FILES FACT SHEET: Palimbang massacre and Marcos' other transgressions against the Bangsamoro|url=http://verafiles.org/articles/vera-files-fact-sheet-palimbang-massacre-and-marcos-other-tr|publisher=VERA Files|date=September 24, 2017}}</ref> terrorist cult known for cannibalism and [[land grabbing]] that served as members of the CHDF)<ref name="inqMartialLawMassacres" /> reached as high as 10,000 lives.<ref name="pcijMindanaoMemoryMassacres" />

Some of the massacres include:
* The [[Jabidah Massacre]] in March 1968 with 11 to 68 Moros killed. This is the aftermath of an aborted operation to destabilize [[Sabah]], [[Operation Merdeka]].
* From 1970 to 1971, pro-government militias such as the [[Ilaga]] were behind 21 cases of massacres that left 518 people dead, 184 injured and 243 houses burned down.<ref name="inqMorosRecallMassacres">{{cite news|last1=Maulana|first1=Nash B.|title=Moros recall massacres under Marcos|url=http://newsinfo.inquirer.net/810366/moros-recall-massacres-under-marcos|newspaper=[[Philippine Daily Inquirer]]|date=August 28, 2016}}</ref><ref name="pcijMindanaoMemoryMassacres" />
* The Tacub Massacre in [[Kauswagan, Lanao del Norte]], 1971 – five truckloads of displaced resident voters were stopped at a military checkpoint in Tacub. People were asked to line up as if in a firing squad, then they were summarily executed in with open fire from armed men. Dozens of bodies were strewn all over the road of the barangay after the incident.<ref name="abscbnTacubMassacre" />
* The [[Manili massacre]] in June 1971, with 70–79 Moros, including women and children, were killed inside a mosque by suspected [[Ilaga]] and Philippine Constabulary.<ref name="inqMorosRecallMassacres" />
* The Burning of [[Jolo, Sulu]]<ref name="inqWarPeaceValor" /> in February 7–8, 1974, where land, sea and air bombardment by the Armed Forces of the Philippines caused fires and destruction in the central commercial town of Jolo that killed over 1,000 and possibly up to 20,000 civilians.<ref name="inqJoloToMarawi">{{cite news|last1=Tan|first1=Michael L.|title=From Jolo to Marawi|url=http://opinion.inquirer.net/104299/from-jolo-to-marawi|newspaper=[[Philippine Daily Inquirer]]|date=May 26, 2017}}</ref> It was described as "the worst single atrocity to be recorded in 16 years of the Mindanao conflict" by the April 1986 issue of the Philippines Dispatch.<ref name="philippinesDispatchBurningJolo">{{cite news|title=The Burning of Jolo|url=https://suluonlinelibrary.wordpress.com/major-events/1974-burning-of-jolo-2/burning-of-jolo-mnlf-account/|access-date=October 9, 2017|issue=Third Week|publisher=Philippines Dispatch|date=April 1986}}</ref>
* The [[Malisbong Massacre]] in September 1974, where about 1,500 male Moros were killed inside a mosque, 3,000 women and children aged 9–60 were detained, and about 300 women raped by the Philippine Constabulary.<ref name="inqMorosRecallMassacres" />
* The [[Pata Island massacre#Retaliation|Pata Island massacre]] in 1982 where 3,000 [[Tausūg people|Tausug]] civilians, including women and children, were killed by months of Philippine military artillery shelling.<ref name="inqMorosRecallMassacres" />
* The Tong Umapoy Massacre in 1983 where a Navy ship opened fire on a passenger boat en route to an athletic event in [[Bongao, Tawi-Tawi]]. 57 people on board were killed.<ref name="veraPalimbangMassacre" />

====Family denial====
{{Main|Historical distortion regarding Ferdinand Marcos}}

Members of the Marcos family deny that human rights violations happened during the Marcos administration.<ref name="martialLawHorrorsFabricated">{{cite news |title=VERA FILES FACT CHECK: Bongbong Marcos falsely claims martial law horrors fabricated |url=https://verafiles.org/articles/vera-files-fact-check-bongbong-marcos-falsely-claims-martial |publisher=[[Vera Files]] |date=January 17, 2020}}</ref>

On the stories of human rights abuses, Bongbong Marcos describes them as "self-serving statements by politicians, self-aggrandizement narratives, pompous declarations, and political posturing and propaganda."<ref name="mlLateStrongmanSon">{{cite news|last1=Tan|first1=Kimberly Jane|title=Martial Law in the eyes of the late strongman Marcos' son|url=http://www.gmanetwork.com/news/news/nation/275044/martial-law-in-the-eyes-of-the-late-strongman-marcos-son/story/|publisher=[[GMA News]]|date=September 21, 2012}}</ref><ref name="enrilesMemoir">{{cite news|last1=Quimpo|first1=Susan|title=Enrile's memoir gives me sleepless nights|url=http://www.gmanetwork.com/news/opinion/content/278235/enrile-s-memoir-gives-me-sleepless-nights/story/|publisher=[[GMA News]]|date=October 14, 2012}}</ref>

His older sister, Imee, denies that human rights abuses occurred during her family's regime and called them political accusations. According to her, "If what is demanded is an admission of guilt, I don't think that's possible. Why would we admit to something we did not do?"<ref name="politicalAccusations">{{cite news |last1=Gonzales |first1=Cathrine |title=Imee says HR abuses during father's rule are just 'political accusations' |url=https://newsinfo.inquirer.net/1043463/imee-says-hr-abuses-during-fathers-rule-are-just-political-accusations |newspaper=[[Philippine Daily Inquirer]] |date=October 16, 2018}}</ref>

===Ill-gotten wealth and kleptocracy===
{{Main|Unexplained wealth of the Marcos family|Marcos mansions|Marcos jewels}}
{{See also|Presidential Commission on Good Government}}
{{Cleanup press release section|date=June 2020}}

The [[Philippine Supreme Court]] considers all Marcos assets beyond their legally declared earnings/salary to be ill-gotten wealth<ref name="scImeldaMarcosvsRP">{{cite court |litigants=Imelda Romualdez-Marcos, vs. Republic of the Philippines |opinion=G.R. No. 189505 |court=Supreme Court of the Philippines |date=April 25, 2012 |url=http://sc.judiciary.gov.ph/jurisprudence/2012/april2012/189434.htm}}</ref> and such wealth to have been forfeited in favor of the government or human rights victims.<ref>{{cite news|newspaper=Philippine Daily Inquirer|url=http://globalnation.inquirer.net/54454/marcoses-lose-us-appeal|title=Marcoses lose US appeal}}</ref>

According to [[Presidential Commission on Good Government]], the Marcos family and their cronies looted so much wealth from the Philippines that, to this day, investigators have difficulty determining precisely how many billions of dollars were stolen.<ref name="NYTimesHuntForMarcosBillions">{{cite web|url=https://www.nytimes.com/1991/03/31/world/hunt-for-marcos-s-billions-yields-more-dead-ends-than-hard-cash.html?src=pm&pagewanted=1&pagewanted=all|title=Hunt for Marcos's Billions Yields More Dead Ends Than Hard Cash|author=Mydans, Seth|work=The New York Times|date=March 31, 1991}}</ref> The agency has estimated that Marcos stole around $5 billion to $10 billion from the Philippine treasury<ref name="theDiplomatEndof30">{{cite web|url=https://thediplomat.com/2013/01/end-of-30-year-hunt-for-marcos-billions/|title=End of 30-Year Hunt for Marcos Billions?|author=Hunt, Luke |publisher=The Diplomat, Asian Beat section|date=January 8, 2013}}</ref><ref name="marcosMissingMillions">{{cite magazine|url=http://inthesetimes.com/article/1566/marcos_missing_millions|title=Marcos' Missing Millions|author=Komisar, Lucy|magazine=[[In These Times (publication)|In These Times]]|date=August 2, 2002}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|author1=Ezrow, Natasha M. |author2=Franz, Erica|title=Dictators and Dictatorships: Understanding Authoritarian Regimes and Their Leaders|publisher=Continuum Publishing|year=2011|isbn=978-1-4411-7396-6|page=135|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=hOzp3xgL1FwC&pg=PA135}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|author1=Henry, James S. |author2=Bradley, Bill|chapter=Philippine Money Flies|title=The Blood Bankers: Tales from the Global Underground Economy|publisher=Basic Books|year=2005|isbn=978-1-56025-715-8|page=43|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=BzOKgoNfw1AC}}</ref> during his presidency from 1965 to 1986, while earning an annual salary equivalent to only US$13,500.00.<ref name="The10BQuestion" />

Adjusted for inflation, this would be equivalent to about US$11.16 billion to US$22.3 billion or over 550 billion to 1.1 trillion Philippine pesos in 2017.<ref name="blsInflationCalculator">{{cite web|url=http://www.bls.gov/data/inflation_calculator.htm|title=Bureau of Labor Statistics CPI Inflation Calculator|publisher=[[United States Department of Labor]]}}</ref>

Among the sources of the Marcos wealth are alleged to be diverted foreign economic aid, US government military aid (including huge discretionary funds at Marcos disposal as a "reward" for sending some Filipino troops to Vietnam) and kickbacks from public works contracts over a two-decades-long rule.<ref name="timeTakingTollMartialLawVictims">{{cite news|work=ABS-CBN News|url=http://news.abs-cbn.com/focus/07/09/15/time-taking-its-toll-martial-law-victims|title=Time taking its toll on martial law victims|first=Gerry|last=Lirio}}</ref>

In 1990, Imelda Marcos, his widow, was acquitted of charges that she raided the Philippine's treasury and invested the money in the United States by a US jury. Imelda was acquitted not because she did not commit any crime but because the United States jury deemed that the charges and trial did not belong in a US court.<ref>{{cite news |last=Glaberson |first=William |title=The Marcos Verdict; The 'Wrong' Court |url=https://www.nytimes.com/1990/07/03/nyregion/the-marcos-verdict-the-wrong-court.html |work=The New York Times |date=July 3, 1990}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/1990/07/03/nyregion/marcos-verdict-marcos-cleared-all-charges-racketeering-fraud-case.html|title=The Marcos Verdict; Marcos Is Cleared of All Charges In Racketeering and Fraud Case|first=Craig|last=Wolff|newspaper=The New York Times|date=July 3, 1990}}</ref> In 1993, she was convicted of graft in Manila for entering into three unfavorable lease contracts between a government-run transportation agency and another government-run hospital.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/1993/09/24/world/marcos-convicted-of-graft-in-manila.html|title=Marcos Convicted of Graft in Manila|newspaper=The New York Times|date=September 24, 1993}}</ref> In 1998, the Philippine Supreme Court overturned the previous conviction of Imelda Marcos and acquitted her of corruption charges.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/asia-pacific/187295.stm|title=BBC News – Asia-Pacific – Imelda Marcos acquitted|website=news.bbc.co.uk}}</ref> In 2008, Philippine trial court judge Silvino Pampilo acquitted Imelda Marcos, then widow of Ferdinand Marcos, of 32 counts of illegal money transfer<ref name="nyTimesImeldaAcquitted">{{cite web|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2008/03/11/world/asia/11phils.html|title=Imelda Marcos Acquitted, Again|work=The New York Times|date=March 11, 2008}}</ref> from the 1993 graft conviction.<ref name="imeldaGraft1993">{{cite web|url=https://www.nytimes.com/1993/09/24/world/marcos-convicted-of-graft-in-manila.html|title=Marcos Convicted of Graft in Manila|date=September 24, 1993|work=The New York Times}}</ref> In 2010, she was ordered to repay the Philippine government almost $280,000 for funds taken by Ferdinand Marcos in 1983.<ref name="imeldaMarcosFastFacts">{{cite web |author= |date=January 24, 2013 |title=Imelda Marcos Fast Facts |url=http://www.cnn.com/2013/01/24/world/asia/imelda-marcos-fast-facts/ |publisher=[[CNN]]}}</ref> In 2012, a US Court of Appeals of the Ninth Circuit upheld a contempt judgement against Imelda and her son Bongbong Marcos for violating an injunction barring them from dissipating their assets, and awarded $353.6 million to human rights victims.<ref name="marcosLosesUSAppeal">{{cite news|url=http://globalnation.inquirer.net/54454/marcoses-lose-us-appeal|title=Marcoses lose US appeal|author=Gil Cabacungan|date=October 29, 2012|newspaper=Philippine Daily Inquirer}}</ref> As of October 2015, she still faced 10 criminal charges of graft, along with 25 civil cases,<ref name="wsj.com">{{cite news|url=https://www.wsj.com/articles/SB10001424127887323494504578343254294114668|title=Hunt for Marcos Riches Winds Down|first=Rhea|last=Sandique-Carlos|newspaper=Wall Street Journal|date=March 7, 2013|access-date=November 9, 2018}}</ref><ref name="newsinfo.inquirer.net">{{cite news|newspaper=Philippine Daily Inquirer|url=http://newsinfo.inquirer.net/734042/imelda-marcos-allowed-to-travel-to-singapore-despite-graft-cases|title=Imelda Marcos allowed to travel to Singapore despite graft cases|first=Marc Jayson|last=Cayabyab}}</ref> down from 900 cases in the 1990s, as most of the cases were dismissed for lack of evidence.<ref name="gmanetwork.com">{{cite news|title=Imelda Marcos and her road to vindication|url=http://www.gmanetwork.com/news/story/188960/news/nation/imelda-marcos-and-her-road-to-vindication|access-date=August 25, 2013|work=GMA News|date=April 10, 2010}}</ref>{{Update after|2018|11|9}}

In the 2004 ''Global Corruption Report'', Marcos appeared in the list of the world's most corrupt leaders, listed in second place behind [[Suharto]], the former president of Indonesia.<ref name="transparency.org">{{cite web|title=Global Corruption Report|url=http://www.transparency.org/content/download/4459/26786/file/Introduction_to_political_corruption.pdf|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070704093500/http://www.transparency.org/content/download/4459/26786/file/Introduction_to_political_corruption.pdf|archive-date=July 4, 2007|access-date=August 6, 2009|publisher=Transparency International}}</ref> But one of Marcos's own former Ministers of industry, [[Vicente Paterno]],<ref name="paterno1">{{cite book|url=http://raissarobles.com/2014/11/29/just-before-dying-vicente-paterno-called-dictator-ferdinand-marcos-a-thief/|title=On My Terms|last=Paterno|first=Vicente|publisher=Anvil|date=2014}}</ref> notes that while "the amount of theft perpetrated by Marcos's regime was probably less than that by Suharto on Indonesia", it "harmed our country more because the sums stolen by Marcos were sent out of the country, whereas Suharto's loot mostly were invested in Indonesia."<ref name="paterno1" />

During the ICIJ's (International Consortium of Investigative Journalists) exposé of [[offshore leaks]] in April 2013, the name of his eldest daughter, Imee Marcos, appeared on the list of wealthy people involved in offshore financial secrecy. It was revealed that she is hiding parts of her father's ill-gotten wealth in [[tax haven]]s in the [[British Virgin Islands]].<ref name="ICIJ Secret Files Expose">{{cite news|title=Secret Files Expose Offshore's Global Impact|url=http://www.icij.org/offshore/secret-files-expose-offshores-global-impact |access-date=April 4, 2013|work=ICIJ}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=http://pcij.org/stories/bir-chief-ready-to-investigate-pinoys-with-offshore-accounts/|title=BIR chief ready to investigate Pinoys with offshore accounts|access-date=October 22, 2013|archive-date=December 4, 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151204112407/http://pcij.org/stories/bir-chief-ready-to-investigate-pinoys-with-offshore-accounts/|url-status=dead}}</ref>

In 2014, Vilma Bautista, the former secretary of Imelda Marcos was sentenced to prison for conspiring to sell a [[Monet]], [[Sisley]], and other masterpiece artworks belonging to the Republic of the Philippines for tens of millions of dollars.<ref name="inqMarcosSecretaryMonet">{{cite news|title=Imelda Marcos' ex-secretary sentenced over stolen masterpieces|url=http://usa.inquirer.net/8530/imelda-marcos-ex-secretary-sentenced-theft-masterpieces|newspaper=Philippine Daily Inquirer|date=December 6, 2017}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2014/01/14/nyregion/aide-to-imelda-marcos-is-sentenced-in-sale-of-masterpieces.html|title=Former Marcos Aide Sentenced in Art Sale|first=James C. Jr.|last=Mckinley|newspaper=The New York Times|date=January 13, 2014}}</ref>

On May 9, 2016, the [[International Consortium of Investigative Journalists]] released the searchable database from [[Panama Papers]].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://panamapapers.icij.org/blog/20160509-offshore-database-release.html|title=ICIJ releases database revealing thousands of secret offshore companies|last=Guevara|first=Marina Walker|work=icij.org|date=May 9, 2016 }}</ref> His two daughters, Imee Marcos Manotoc and Irene Marcos Araneta,<ref>{{cite web|url=https://offshoreleaks.icij.org/search?c=PHL&cat=2&e=&q=marcos&utf8=%E2%9C%93|title=Search results for marcos|work=icij.org}}</ref> have been named, along with his grandsons Fernando Manotoc, Matthew Joseph Manotoc, Ferdinand Richard Manotoc, his son-in-law Gregorio Maria Araneta III,<ref>{{cite web|url=https://offshoreleaks.icij.org/search?utf8=%E2%9C%93&q=araneta&c=PHL&e=&commit=Search |title=Search results for araneta |work=icij.org}}</ref> including his estranged son-in-law Tommy Manotoc's relatives Ricardo Gabriel Manotoc and Teodoro Kalaw Manotoc.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://offshoreleaks.icij.org/search?utf8=%E2%9C%93&q=kalaw&c=PHL&e=&commit=Search |title=Search results for kalaw |work=icij.org}}</ref>

On September 3, 2017, President [[Rodrigo Duterte]] said the family of the late dictator Ferdinand Marcos was "ready to return" their stolen wealth to the government, possibly through a settlement.<ref>{{cite news|work=CNN Philippines|url=http://cnnphilippines.com/news/2017/09/03/president-rodrigo-duterte-marcos-settle-family-wealth.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170903011355/http://cnnphilippines.com/news/2017/09/03/president-rodrigo-duterte-marcos-settle-family-wealth.html|url-status=dead|archive-date=September 3, 2017|title=Duterte: Marcoses offer settlement on family wealth}}</ref> In January 2018, a draft House Bill proposing a compromise settlement and immunity for the Marcoses submitted by the late Ferdinand Marcos's legal counsel [[Oliver Lozano]] was revealed on social media<ref name="fbDuterteMarcosHousebill">{{cite web|title=Facebook Gallery: Draft Bill on Compromise Deal Between Marcos and Duterte Government|url=https://www.facebook.com/aleckspabico/posts/10156047759436214 |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/iarchive/facebook/172552851213/10156047759436214 |archive-date=February 26, 2022 |url-access=limited|publisher=Friends of Alecks Pabico}}{{cbignore}}</ref> to have been received by the Duterte government in July 2017.<ref name="cnnMarcosDealDuterte">{{cite news|last1=Bacungan|first1=VJ|title=Marcos loyalist proposes deal with gov't on Marcos wealth |url=http://cnnphilippines.com/news/2018/01/01/ferdinand-marcos-oliver-lozano-deal-wealth.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180104213945/http://cnnphilippines.com/news/2018/01/01/ferdinand-marcos-oliver-lozano-deal-wealth.html |url-status=dead |archive-date=January 4, 2018 |work=CNN Philippines |date=January 2, 2018}}</ref>

====Overseas investments and bank accounts====
{{Main|Overseas landholdings of the Marcos family}}
{{Multiple issues|section=yes|{{one source section|date=June 2020}}
{{Page numbers needed|section|date=June 2020}}}}

The overseas properties of Marcos and his associates created an empire spanning places as diverse as California, Washington, New York, Rome, Vienna, Australia, Antilles, the Netherlands, Hong Kong,&nbsp;Switzerland and Singapore. The more popular properties among those in this empire are the multimillion-dollar New York real estate investments, California banks and Swiss bank accounts; lesser known ones are villas in Austria, London, and Rome,&nbsp;gold and diamond investments in South Africa, and banks and hotels in Israel.<ref name="Manapat1991">{{Cite book |last=Manapat |first=Ricardo |title=Some are smarter than others : the history of Marcos' crony capitalism |date=1991 |publisher=Aletheia Publications |isbn=978-9719128700 |oclc=28428684}}</ref>{{rp|page=423}}

There were 10 prominent Filipinos, led by Ferdinand Marcos and Imelda Marcos, who acquired, presumably illegally, various extensive properties in the US. They were Roberto Benedicto, Antonio Floirendo, Juan Ponce Enrile, Jose Yao Campos, Eduardo Cojuangco, Roman Cruz Jr., Geronimo Velasco, and Rodolfo Cuenca.<ref name=":11">{{Cite book|title=The transnational dynamics of the Marcos Plunder|last=Aquino |first=Belinda A.|date=1999|publisher=University of the Philippines, National College of Public Administration and Governance|isbn=978-9718567197|oclc=760665486}}</ref>{{page needed|date=June 2020}} Other nominees who were noted as having been crucial in considerable overseas transactions were Ricardo Silverio, Herminio Disini, Nemesio Yabi, and Edna Camam.<ref name=":11" />{{page needed|date=June 2020}} Dewey Dee, one of Marcos's main nominees, as well as Jose Yao Campos would later reveal how they fronted Marcos's investments both locally and abroad via at least 25 interlocking corporations set up for this purpose.{{citation needed|date=June 2020}}

The process by which Marcos [[money laundering|laundered dirty money]] abroad was very comprehensive and difficult to track. First, overseas bank accounts were established in order to have easy access to the funds without concern for Philippine exchange laws. Often, cronies would choose distinguished US law firms that specialized in offshore real investment in US jurisdictions.<ref name=":11" />{{page needed|date=June 2020}} Then, a lawyer or accountant would be contacted to establish an offshore corporation, usually in Hong Kong, to serve as the managing director of the corporation. A "shell" company, organized solely for the purpose of moving and hiding the true ownership of assets served as a channel for transferring funds from the Philippines inconspicuously.<ref name=":11" />{{page needed|date=June 2020}}<ref name="Manapat1991" />{{page needed|date=June 2020}} As this happened, another lawyers, often in the US, would be hired for a fee of $200 to $3,000 to arrange for the incorporation of another offshore corporation through accounting firms in Curaçao in the Netherlands Antilles.<ref name=":11" />{{page needed|date=June 2020}} This would become the significant link between the real estate investment and the client. By this point, it would be more and more convoluted, becoming in the process much more difficult to track. One San Francisco lawyer, who represented affluent Filipino investors in California land deals, said "You'll never find out who the principals are. Every time I have ever dealt with these guys, I have never dealt with a document signed by a principal." The Marcos group used this very complicated and developed "laundering" process of involving multiple layers of dummy corporations scattered internationally to acquire and establish several multimillion assets in various US locations.<ref name=":11" />{{page needed|date=June 2020}}

Marcos, through different international banks, was able to launder money abroad. Crocker National Bank in San Francisco, for example, had to settle with the US Treasury Department, because they failed to report $4 billion in cash deposits from 1980 to 1984 from six Hong Kong-based banks.<ref name="Manapat1991" />{{page needed|date=June 2020}} Hong Kong was a favorite among Filipino launderers. Due to the absence of foreign exchange controls in Hong Kong, it was impossible to determine the origin of the money.{{citation needed|date=June 2020}}

Crocker merely stated that the money came from "various Asian countries".<ref name="Manapat1991" />{{page needed|date=June 2020}} The compliance of private banks with anonymous individuals looking to deposit their money enabled money laundering. Consequently, money laundering is an integral part of private banking. Marcos would later go on to seek the help of other private banks in Switzerland, Hong Kong, Austria, Panama, Liechtenstein, and the Netherlands Antilles. The Swiss are known for their mastery in money laundering thanks to the central role of secrecy in their society.<ref name="Manapat1991" />{{page needed|date=June 2020}} Austria, which also has its own tradition of banking secrecy, allowed accounts to be opened without the client ever revealing his or her name, something Swiss banks did not even allow.<ref name="Manapat1991" />{{page needed|date=June 2020}} Hong Kong, more conveniently located for the Philippines, has developed facilities for the movement of money and the ready availability of various British lawyers who offer services of opening front or [[shell corporation]]s for a fee. Panama is noted for its corrupt politicians and convenient transit point to the US.<ref name="Manapat1991" />{{page needed|date=June 2020}} The Netherlands Antilles served as the home for more than 35,000 shell companies of Marcos in order to invest anonymously in overseas financial markets and US real estate.<ref name="Manapat1991" />{{page needed|date=June 2020}} Throughout the entire process, highly paid lawyers, accountants, investment consultants and portfolio managers were hired in order to organize shell corporations and acquire overseas properties.<ref name="Manapat1991" />{{page needed|date=June 2020}}

The Marcoses invested a lot in the US East and West coasts, but there were also important investments in Texas and Washington state.<ref name="Manapat1991" />{{page needed|date=June 2020}} Most of the major real estate investments were Imelda's purchases of real estate in New York, Jose Campos Yao's investments in Texas and Seattle, and crony purchases in California.<ref name="Manapat1991" />{{page needed|date=June 2020}}

Jose Campos Yao, a Marcos ally and crony, along with his associates, purchased a whole city block in Seattle, Washington, in 1983. He used the Unam Investment Corp., a shell corporation based in Netherlands Antilles and a corporation he is the president of, and purchased the Seattle real estate worth S9,178,215 on May 13, 1983.<ref name="Manapat1991" />{{page needed|date=June 2020}}<ref name="Gold Oil Land and Cash">{{cite news |url=https://www.nytimes.com/1986/03/16/world/the-marcos-empire-gold-oil-land-and-cash.html |title=The Marcos Empire: Gold, Oil, Land and Cash |last=Gerth |first=Jeff |date=March 16, 1986 |work=The New York Times |access-date=November 10, 2019 |issn=0362-4331}}</ref> Included in the acquisition are 600 Pike Street, 614 Pike Street, 1506 Sixth Avenue, 1520 Sixth Avenue, 151 Seventh Avenue, 1521 Seventh Avenue and 1575 Seventh Avenue. Throughout the entire process of the purchase, Yao and his associates hid their identities from the Seattle attorney and worked through Simeon Dee until the final negotiations.<ref name="Manapat1991" />{{page needed|date=June 2020}}

In Texas, Yao also purchased 5,000 acres of prime land in the late 1970s and early 1980s. The land included Tarrant County, Dallas as well as in San Antonio and Corpus Christi. The land would be valued at $51 million.<ref name="Manapat1991" />{{page needed|date=June 2020}}

Geronimo Velasco, Marcos's Minister of Energy, and Rodolfo Cuenca, one of the Philippine cronies who dominated the construction industry, were both connected to several real estate purchases in California.<ref name="Manapat1991" />{{page needed|date=June 2020}} Velasco, using either Decision Research Management, a shell company in Hong Kong, or through Velasco's nephew, Alfredo de Borja, purchased several expenses properties in California, including a mansion in Woodside for $1.5 million (price as of 1986), a condominium in Los Angeles for $675,000 (price as of June 3, 1982) and a luxury condominium in San Francisco for $400,000 (price as of 1984).<ref name="Manapat1991" />{{page needed|date=June 2020}} Cuenca, on the other hand, purchased different real estates properties in San Francisco through TRA Equities Inc., a shell corporation registered in Delaware. His purchases included a condominium, a home, two office buildings and an annex in San Francisco, as well as a home in San Bruno.<ref name="Manapat1991" />{{page needed|date=June 2020}}

In New Jersey while she was still studying, Imee Marcos, President Ferdinand Marcos's eldest daughter, was given an 18th-century estate to live in. The estate was purchased on October 26, 1982, and includes a mansion and 13 acres of land.<ref>{{Cite news |url=https://www.upi.com/Archives/1987/04/21/Marcos-mansion-in-New-Jersey-sold/7689545976000/ |title=Marcos mansion in New Jersey sold |date=April 21, 1987 |access-date=November 10, 2019 }}</ref> The Marcos family spent approximately $3 million to $5 million in furnishings and improvements. As for President Ferdinand Marcos's only son, Ferdinand Jr., he was given a house in Cherry Hill, New Jersey, purchased for $119,000, &nbsp;while he was studying in the Wharton Business School of the University of Pennsylvania. Another property was bought for $90,000 in the area for the servants and security that was serving his son on November 23, 1978.<ref name="Manapat1991" />{{page needed|date=June 2020}}<ref>{{Cite news |url=https://nypost.com/2019/11/09/imelda-marcos-rises-again-in-the-philippines-through-her-son-bongbong/ |title=Imelda Marcos rises again in the Philippines—through her son Bongbong |last=Linge |first=Mary Kay |date=November 9, 2019 |work=The New York Post |access-date=November 10, 2019 }}</ref>

Imelda, in purchasing estate properties in Manhattan, organized many shell corporations based in Hong Kong, Panama and the Netherlands Antilles. She elicited the help of key individuals such as Gliceria Tantoco, one of Imelda's closest friends and business associates, Antonio Floirendo, who was instrumental in Imelda's involvement in the lucrative sugar trading business in New York and the purchase of the Olympic Towers, Rolando Gapud, one of Marcos's financial advisers, Fe Roa Gimenez and Vilma H. Bautista, personal assistants of Imelda, and Joseph and Ralph Bernstein, who played key roles in helping the Marcoses purchase and conceal ownership of their Manhattan properties.<ref name="Manapat1991" />{{page needed|date=June 2020}}

Imelda Marcos purchased five expensive Manhattan condominiums at the Olympic Towers, located on 5th Avenue, New York.<ref name="Manapat1991" />{{page needed|date=June 2020}} The first three condominiums were purchased by Thetaventure Ltd., a Hong Kong-based shell corporation, for a total of $688,000 and was remodelled for $3.75 million. The fourth and fifth condominium were bought for $270,000 and $1.1 million respectively. Imelda also purchased her own resort, the Lindenmere Estate in [[Center Moriches]], Suffolk County, Long Island. It was estimated to be between $19 million and $20 million after renovations were done. The restorations was paid for by Vilma Bautista, Imelda's personal assistant and Luna 7 Development Corp., a corporation registered in New York.<ref name="Manapat1991" />{{page needed|date=June 2020}} The Townhouse at 13–15 East 66th, New York City, is quite a different case from the other properties, because it was not purchased by a shell corporation but by the Philippine Consulate and the Philippine National Bank. The sixth floor of the townhouse was converted into a private disco where the guests can have fun and play with giant pillows. It also housed the expensive art Imelda collected over the years.<ref name="Manapat1991" />{{page needed|date=June 2020}} Imelda would also purchase Herald Center, a shopping center worth $70 million, 200 Madison, an office building acquired for $50 million, Crown Building, a large edifice located at 730 Fifth Avenue bought for $51 million through Lasutra Corp. N.V., and 50 Wall Street, a large historic building in New York's financial district bought for $71 million through NYLand (CF8) Ltd., a shell corporation based in the Netherlands Antilles.<ref name="Manapat1991" />{{page needed|date=June 2020}}

All of these properties and investments are only a fraction of the entire Marcos empire. The [[Center for Research and Communication]], a Philippine private think-tank, estimated that Marcos and his cronies took away not only $10 million but $30 billion since the 1950s.<ref name=":11" />{{page needed|date=June 2020}}<ref name="Fischer2019">{{Cite book|title=1978–1989: From Roarings in the Middle East to the Destroying of the Democratic Movement in China|date=January 20, 2020|publisher=Walter de Gruyter GmbH & Co KG, 2020|isbn=978-3-11-086292-8|editor-last=Fischer|editor-first=Heinz-Dietrich|edition=Reprint 2019|location=Berlin|oclc=1138498892}}</ref>{{rp|page=175}}

====Illegal Swiss foundations====
In 1986, following the overthrow of the Marcos regime, it was discovered that as early as 1968,<ref name="LATimesSaundersRyan">{{Cite news |agency=Reuters |date=June 25, 1986 |title=Marcos' First Foreign Accounts Traced to '68 |work=Los Angeles Times |url=https://www.latimes.com/archives/la-xpm-1986-06-25-mn-20258-story.html |access-date=June 13, 2020}}</ref> Ferdinand and Imelda Marcos, under the pseudonyms William Saunders and Jane Ryan,<ref name="LATimesSaundersRyan" /> opened bank accounts in Swiss banks, with one account having a balance of $950,000.<ref name="viraystar">{{Cite web|url=https://newslab.philstar.com/31-years-of-amnesia/never-convicted|title=Money trail: The Marcos billions &#124; 31 years of amnesia|first=Patricia Lourdes|last=Viray|website=newslab.philstar.com}}</ref> Ferdinand Marcos's salary then was only around $5,600 a year<ref name="viraystar" /> while Imelda Marcos did not have any visible means of income.

Eventually, the Presidential Commission on Good Government (PCGG), the body created by the government of President Corazon Aquino to recover the Marcos "hidden wealth" would determine that the late dictator stole between $5 billion and 10 billion from the Philippine treasury.<ref name=":11" />{{page needed|date=June 2020}} Dr. [[Bernardo Villegas]] of the Center for Research and Communication, meantime, affirmed that the total amount probably came closer to $13 billion.<ref>{{Cite book |title=Philippine political economy |last=Romero | first=Jose V. Jr. |date=2008 |publisher=Central Book Supply |isbn=9789716918892 |location=Quezon City, Philippines |oclc=302100329 |author-link=Jose V. Romero Jr.}}</ref>{{rp|page="27"}}

The initial deposit of under $1 million grew into hundreds of millions, especially after Marcos declared martial law in 1972.<ref name=":11" />{{page needed|date=June 2020}} Marcos and his cronies milked major sectors of the economy, extorted business establishments, skimmed from international loans, borrowed from banks without collateral, established phony companies, and siphoned off vital capital funds to overseas donations.<ref name=":11" />{{page needed|date=June 2020}}

In March 1986, the Philippine government had identified an $800 million Swiss bank account held by Marcos, which at the time was the largest asset of Marcos and his wife, Imelda, yet made public.<ref name=":12">{{Cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/1986/03/14/world/swiss-bank-found-with-800-million-in-marcos-s-name.html|title=Swiss Bank Found with $800 Million in Marcos's Name|last=Butterfield|first=Fox|date=March 14, 1986|work=The New York Times|access-date=April 19, 2019|issn=0362-4331}}</ref> But another commission member, Mary C. Bautista, said the commission actually had information on more than one account held by Marcos in Switzerland.<ref name=":12" /> The commission is seeking to regain five buildings in New York worth an estimated $350 million that it asserts are secretly owned by the Marcoses.

Switzerland's federal tribunal ruled in December 1990 that cash in Swiss banks would be returned to the Philippine government only if a Philippine court convicted her. In December 1997 (Reuters 1997:3), Switzerland's highest court ordered the Swiss banks to return $500 million of Marcos's secret accounts to the Philippine government, marking a major step forward in efforts to recover the Marcos's hidden wealth.<ref name=":11" />{{page needed|date=June 2020}} That same year, the Philippine Senate, through its Blue Ribbon Committee chairman Franklin Drilon, has revealed the existence of 97 alleged accounts of Ferdinand Marcos in 23 banks in Europe, the United States, and Asia, suspected to be depositories of wealth looted from the Philippine treasury. Thirteen of the 23 banks mentioned by Drilon are in Switzerland, namely: Swiss Credit Bank, Swiss Bank Corp., Bankers Trust AG, Banque Paribas, Affida Bank, Copla, S.A., Lombard Odier et Cie, Standard Chartered Bank, Swiss Volkabank, Bank Ricklin, Compaigne Banque Et d'Investissements, Compaigne de Gestion Et De Banque Gonet Sa Nyon, and Bank Hoffman AG.<ref name=":11" />{{page needed|date=June 2020}}

The Sandiganbayan 5th Division has recently convicted Imelda Marcos of seven counts of graft for creating and maintaining private foundations in Switzerland, violating the anti-graft law that prohibits public officials from having pecuniary interests in private businesses.<ref name=":13">{{Cite news|url=http://www.rappler.com//nation/216333-imelda-marcos-guilty-verdict-graft-case-shows-scheme-earnings-swiss-foundations|title=Imelda Marcos verdict shows scheme to earn $200M from Swiss foundations|last=Buan|first=Lian|work=Rappler|access-date=April 19, 2019}}</ref> As the Sandiganbayan's decision reads, "Though named as a foundation, the evidence shows that these entities were put up primarily for the entrepreneurial activity of opening bank accounts and deposits, transferring funds, earning interests and even profit from investment, for the private benefit of the Marcos family as beneficiaries". For example, in the creation of the Maler Foundation, Imelda and Ferdinand created it but appointed Andre Barbey and Jean Louis Suiner as attorneys, administrators, and managers of the foundation. Imelda then conducted business to get investments amounting to at least US$75 million.<ref name=":13" />

===Monopolies===
{{Main|Monopolies in the Philippines (1965–1986)}}
{{More citations needed|date=June 2020}}
[[File:Marcos in Washington 1983.jpg|thumb|Ferdinand Marcos in Washington, 1983]]

Marcos's administration spawned new [[Oligarchy|oligarchs]] in Philippine society who became instant millionaires.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Anderson|first=Benedict|title=Politics of modern Southeast Asia|date=2010|publisher=Routledge|isbn=9780415450614|editor-last=Hicken|editor-first=Allen|location=Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxon|chapter=Cacique Democracy in the Philippines: Origins and Dreams|oclc=261176117|author-link=Benedict Anderson}}</ref> These oligarchs plundered government financing institutions to finance their corporate raiding, monopolies and various takeover schemes. Marcos's cronies were awarded timber, mining and oil concessions and vast tracts of rich government agricultural and urban lands, not to mention lush government construction contracts. During his martial law regime, Marcos confiscated and appropriated by force and duress many businesses and institutions, both private and public, and redistributed them to his cronies and close personal friends. A presidential crony representing Westington won for its principal the $500 million bid for the construction of the Bataan Nuclear Power Plant in Bagac. The crony's commission was $25 million or $200 million representing five percent of the total bid price. These new oligarchs were known to be insatiable and more profligate than the oligarchs of pre-martial law days.<ref name=":1">{{Cite book|title=Testament from a Prison Cell|last=Aquino|first=Ninoy|publisher=Philippine Journal, Incorporated|year=1989|isbn=978-0962169502|location=Los Angeles}}</ref> Two of Marcos's friends were Eduardo "Danding" Cojuangco Jr., who would go on to control [[San Miguel Corporation]], and Ramon Cojuangco, late businessman and chairman of [[PLDT]], and father of Antonio "Tony Boy" Cojuangco (who would eventually succeed his father in the telecommunications company), both happened to be cousins of Corazon Aquino. These associates of Marcos then used these as fronts to [[money laundering|launder proceeds]] from institutionalized graft and corruption in the different national governmental agencies as "[[crony capitalism]]" for personal benefit. Graft and corruption via bribery, [[racketeering]], and [[embezzlement]] became more prevalent during this era.<ref>{{Cite web|title=The Southeast Missourian – Google News Archive Search|url=https://news.google.com/newspapers?id=PIdFAAAAIBAJ&pg=1234,7451206|access-date=September 22, 2020|website=news.google.com}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Evidence vs. Marcoses|via=[[Google News Archive]]|url=https://news.google.com/newspapers?id=C9UlAAAAIBAJ&pg=2084,5991341|access-date=September 22, 2020|website=[[The Gettysburg Times]]}}</ref> Marcos also silenced the free press, making the press of the state propaganda the only legal one, which was a common practice for governments around the world that sought to fight communism.{{citation needed|date=June 2020}}

Marcos and his close Rolex 12 associates like Juan Ponce Enrile used their powers to settle scores against old rivals such as the Lopezes who were always opposed to the Marcos administration. Enrile and the Lopezes ([[Eugenio Lopez Sr.]] and Eugenio Lopez Jr]) were [[Harvard]]-educated Filipino leaders. Leading opponents such as senators Benigno Aquino Jr., Jose W. Diokno, Jovito Salonga and many others were imprisoned for months or years. This practice considerably alienated the support of the old social and economic elite and the media, who criticized the Marcos administration endlessly.<ref>For a detailed treatment of corruption under Marcos, see {{cite book|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=amZkAdGTkl4C&pg=PA153|title=Corruption and money laundering: a symbiotic relationship|author1=Chaikin, David|author2=Sharman, Jason Campbell|publisher=Macmillan|year=2009|isbn=978-0-230-61360-7|chapter=The Marcos Kleptocracy}}</ref> The old social and economic elite, all of whom relied on trade and agricultural and industrial exports to the United States such as the families of Enrile, Lopez, Cojuangco, and Aquino, sought a free-market economy. At this point, Marcos controlled both the oligarchy and the oligopoly.{{citation needed|date=June 2020}}

According to Jovito Salonga, [[monopoly|monopolies]] in several vital industries were created and placed under the control of Marcos cronies, such as the [[coconut]] industries (under Eduardo Cojuangco Jr. and Juan Ponce Enrile), the [[tobacco]] industry (under Lucio Tan), the [[banana]] industry (under [[Antonio Floirendo]]), the [[sugar]] industry (under Roberto Benedicto), and [[manufacturing]] (under Herminio Disini and Ricardo Silverio).{{citation needed|date=June 2020}} The Marcos and Romualdez families became owners, directly or indirectly, of the nation's largest corporations, such as the Philippine Long Distance Company (PLDC), of which the present name is [[Philippine Long Distance Telephone]] (PLDT), [[Philippine Airlines]] (PAL), [[Meralco]] (an electric company), [[PMFTC, Inc.|Fortune Tobacco]], numerous newspapers, radio and TV broadcasting companies (such as [[ABS-CBN Corporation]]), several banks (most notably the Philippine Commercial and Industrial Bank; PCIBank of the Lopezes [now [[BDO Unibank|BDO]] after merging with Equitable Bank and after BDO acquired the merged [[Equitable PCI Bank|Equitable PCI]]]), and [[real estate]] in New York, California and Hawaii.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.hartford-hwp.com/archives/54a/064.html |title=Jovito R. Salonga, Some highlights |website=World History Archives |publisher=Kilosbayan Magazine| via=Hartford Web Publishing |access-date=October 20, 2008}}</ref>{{additional citation needed|date=June 2020}} The Aquino government also accused them of skimming off foreign aid and international assistance.{{citation needed|date=June 2020}}

====Floating casino in Manila Bay====
{{One source section|date=June 2020}}

One of the first acts of Imelda Marcos as the governor of Metro Manila was to legalize gambling to raise revenue for the new metropolis. A floating casino was allowed to operate exclusively inside the Manila Bay. It is owned and operated by "mysterious" stockholders according to the major daily. However, the people of Manila are aware that behind the floating casino management was the brother of Imelda Marcos. One of the most lucrative gambling managements back then was the Jai-Alai, managed by a corporation that received its franchise from the pre-war Commonwealth government. As soon as its franchised expired, a new corporation took over management of Jai-Alai. It was immediately under the control of the First Lady's brother. This new management was allowed to perform operations denied from the former, and it is estimated that the take between the Jai-Alai fronton and the floating casino is PHP2 million a day.<ref name=":1" />

====Philippine Long Distance Telephone Company (PLDT)====
{{One source section|date=June 2020}}

Reports of the US Senate and the US Securities and Exchange Commission have described massive million-dollar bribes to officials of the government-backed Philippine Long Distance Telephone Company by the General Telephone and Electric Co. of New York in exchange for supply contracts. The officials of PLDT needed to be investigated for violations of foreign currency regulations and unearned income. However, different stakeholders were kept silent. As one PLDT official boasted "an exposé will only hurt the Palace." In the US and Japan, presidents have been driven out of office for similar misconduct.<ref name=":1" />

====Manila Electric Co. (Meralco)====
{{One source section|date=June 2020}}

The [[Meralco|Manila Electric Company]] (Meralco) was one of the largest corporations in the Philippines before the declaration of martial law. It was owned and controlled by the Lopez family. After martial law was imposed, it became the prime target for takeover by the Marcos-Romualdez family. Among the first things the clan did was to arrest the eldest son of Eugenio Lopez Sr., the major stockholder of Meralco for allegedly plotting the assassination of Ferdinand Marcos.

In the years 1973–1974, the Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC) started applying the oil prize squeeze. As a public utility that supplies power needs of the metro, Meralco was caught in a vicious vice. Its fuel costs started to double, triple, and quadruple but the government refused to allow them to charge higher consumer rates. Within a year, Meralco was at the brink of bankruptcy. Government financing institutions refused to guarantee Meralco's foreign loans. As a result, the company was pushed to the edge of massive defaults in loans.

It was here that the Marcos-Romualdez clan stepped in. According to Eugenio Lopez Sr., he was promised the release of his eldest son from prison in exchange for the sale of his control in Meralco to the Marcos-Romualdez group. After several months of negotiations and with the increasing loan defaults, Mr. Lopez conceded defeat. He even died without seeing his son Eugenio Jr. released from the Marcos martial law prison.

After the Marcos-Romualdez takeover, the government allowed Meralco to increase consumer rates. The government gave huge subsidies to the company. On the fifth anniversary of martial rule, Jesus Bigornia of Bulletin Today wrote that Meralco rose as one of the top earners. Around Php 200 million in net income was recorded. This was 168% more than the previous year. Aside from being allowed to raise electricity rates, Meralco was also exempted from paying the duty of oil imports, which is a form of indirect subsidy it should share with poor consumers.<ref name=":1" />

=== Philippine national debt ===
Massive foreign loans enabled Marcos to build more schools, hospitals and infrastructure than all of his predecessors combined,<ref name="lacsamana1990p189" /> but crippled the Philippine economy.{{citation needed|date=June 2020}} Today, according to Ibon Foundation, Filipino citizens are still bearing the heavy burden of servicing public debts incurred during Marcos's administration, with ongoing interest payments on the loan schedule by the Philippine government estimated to last until 2025–59 years after Marcos assumed office and 39 years after he was deposed.<ref name="ibonMarcosDept">{{cite web|url=http://www.bulatlat.com/news/4-33/4-33-marcosdebt.html|title=Taxpayers To Pay Marcos Debt Until 2025, IBON features Vol X No. 42|last=Padilla|first=Arnold|publisher=[[Ibon Foundation]]}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |date=September 11, 2013 |title=Corruption in Philippines: Marcos was the worst |work=The Jakarta Post |url=https://www.thejakartapost.com/news/2013/09/11/corruption-philippines-marcos-was-worst.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220513103915/https://www.thejakartapost.com/news/2013/09/11/corruption-philippines-marcos-was-worst.html|archive-date=May 13, 2022|access-date=July 8, 2020|url-status=dead}}</ref>

Corazon Aquino had an opportunity to default and not pay foreign debt incurred during the Marcos administration. However, due to Finance Secretary [[Jaime Ongpin]]'s warning<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/1987/08/10/business/philippine-debt-dispute.html|title=Philippine Debt Dispute|newspaper=The New York Times|date=August 10, 1987}}</ref> on the consequences of a debt [[Default (finance)|default]], which includes isolating the country from the international financial community and hampering the economic recovery, Corazon Aquino honored all the debts incurred during the Marcos Administration,<ref>{{cite web|url=https://asiancorrespondent.com/2011/02/cory-aquinos-betrayal-of-people-power/|title=Cory Aquino's betrayal of 'People Power'|website=asiancorrespondent.com|access-date=September 20, 2016|archive-date=November 18, 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161118035640/https://asiancorrespondent.com/2011/02/cory-aquinos-betrayal-of-people-power/|url-status=dead}}</ref> contrary to expectations of left-learning organizations such as Ibon Foundation that advocated for non-payment of debt.<ref name="ibonMarcosDept" /> Jaime Ongpin, who is a brother of Marcos trade minister [[Roberto Ongpin]], was later dismissed by Cory Aquino and later died in an apparent suicide after "he had been depressed about infighting in Aquino's cabinet and disappointed that the 'People Power' uprising which had toppled dictator Ferdinand Marcos had not brought significant change".<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.scmp.com/article/737701/ongpin-last-top-official-take-his-life|title=Ongpin last top official to take his life|date=February 9, 2011 }}</ref>

===Infrastructure and edifices===
{{Main|Edifice complex}}
{{Summarize section|date=April 2021}}
{{Too many sections|section|date=April 2021}}
[[File:Dagupan Bus Aircon at NLEX 1999 - Flickr.jpg|thumb|A 1999 view of the [[San Fernando, Pampanga|San Fernando]] segment of [[North Luzon Expressway]], one of Marcos's infrastructure projects]]

Marcos projected himself to the Philippine public as having spent a lot on construction projects, and his record upholds that reputation.<ref name="Kasaysayan9ch10" />{{rp|page=128}} A 2011 study by University of the Philippines School of Economics indicated that at the time of the study, Marcos was the president that spent the most on infrastructure, not just because he stayed in power for nearly two and a half decades, but in terms of actual per-year spending. By the time of the study, Marcos had only been outspent in infrastructure building for a period of one year, during the term of Fidel Ramos.<ref>{{cite journal|url=http://www.econ.upd.edu.ph/dp/index.php/dp/article/viewFile/679/144 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160408140742/http://www.econ.upd.edu.ph/dp/index.php/dp/article/viewFile/679/144 |url-status=dead |archive-date=April 8, 2016 |title=The Economic Legacy of Marcos |last=Sicat|first=Gerardo P. |journal=Discussion Paper|publisher=University of the Philippines School of Economics|date=November 2011}}</ref>

These included hospitals<ref>{{cite web |last=Arillo |first=Cecilio |date=November 13, 2015 |title=Marcos's unmatched legacy: Hospitals, schools and other infrastructures |url=http://www.businessmirror.com.ph/marcoss-unmatched-legacy-hospitals-schools-and-other-infrastructures/ |website=[[BusinessMirror]]}}</ref> like the [[Philippine Heart Center]], [[Lung Center of the Philippines|Lung Center]], and [[National Kidney and Transplant Institute|Kidney Center]], transportation infrastructure like [[San Juanico Bridge]] (formerly Marcos Bridge), [[Pan-Philippine Highway]], North Luzon Expressway, South Luzon Expressway,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.pncc.ph/projects_slex.htm|title=PNCC::dot::Ph|website=www.pncc.ph}}</ref> and [[Manila Light Rail Transit System Line 1|Manila Light Rail Transit (LRT)]]. Cultural and heritage sites like the Cultural Center of the Philippines], Nayong Pilipino, [[Philippine International Convention Center]] and the disastrous and ill-fated Manila Film Center were built as well.

This focus on infrastructure, which critics saw as a propaganda technique, eventually earned the colloquial label "edifice complex".<ref name="theEdificeComplex">{{cite book|title=The Edifice Complex: How the Rich and Powerful Shape the World|last=Sudjic|first=Deyan|publisher=The Penguin Press HC|date=November 3, 2015|isbn=978-1-59420-068-7|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=dkMWqPgjvFIC&q=ferdinand+marcos+edifice+complex&pg=PT139}}</ref><ref name="gma7edifice">{{cite news|url=http://www.gmanetwork.com/news/story/274389/lifestyle/healthandwellness/masagana-99-nutribun-and-imelda-s-edifice-complex-of-hospitals|title=Masagana 99, Nutribun, and Imelda's 'edifice complex' of hospitals|date=September 20, 2012|last1=Lapeña|first1=Carmela G.|last2=Arquiza|first2=Yasmin D.|work=GMA News}}</ref><ref name="Lico2003" />

Most of these infrastructure projects and monuments were paid for using foreign currency loans<ref name="theMarcosDebt">{{cite news|url=http://opinion.inquirer.net/99481/the-marcos-debt|title=The Marcos debt|author=Eduardo C. Tadem|date=November 24, 2016|newspaper=Philippine Daily Inquirer}}</ref><ref name="theEdificeComplex" /> and at great taxpayer cost.<ref name="gma7edifice" /><ref name="Romero2008" />{{rp|page=89}} This greatly increased the Philippines' foreign deficit – from $360 million when Marcos became president, to around $28.3 billion when he was overthrown.<ref name=":4" />

The Marcos administration's spending on construction projects expanded even more with the construction of prominent building projects,<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://martiallawmuseum.ph/magaral/edifice-complex-building-on-the-backs-of-the-filipino-people/|title=Edifice Complex: Building on the Backs of the Filipino People|website=Martial Law Museum|access-date=February 27, 2019}}</ref> mostly meant to build up Imelda Marcos's power base within the administration by projecting her as a patroness of the arts.<ref name="Kasaysayan9ch12">{{Cite book|title=Kasaysayan, The Story of the Filipino People Volume 9:A Nation Reborn.|publisher=Asia Publishing Company Limited|year=1998|editor-last=Magno|editor-first=Alexander R.|location=Hong Kong|chapter=Life Under Marcos}}</ref>{{rp|page=169}} This shift in the prioritization of projects was so significant that by 1977–1980, projects in the "conspicuous capital outlays" category had ballooned to 20% of the Philippines' capital outlays – up from a negligible percentage at the beginning of the Marcos administration.<ref name="Romero2008">{{Cite book |last=Romero |first=Jose V. |title=Philippine Political Economy Volume 2: The Marcos Years (1965–1986) |publisher=Central Book Supply |year=2008 |isbn=978-971-691-889-2 |location=Quezon City, Philippines |oclc=302100329 |author-link=Jose V. Romero Jr.}}</ref>{{rp|pages="88–89"}}

Critics contrasted this with the fact that poverty in the countryside was a much more pressing economic issue of the time.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://opinion.inquirer.net/99481/the-marcos-debt|title=The Marcos debt|last=Tadem|first=Eduardo C.|newspaper=Philippine Daily Inquirer|access-date=April 18, 2019}}</ref><ref name=":4">{{Cite news|url=https://newslab.philstar.com/31-years-of-amnesia/building-spree|title=Edifice complex: 31 years of amnesia|last=Afinidad-Bernardo|first=Deni Rose M.|work=The Philippine Star|access-date=April 18, 2019}}</ref>

In addition, Imelda's "edifice complex" projects were typically constructed on a rush basis,<ref name="Kasaysayan9ch12" />{{rp|page=169}} resulting in some of them not being safe for long-term use.<ref name=":4" />

The following is a list of some of the most controversial projects constructed during the Marcos era.

====Cultural Center of the Philippines (CCP) Complex====
The [[CCP Complex]] is a 77-hectare<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.pea.gov.ph/13-bay-city/24-cultural-center-of-the-philippines|title=Cultural Center of the Philippines|website=PEA |access-date=April 18, 2019|archive-date=January 21, 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210121071019/http://www.pea.gov.ph/13-bay-city/24-cultural-center-of-the-philippines|url-status=dead}}</ref> reclaimed property in Pasay designed by [[Leandro Locsin]]. It includes the CCP main building, the [[Folk Arts Theater]], the Philippine International Convention Center, the Manila Film Center and the [[Coconut Palace]] (also called the ''Tahanang Pilipino'').<ref name=":3" /> It was established as a result of Ferdinand Marcos's issuance of Executive Order No. 30 s. 1966, which stated that "the preservation and promotion of Philippine culture in all its varied aspects and phases is a vital concern of the State."<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.officialgazette.gov.ph/1966/06/25/executive-order-no-30-s-1966/|title=Executive Order No. 30, s. 1966 |website=Official Gazette of the Republic of the Philippines|date=June 25, 1966 |access-date=April 18, 2019}}</ref> Following this issuance, he appointed a seven-member board of trustees, who then unanimously elected Imelda Marcos as its chair.<ref name=":3" />

On September 8, 1969, the CCP main building was inaugurated as the "country's premier arts institution".<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.culturalcenter.gov.ph/pages/complex-development|title=Complex Development|website=Cultural Center of the Philippines|access-date=April 13, 2019}}</ref> The inauguration was originally set in January 1969, but was postponed because funds were running out from campaign overspending. The projected budget for the construction of CCP was P15 million, but by December 1968 the cost had already reached P48 million, and the construction was not even complete yet. Because of this, Imelda Marcos loaned $7 million from the National Investment Development Corporation to finance the remaining amount. By 1972, debt for the construction of the theater alone has reached P63 million.<ref name=":3">{{Cite news|url=https://business.inquirer.net/236962/imelda-marcos-edifice-complex|title=Imelda Marcos and her 'edifice complex'|last=de Villa|first=Kathleen |newspaper=Philippine Daily Inquirer|access-date=April 18, 2019}}</ref>

====San Juanico Bridge====
[[File:San Juanico Bridge.jpg|thumb|[[San Juanico Bridge]] connecting [[Leyte (island)|Leyte]] and [[Samar (island)|Samar]]]]

The San Juanico Bridge is part of the Pan-Philippine Highway and links the provinces of [[Leyte]] and [[Samar (province)|Samar]] through [[Tacloban]] City and [[Santa Rita, Samar]]. Having a total length of {{convert|2.16|km}}, it is the longest bridge over a body of water in the Philippines.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://pia.gov.ph/news/articles/1006186|title=San Juanico, Eastern Visayas' iconic bridge, to be lit up by end of 2018 |author=TIEZA |date=March 22, 2018 |work=Philippine Information Agency|access-date=April 19, 2019}}</ref> It is said to be Ferdinand Marcos's gift to his wife Imelda, whose hometown was Leyte.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://pia.gov.ph/news/articles/1005720|title=San Juanico Bridge, a symbol of love |last=Quirante |first=Ninfa Iluminada B. |date=March 13, 2018 |work=Philippine Information Agency |access-date=April 19, 2019}}</ref>

Construction of the bridge began in 1969. It was inaugurated on July 2, 1973, in time for Imelda Marcos's birthday. The cost of the construction reached $22 million and was acquired through the Japanese Official Development Assistance loans.<ref name=":6">{{Cite web|url=https://pcij.org/stories/7-in-10-oda-projects-fail-to-deliver-touted-benefits/|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091012170044/http://pcij.org/stories/7-in-10-oda-projects-fail-to-deliver-touted-benefits/|url-status=dead|archive-date=October 12, 2009|title=7 in 10 ODA projects fail to deliver touted benefits |work=Philippine Center for Investigative Journalism |last=Lingin|first=Roel R. |access-date=April 19, 2019}}</ref>

At the time the project was conceived, there was not a need yet for a bridge that connects Leyte and Samar, for both of these provinces were still relatively underdeveloped. There was not enough traffic between these two islands to warrant a bridge to be constructed there. It is for this reason that the San Juanico Bridge remains to be one of the costliest white elephant projects during the Marcos era.<ref name=":6" />

====Manila Film Center====
Construction of the Manila Film Center began in January 1981 and was spearheaded by Imelda Marcos. It cost $25 million.<ref name=":4" /><ref>{{Cite web|last=Manahan |first=Tats |url=http://rogue.ph/enduring-nightmare-manila-film-center/ |title=The enduring nightmare of the Manila Film Center |website=rogue.ph |date=November 2015|access-date=April 18, 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181122092239/http://rogue.ph/enduring-nightmare-manila-film-center/ |archive-date=November 22, 2018}}</ref>

Construction work was compressed to just 10 months so it could be used as a venue for the first Manila International Film Festival scheduled on January 18, 1982.<ref name=":3" /> To meet the deadline, around 4,000 workers were employed to work three 24-hour nonstop shifts. The lobby, which would normally take 6 weeks to finish, was constructed in 72 hours by 1,000 workers.<ref name=":4" />

As a result of the rushed construction, a scaffolding collapsed on a group of workers on November 17, 1981, two months before the deadline.<ref name=":3" /> Despite the accident, work continued, and the bodies of the workers were buried in cement. Rescuers and ambulances were only permitted to enter the site 9 hours after the incident.<ref name=":4" />

Following the tragedy, then Prime Minister Cesar Virata disapproved the $5 million subsidy, which was intended for the film festival.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.phillife.co/manila-film-center/|title=Manila Film Center Deaths |website=Phillife.co|date=November 7, 2018|access-date=April 18, 2019}}</ref> The expenses incurred during opening night and the Film Center's operations ended up being shouldered by the [[Bangko Sentral ng Pilipinas]] (then the Central Bank).<ref name=":3" />

===Masagana 99===
{{Main|Masagana 99}}

Marcos's signature agricultural program, Masagana 99, was thus launched on May 21, 1973,<ref name="Bettina">{{Cite news |url=http://news.abs-cbn.com/video/news/10/26/16/farmers-oppose-revival-of-marcos-masagana-99 |title=Farmers oppose revival of Marcos' 'Masagana 99' |last=Magsaysay |first=Bettina |work=ABS-CBN News |language=en, fil|date=October 27, 2016|access-date=September 19, 2017}}</ref><ref name="GovPH-PD27">{{cite web |title=Presidential Decree No. 27, s. 1972 |url=https://www.officialgazette.gov.ph/1972/10/21/presidential-decree-no-27/ |website=Official Gazette of the Republic of the Philippines|access-date=June 2, 2020 |date=October 21, 1972}}</ref> as an effort to address a nationwide rice shortage arising from the various natural disasters and pest infestations in 1972.<ref name="MiguelPaoloJoelandLarah">{{Cite news |last1=Reyes |first1=Miguel Paolo P. |last2=Ariate | first2=Joel F. Jr. |last3=Del Mundo |first3=Lara Vinda |title='Success' of Masagana 99 all in Imee's head – UP researchers |publisher=Vera Files |url=https://www.verafiles.org/articles/success-masagana-99-all-imees-head-researchers |url-status=live |access-date=May 24, 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200524143622/https://www.verafiles.org/articles/success-masagana-99-all-imees-head-researchers |archive-date=May 24, 2020}}</ref>

Its goal was to promote Philippine [[rice]] [[Self-sufficiency economy|self-sufficiency]] by raising the Philippines' average palay crop yield from 40 cavans per hectare to 99 cavans (4.4 tons)<ref name=":15">{{Cite journal|last=Smith|first=Kenneth|date=1989|title=PALAY, POLICY, AND PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION: THE "MASAGANA 99" PROGRAM REVISITED|journal=Philippine Journal of Public Administration|volume=XXXIII|issue=1|pages=69–71}}</ref> per hectare. The program planned to achieve this by pushing farmers to use newly developed technologies including high-yielding variety (HYV) seeds, low-cost fertilizer, and herbicides.<ref name="MiguelPaoloJoelandLarah" />

Masagana 99 also included a supervised credit scheme, which was supposed to provide farmers with the funds needed to pay for the program's technology package. The Central Bank
designed subsidized rediscounting facilities for public and private credit institutions throughout the country, encouraging them to give loans to farmers without collateral or other usual borrowing requirements.<ref name="MiguelPaoloJoelandLarah" />

The program achieved initial success by encouraging farmers to plant new "Miracle Rice" (IR8) variety of rice,<ref name="Rowlatt20161201" /> which the [[Rockefeller Foundation|Rockefeller]] and [[Ford Foundation|Ford]] Foundations, and the [[UP College of Agriculture]] through the [[International Rice Research Institute]] (IRRI) in [[Los Baños, Laguna]],<ref name="Chandler1992">{{Cite book |url=http://books.irri.org/9711040638_content.pdf |title=An Adventure in Applied Science: A History of the International Rice Research Institute |last=Chandler |first=Robert Flint |publisher=International Rice Research Institute |year=1982 |isbn=9789711040635 }}</ref>{{rp|page=7}} had been developing since 1962, during the administration of President [[Carlos P. Garcia]].<ref name="BillGanzel">{{Cite web |url=http://www.livinghistoryfarm.org/farminginthe50s/crops_17.html |title=The Development of "Miracle Rice" Varieties |last=Ganzel |first=Bill |date=2007 |website=Wessels Living History Farm |publisher=Ganzel Group |access-date=September 19, 2017 |archive-date=June 5, 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170605030808/http://www.livinghistoryfarm.org/farminginthe50s/crops_17.html |url-status=dead }}</ref>

While this rise of [[Green Revolution|industrialized, chemical agriculture]] to the Philippines<ref name="Rowlatt20161201">{{Cite news|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-asia-india-38156350|title=IR8: The miracle rice which saved millions of lives|last=Rowlatt|first=Justin|date=December 1, 2016|work=BBC News|access-date=December 5, 2016}}</ref> resulted in annual rice production in the Philippines increasing from 3.7 to 7.7&nbsp;million tons in two decades and made the Philippines a rice exporter for the first time in the 20th century,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.fao.org/fishery/topic/13472/en |title=Rice paddies |publisher=FAO Fisheries & Aquaculture |access-date=March 20, 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090121004605/http://www.fao.org/fishery/topic/13472/en|archive-date=January 21, 2009}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,900147,00.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070904234658/http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,900147,00.html |url-status=dead |archive-date=September 4, 2007 |title=Agronomy: Rice of the Gods |magazine=[[Time (magazine)|Time]] |date=June 14, 1968 |access-date=February 27, 2017}}</ref><ref name=":15" /> the switch to IR8 required more fertilizers and pesticides. This and other related reforms resulted in high profits for transnational corporations, but were generally harmful to small, peasant farmers who were often pushed into poverty.<ref>{{cite book|author=Nadeau, Kathleen M.|title=Liberation theology in the Philippines: faith in a revolution|publisher=Greenwood Publishing Group| year=2002| isbn=978-0-275-97198-4| page=21 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=kAINJWo4IJ4C&pg=PA21}}</ref>

Economists<ref name="Esguerra1980">{{Cite journal |last=Esguerra |first=E.F. |date=1980 |title=Some notes on the Masagana 99 [rice] program and small farmer access to credit [Philippines] |url=http://agris.fao.org/agris-search/search.do?recordID=XB8310418 |access-date=September 19, 2017 |journal=Philippine Sociological Review (Philippines) |archive-date=September 21, 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170921144243/http://agris.fao.org/agris-search/search.do?recordID=XB8310418 |url-status=dead }}</ref> generally acknowledge Masagana 99 to have failed because the supervised credit scheme it offered to farmers proved unsustainable.<ref name="Esguerra1980" /> The program is said to have catered to rich landowners and has been criticized for leaving poor farmers in debt<ref name="Esguerra1980" /> and for having become a vehicle of political patronage.<ref name="MiguelPaoloJoelandLarah" /><ref name="Davidson">{{Cite journal |last=Davidson |first=Jamie S. |date=January 2, 2016 |title=Why the Philippines Chooses to Import Rice |journal=Critical Asian Studies |volume=48 |issue=1 |pages=100–122 |doi=10.1080/14672715.2015.1129184 |s2cid=155783676 |issn=1467-2715}}</ref><ref name="CatoInstituteAgriReformThirdWorld">{{Cite book |last=Powelson |first=John P. |title=The peasant betrayed : agriculture and land reform in the Third World |date=1990 |publisher=Cato Institute |isbn=978-1-937184-28-5 |location=Washington, D.C. |oclc=647071373}}</ref>{{rp|20}}

Although Masagana 99 showed promising results, the years from 1965 to 1986 showed a complete paradox of events. The income per capita rose, the economy was growing, yet people were impoverished. The American economist James K. Boyce calls this phenomenon "immiserizing growth", when economic growth, and political and social conditions, are such that the rich get absolutely richer and the poor become absolutely poorer.<ref name="Marcos' Green Revolution">{{Cite news|url=https://www.manilatimes.net/marcos-green-revolution/246377/|title=Marcos' Green Revolution|date=February 22, 2016|work=The Manila Times|access-date=April 19, 2019}}</ref>{{better source needed|date=June 2020}}

From 1972 to 1980, agricultural production fell by 30%. After declaring martial law in 1972, Marcos promised to implement agrarian reforms. However, the land reforms served largely to undermine Marcos's landholder opponents, not to lessen inequality in the countryside,<ref>{{cite book|author=Kang, David C.|title=Crony capitalism: corruption and development in South Korea and the Philippines|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2002|isbn=978-0-521-00408-4|page=[https://archive.org/details/cronycapitalismc0000kang/page/28 28]|url=https://archive.org/details/cronycapitalismc0000kang|url-access=registration}}</ref> and encouraged conversion to cash tenancy and greater reliance on farm workers.<ref>{{cite book |author=Sidel |first=John Thayel |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=0it4S_WGapIC&pg=PA21 |title=Capital, coercion, and crime: bossism in the Philippines |publisher=Stanford University Press |year=1999 |isbn=978-0-8047-3746-3 |page=21}}</ref>

While the book claimed that agricultural production declined by 30% in the 1970s and suggested that timber exports were growing in the same period, an article published by the World Bank on Philippine Agriculture says that crops (rice, corn, coconut, sugar), livestock and poultry and fisheries grew at an average rate of 6.8%, 3% and 4.5%, respectively from 1970 to 1980, and the forestry sector actually declined by an annual average rate of 4.4% through the 1970s.<ref>{{cite report|url=http://siteresources.worldbank.org/INTPHILIPPINES/Resources/Habito-word.pdf|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090127005901/http://siteresources.worldbank.org/INTPHILIPPINES/Resources/Habito-word.pdf|url-status=dead|archive-date=January 27, 2009|title=Philippine Agriculture over the Years: Performance, Policies and Pitfalls|author1=Cielito F. Habito |author2=Roehlano M. Briones|publisher=World Bank|access-date=July 22, 2017}}</ref>

===Logging and deforestation===
{{Further|Deforestation in the Philippines}}

The Marcos administration marked a period of intense logging exportation,<ref>{{cite book |last1=Colin |first1=Kahl |last2=Kahl |first2=Colin H. |title=States, Scarcity, and Civil Strife in the Developing World |year=2006 |publisher=Princeton University Press |isbn=978-0-691-12406-3 |page=85 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ltWfu4quplgC&pg=PA85 |access-date=January 22, 2021 }}</ref> with commercial logging accounting for 5% of the gross national product during the first half of the 1970s. This was the result of intense demand created by a construction boom in Japan.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Dauvergne |first1=Peter |title=Shadows in the Forest: Japan and the Politics of Timber in Southeast Asia |year=1997 |publisher=MIT Press |isbn=978-0-262-54087-2 |pages=134–135 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=wyXMKFa7kCcC&pg=PA134 }}</ref><ref>{{cite book |work=The Japan Environmental Council |title=The State of the Environment in Asia: 2002/2003 |date=December 6, 2012 |publisher=Springer Science & Business Media |isbn=978-4-431-67945-5 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ZPGPBAAAQBAJ&pg=PA107 |pages=106–107 |access-date=January 22, 2021 }}</ref> Timber products became one of the nation's top exports but little attention was paid to the environmental impacts of deforestation as cronies never complied with reforestation agreements.<ref name="grafStaggering3">{{cite news|url=https://www.chicagotribune.com/1986/03/23/marcos-graft-staggering/|title=Marcos Graft Staggering – Investigators Trace Billions In Holdings|last=Crewdson|first=John|date=March 23, 1986|work=Chicago Tribune}}</ref><ref name="BoycePolEcoEnvironment">{{cite book|author=Boyce, James K.|title=The political economy of the environment|publisher=Edward Elgar Publishing|year=2002|isbn=978-1-84376-108-2|pages=43–44|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=izGVtg8KE-YC&pg=PA43}}</ref>

By the early 1980s, forestry collapsed because most of the Philippines' accessible forests had been depleted – of the 12 million hectares of forestland, about 7 million had been left barren."<ref name="grafStaggering3"/><ref name="BoycePolEcoEnvironment"/> This was such a severe drop in the Philippines' forest cover that most Philippine logging companies had transferred their operations to [[Sarawak]] and other nearby areas by the 1980s.<ref name="Kasaysayan9ch9">{{Cite book|title=Kasaysayan, The Story of the Filipino People Volume 9:A Nation Reborn.|publisher=Asia Publishing Company Limited|year=1998|editor-last=Magno|editor-first=Alexander R.|location=Hong Kong|chapter=The Plunder of Nature}}</ref>{{rp|page=117}}

Data from the Philippines' Forest Management Bureau indicates that the rate of forest destruction in the Philippines was about {{convert|300000|ha}} per year during the 1960s and 1970s, such that by 1981, the [[Food and Agriculture Organization]] classified 2 million hectares of Philippine forests "severely degraded and incapable of regeneration".<ref name="ShairaDeforestation">{{Cite news |work=GMA News|last=Panela |first=Shaira |date=September 21, 2012 |title=Greener on the other side: Deforestation in the wake of Martial Law |url=https://www.gmanetwork.com/news/story/275014/scitech/science/greener-on-the-other-side-deforestation-in-the-wake-of-martial-law/ |url-status=live |access-date=June 11, 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190110133740/https://www.gmanetwork.com/news/scitech/science/275014/greener-on-the-other-side-deforestation-in-the-wake-of-martial-law/story/ |archive-date=January 10, 2019}}</ref>

===Heavy industrialization projects===
In 1979, Marcos put a range of 11 heavy industrialization projects<ref name="csmonotor19800919elevenindustrial">{{cite news |title=A range of 11 big industrial projects is in the works|work =Christian Science Monitor|url=http://www.csmonitor.com/1980/0919/091972.html|date=September 19, 1980}}</ref> on the Philippines' economic agenda.

The eleven priority projects were:<ref name="csmonotor19800919elevenindustrial" /> the construction of an aluminum smelter, a copper smelter,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.pasar.com.ph/content/our-story/our-story/|title=Our Story |work=PASAR}}</ref> an integrated petrochemical complex,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.pnoc.com.ph/aboutpnoc.php?sectionid=ac587724-1514-11df-a7de-92d1637a39b1&menuid=b9077b2f-154e-11df-93b0-42bae035655c|title=Philippine National Oil Company|website=PNOC|access-date=September 11, 2016|archive-date=February 3, 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170203121327/http://www.pnoc.com.ph/aboutpnoc.php?sectionid=ac587724-1514-11df-a7de-92d1637a39b1&menuid=b9077b2f-154e-11df-93b0-42bae035655c|url-status=dead}}</ref> an integrated pulp and paper plant, an integrated steel mill, and a phosphatic fertilizer plant; the development of an alcogas industry; the expansion of the country's cement industry; the integration of the country's coconut industry; the promotion of diesel engine manufacturing; and the construction of a nuclear power plant.

Other industrialization projects during the Marcos administration included 17 hydroelectric<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.snaboitiz.com/?page_id=4727|title=Magat|website=www.snaboitiz.com}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.firstgen.com.ph/our-business/our-power-plants/#Hydro|title=First Gen – Our Power Plants|website=www.firstgen.com.ph|access-date=September 11, 2016|archive-date=April 19, 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170419173029/http://www.firstgen.com.ph/our-business/our-power-plants/#Hydro|url-status=dead}}</ref> and [[geothermal power]] plants<ref name="energy.com.ph">{{cite web|url=http://www.energy.com.ph/edc-at-a-glance/who-we-are/|title=The Energy Development Corporation – Who We Are|website=www.energy.com.ph|date=March 2022 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://aboitizpower.com/generation/geothermal/apri/plants/|title=APRI Plants|access-date=April 3, 2021|archive-date=March 7, 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210307220911/https://aboitizpower.com/generation/geothermal/apri/plants/|url-status=dead}}</ref> to lessen the country's dependency on oil.<ref>{{cite web |last=Arillo |first=Cecilio |date=October 30, 2015 |title=Marcos's unmatched legacy: Energy |url=http://www.businessmirror.com.ph/marcoss-unmatched-legacy-energy/ |website=[[BusinessMirror]]}}</ref> With the commissioning of the Tongonan 1 and Palinpinon 1 geothermal plants in 1983, the Philippines became the second largest producer of geothermal power in the world.<ref name="energy.com.ph" /><ref>{{cite web|url=http://lopezlink.ph/employee-news/milestones/7002-energy-development-corporation-milestones.html |title=Energy Development Corporation Milestones |website=lopezlink.ph}}</ref>

The Philippine economy began to go in decline in 1981 because of excessive debt,<ref name="EJGuido&CheDeLosReyes20170921" /> however, and finally went into a tailspin in 1984.<ref name="EJGuido&CheDeLosReyes20170921" /><ref name="LlantoOrtiz2015IndustrialPoliciesImplementation" /> This resulted in the closure of factories, massive layoffs, and the end of work on Marcos's industrialization projects until he was finally deposed two years later.<ref name="LlantoOrtiz2015IndustrialPoliciesImplementation">{{Cite report |url=https://pidswebs.pids.gov.ph/CDN/PUBLICATIONS/pidsdps1539.pdf |title=Industrial Policies and Implementation: Philippine Automotive Manufacturing as a Lens (Discussion Paper Series No. 2015-39) |last1=Llanto |first1=Gilberto M. |last2=Ortiz |first2=Ma. Kristina P. |date=July 2015 |publisher=Philippine Institute for Development Studies |issue=2015–39 |access-date=June 21, 2020}}</ref>

====Bataan Nuclear Power Plant====
The [[Bataan Nuclear Power Plant]] (BNPP) is one of the six nuclear power plants that the Marcos regime planned to build.<ref name=":5">{{Cite web|url=https://wiseinternational.org/nuclear-monitor/397/bataan-plant-sequel|title=The Bataan plant – The sequel|website=World Information Service on Energy|access-date=April 19, 2019}}</ref> It stands in [[Morong, Bataan]], atop Napot Point that overlooks the [[South China Sea]]. Construction of the BNPP began in 1976 and was completed in 1985.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://money.cnn.com/magazines/fortune/fortune_archive/1986/09/01/67989/index.htm|title=The $2.2 Billion Nuclear Fiasco |work=[[Fortune (magazine)|Fortune]] |date=September 1, 1986 |access-date=April 19, 2019}}</ref>

Controversy surrounding the BNPP began well after its construction. In 1974, National Power was already negotiating with General Electric to get the order. However, Westinghouse, another energy company, hired a lobbyist: Herminio Disini, a friend of Ferdinand Marcos. Using Disini's close ties to Marcos, Westinghouse made a direct offer to Marcos and his cabinet to supply a plant with two 620 MW reactors at a base price of $500 million. The estimated total price was raised to around $650 million because of other charges like fuel and transmission lines.<ref name=":5" /> Soon after, the negotiations with General Electric were scrapped, and Westinghouse won the deal. By March 1975, Westinghouse's contract price increased to $1.1 billion for interest and escalation costs.<ref name=":5" />

There were numerous issues regarding its safety and usability. After the [[Three Mile Island incident]] in the United States, construction of the nuclear power plant was stopped. A safety inquiry was done subsequently, which revealed over 4,000 defects.<ref name=":5" /> The site chosen for the nuclear plant was also dangerous, as it was built near the open sea and the then-dormant [[Mount Pinatubo]], and was within 25 miles of three geological faults.<ref name=":5" /> The nuclear plant was discontinued in 1986 following the [[Chernobyl disaster]].<ref name=":4" /> Its goal of generating 620 MW of electricity was never achieved.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://large.stanford.edu/courses/2017/ph241/camacho2/|title=The Controversy of the Bataan Nuclear Power Plant|website=large.stanford.edu|access-date=April 19, 2019}}</ref>

Its cost reached over $2.3 million and was only paid off by the government in April 2017, 31 years after the beginning of its construction. However, government spending for the BNPP continues long after that. Maintaining the plant costs the government P40 million a year. In 2011, the government had to reimburse P4.2 billion to [[National Power Corporation]] for the plant's maintenance. To contribute to the cost of its maintenance, it was transformed into a tourist attraction.<ref name=":4" />

===Educational system===
Recognizing the value Filipino culture placed on education, Marcos emphasized the construction of educational infrastructure as early as during his first presidential term. By being more willing than those previous presidents to use foreign loans to fund construction projects, he was able to achieve construct more roads and schoolbuildings than any previous administration.<ref name="Kasaysayan9ch10" />{{rp|page=128}}

47 of the Philippines' state colleges and universities were established during Marcos's 21-year administration.<ref>{{cite web |last=Arillo |first=Cecilio |date=November 7, 2015 |title=Marcos's unmatched legacy: Education |url=http://www.businessmirror.com.ph/marcoss-unmatched-legacy-education/ |website=[[BusinessMirror]]}}</ref> Two of these, the [[Mariano Marcos State University]] in Ilocos Norte,<ref>{{Cite web |title=MMSU College of Business, Economics and Accountancy |url=http://cbea.mmsu.edu.ph/article/historical-background-of-the-university |access-date=June 22, 2020 |website=cbea.mmsu.edu.ph}}</ref> and the [[Don Mariano Marcos Memorial State University]] in La Union,<ref name="Cardozier1984">{{Cite journal |last=Cardozier |first=V.R. |title=Public Higher Education in the Philippines |journal=International Review of Education |date=1984 |volume=30 |issue=2|pages=193–198 |doi=10.1007/BF00597919 |bibcode=1984IREdu..30..193C |s2cid=144851086}}</ref> were named after Marcos's father Mariano.

The Philippine education system underwent two major periods of restructuring under the Marcos administration: first in 1972 as part of the ideology of the ''Bagong Lipunan'' (New Society) alongside the declaration of martial law; and second in 1981 when the [[Fourth Philippine Republic]] was established.<ref name="Maca2018EducationLaborExport">{{cite journal |last=Maca |first=Mark |date=April 2018 |title=Education in the 'New Society' and the Philippine Labour Export Policy (1972–1986) |journal=Journal of International and Comparative Education |volume=7 |issue=1|pages=1–16 |doi=10.14425/jice.2018.7.1.1 |doi-access=free}} Maca, 2018.</ref>

The 1972 restructuring marked the first major restructuring of Philippine education since the arrival of the Americans at the turn of the 20th century.<ref name="Maca2018EducationLaborExport" /> It reoriented the teaching of civics and history<ref name="Maca2018EducationLaborExport" /><ref>{{Cite book |last=Abueva |first=Jose |title= Marcos and Martial Law in the Philippines |publisher=Cornell University Press |year=1979 |editor-last=Rosenberg |editor-first=David |location=Ithaca |pages=35–36 |chapter=Ideology and Practice in the 'New Society'}}</ref> so that it would reflect values that supported the ''Bagong Lipunan'' and its ideology of constitutional authoritarianism.<ref name="NaveraMetaphorizingMartialLaw" /><ref name="PalgraveNewHistoryofSEA">{{Cite book |last=Ricklefs, M. C. |title=New History of Southeast Asia. |date=2010 |publisher=Palgrave Macmillan |isbn=978-1-137-01554-9 |oclc=965712524}}</ref>{{rp|page=414}} In addition, it attempted to synchronize the educational curriculum with the administration's economic strategy of labor export.<ref name="Maca2018EducationLaborExport" />

Changes sought by the second restructuring in 1981 was not extensively implemented as the administration was stymied by economic crises, and was eventually deposed.<ref name="Maca2018EducationLaborExport" />

===Establishment of Metro Manila===
In 1975, Marcos issued Presidential Decree No. 824, placing the four cities and thirteen municipalities in the immediate vicinity of the [[Manila (province)|Province of Manila]] under the administration of the Metro Manila Commission (MMC), which would serve as the central government of the capital.<ref name="PD824">{{cite web|website=The LawPhil Project|url=http://www.lawphil.net/statutes/presdecs/pd1975/pd_824_1975.html|title=Presidential Decree No. 824 November 7, 1975. Creating the Metropolitan Manila and the Metropolitan Manila Commission and for Other Purposes|date=November 7, 1975|publisher=[[Arellano University School of Law|Arellano Law Foundation]]|access-date=March 27, 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160312121648/http://lawphil.net/statutes/presdecs/pd1975/pd_824_1975.html|archive-date=March 12, 2016|url-status=live}}</ref>

The head of the MMC was called a "governor", but the position was an appointive rather than an elected one.<ref name="notmmc">{{cite news|last=Cruz|first=Elfren|title=MMDA is NOT MMC|url=https://www.philstar.com/opinion/2015/10/31/1517031/mmda-not-mmc|access-date=July 31, 2018|work=[[The Philippine Star|Philstar.com]]|date=October 31, 2015}}</ref> Marcos appointed his wife [[Imelda Marcos]] as governor.<ref name="ButterfieldGov">{{Cite news|last=Butterfield|first=Fox|date=February 24, 1976|title=Governorship of Manila Is Increasing Powers of Imelda Marcos|work=The New York Times|url=https://www.nytimes.com/1976/02/24/archives/governorship-of-manila-is-increasing-powers-of-imelda-marcos.html|access-date=June 11, 2020|issn=0362-4331}}</ref>

The governorship of Metro Manila was the second most powerful office in the republic. Given that Metro Manila accounts for around 20% of the country's population, it is estimated to be responsible for at least 70% of gross national receipts. It is the seat of the national government and some 90% of the national government's offices and instrumentalities are located within its environs. Its budget is second to the national government.<ref name=":1" />{{Better source needed|reason=Section "One author" tag has been addressed through the addition of other sources, but editor who put this tag on identified this reference as "partisan". Information is not uncommon so a better source may be desirable.|date=June 2020}}

This increase in Imelda's political power was so dramatic that it led former UN General Assembly President [[Carlos P. Romulo]] to describe her as the Philippines' "de facto vice president".<ref name="ButterfieldGov" />

=== Laws passed during the Marcos administration ===
The country crafted a large number of decrees, laws, and edicts during Marcos's term.<ref name="legacy">{{cite web |last=Arillo |first=Cecilio |date=November 13, 2015 |title=Marcos's unmatched legacy |url=http://www.businessmirror.com.ph/marcoss-unmatched-legacy/ |website=[[BusinessMirror]]}}.</ref> From 1972 to 1986, the Marcos Administration codified laws through 2,036 Presidential Decrees,<ref>{{cite web |website=Official Gazette of the Republic of the Philippines|title=Presidential Decrees|date=February 20, 1986 |url=https://www.officialgazette.gov.ph/section/executive-issuances/presidential-decrees-executive-issuances/}}</ref> an average of 145 per year during the 14-year period. To put this into context, only 14, 12, and 11 laws were passed in 2015, 2014 and 2013, respectively.<ref>{{cite news|work=The Philippine Star|url=http://www.philstar.com/headlines/2015/12/27/1536601/lawmakers-pass-14-laws-year|title=Lawmakers pass 14 laws this year|first=Jess|last=Diaz}}</ref> A large number of the laws passed during the term of Marcos remain in force today and are embedded in the country's legal system.<ref name="legacy" /> According to Imee Marcos in 2006, many of the thousands of proclamations, decrees, and executive orders Marcos issued were still in force, and few have been repealed, revoked, modified or amended.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.philstar.com/ArticlePrinterFriendly.aspx?articleId=325266 |archive-url=https://archive.today/20120907134306/http://www.philstar.com/ArticlePrinterFriendly.aspx?articleId=325266 |url-status=dead |archive-date=September 7, 2012 |title=Imee's '20–20' |work=The Philippine Star|date=March 10, 2006 |first=Marichu A. |last=Villanueva |access-date=January 29, 2010}}</ref>

===Impact on later Philippine governance===
Many people who rose to power during Marcos's 21-years as president continued to remain in power or even ascended higher after his exile, thus leaving a further imprint on present-day Filipino affairs. One of these was Fidel Ramos, a general promoted by Marcos who supervised many terror killings and tortures, who later switched sides and subsequently became president himself through free elections.<ref name="mccoy">{{cite web|last=McCoy |first=Alfred |title=Dark Legacy: Human rights under the Marcos regime |url=http://www.hartford-hwp.com/archives/54a/062.html |website=www.hartford-hwp.com |publisher=Kim Scipes / extracts from "Closer Than Brothers: Manhood at the Philippine Military Academy" (New Haven: Yale University Press)|access-date=June 29, 2017}}</ref>

===The US–Marcos relationship===
[[File:The Marcoses and the Johnsons dancing.jpg|thumb|Ferdinand and Imelda Marcos with the Johnsons in 1966]]
[[File:Ferdinand and Imelda Marcos with the Nixons.jpg|thumb|Ferdinand and Imelda Marcos with the Nixons in 1969]]

All five American presidents from 1965 to 1985 were unwilling to jeopardize the US–Marcos relationship, mainly to protect and retain access of the US military bases in the Philippines. However, at the same time, for the US the Philippines was just one of its many allies, and for the Philippines, the US was its only patron. Therefore, Marcos worked to identify himself closely with the US in order to secure a strong bargaining position with their government. Indeed, he had manipulated this American connection to sustain him during his two decades of power. US support was believed to be the only reason why Marcos remained in power.<ref name=":10">{{cite journal|last=Kessler|first=Richard J.|date=1986|title=Marcos and the Americans|journal=Foreign Policy|issue=63|pages=40–57|doi=10.2307/1148755|issn=0015-7228|jstor=1148755}}</ref>

Over his term, Marcos was able to strengthen his ties to the US government. Johnson received two engineer battalions bought with the Philippine's American aid as a form of Philippines military participation in the Vietnam War. After the fall of South Vietnam, Gerald Ford demanded better security assistance from allies, such as the Philippines, while Carter wanted to retain the US military bases in the Philippines to project military power in the Indian Ocean to guard the West's oil supply line from the Middle East.<ref name=":10" /> All of which, Marcos granted.

To obtain additional aid, Marcos often leveraged on threats that caught the attention of the US government. To secure additional aid for his campaign, Marcos threatened to search every visiting American naval vessel. The US responded by assisting his campaign indirectly, injecting several million dollars into the government banking system.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Leifer|first1=Michael|last2=Thompson|first2=W. Scott|date=1977|title=Unequal Partners. Philippine and Thai Relations With the United States, 1965–75|journal=Pacific Affairs|volume=50|issue=1|pages=168|doi=10.2307/2756162|issn=0030-851X|jstor=2756162}}</ref>

In another instance, when the issues of military bases heated up in the Philippines during 1969, Marcos secretly assured the US he had no desire for an American withdrawal. Yet he received warnings from the Philippine embassy in Washington that "provisions should now be made in anticipation of a possible phasing out or minimization of US aid to the Republic of the Philippines, both for military aid and non-military items, considering the evolving temper of the American Congress." Afraid, Marcos began to suggests threats again. In one of his presidential speeches, he stated that the bases were a threat to regional peace and security, while reminding the United States of its "solemn obligation" to continue aid. He warned that the bases could "imperil more than they serve our interests."<ref>{{Cite book|title=Presidential Speeches |year=1979 |location=Manila |pages=275–277|chapter=Speech by Ferdinand E. Marcos before the UP Law Alumni Association}}</ref> In the last weeks of the Ford administration, Marcos had rejected the US compensation, Kissinger's package, of $1 billion in mixed grants and loans for being too small.

==Authored works==
A number of books were published under Marcos's name during his term from 1970 to 1983, and a final book was published in 1990 posthumously.<ref name="iLib">{{cite web|title=Ferdinand Marcos|url=http://ilib.upd.edu.ph/servlet/action/IntegratedSearch|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171212014057/http://ilib.upd.edu.ph/servlet/action/IntegratedSearch|archive-date=December 12, 2017|access-date=August 31, 2015|website=University of the Philippines Integrated Library System}}</ref> Those published during his term are believed to have been written by [[ghostwriter]]s,<ref>{{cite journal|last=Reyes|first=Miguel Paolo|title=Producing Ferdinand E. Marcos, the Scholarly Author|journal=[[Philippine Studies: Historical and Ethnographic Viewpoints]]|date=June 2018 |volume=66 |issue=2 |pages=173–218|url=https://muse.jhu.edu/article/697640|access-date=April 30, 2020|publisher=[[Ateneo de Manila University]]|doi=10.1353/phs.2018.0017|s2cid=149840669}}</ref> notably [[Adrian Cristobal]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=Presidential Communications Reforms |url=https://www.officialgazette.gov.ph/featured/presidential-communications/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180325001851/http://www.officialgazette.gov.ph/featured/presidential-communications/ |archive-date=March 25, 2018 |access-date=June 19, 2020 |website=Official Gazette of the Republic of the Philippines }}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Curaming |first=Rommel Argamosa |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=uV61DwAAQBAJ |title=Power and knowledge in Southeast Asia : state and scholars in Indonesia and the Philippines |isbn=978-0-429-79630-2 |location=Abingdon, Oxon |chapter=2. Genesis of Tadhana Project (Footnote 47) |date = October 10, 2019|oclc=1110656244}}</ref>
* ''National Discipline: the Key to Our Future'' (1970)
* ''Today's Revolution: Democracy'' (1971)
* ''Notes on the New Society of the Philippines'' (1973)
* ''Tadhana: the history of the Filipino People'' (1977, 1982)
* ''The democratic revolution in the Philippines'' (1977)
* ''Five years of the new society'' (1978)
* ''President Ferdinand E. Marcos on law, development and human rights'' (1978)
* ''President Ferdinand E. Marcos on agrarian reform'' (1979)
* ''An Ideology for Filipinos'' (1980)
* ''An introduction to the politics of transition'' (1980)
* ''Marcos's Notes for the [[North–South Summit|Cancun Summit]], 1981'' (1981)
* ''Progress and Martial Law'' (1981)
* ''The New Philippine Republic: A Third World Approach to Democracy'' (1982)
* ''Toward a New Partnership: The Filipino Ideology'' (1983)
* ''A Trilogy on the Transformation of Philippine Society'' (1990)

==Honors==

===National honors===
* [[File:PHI Legion of Honor 2003 Chief Commander BAR.svg|55px]] Chief Commander of the [[Philippine Legion of Honor]] (11 September 1972)<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.officialgazette.gov.ph/briefer-on-the-philippine-legion-of-honor/|title=Briefer on the Philippine Legion of Honor|website=Official Gazette of the Republic of the Philippines}}</ref>
* Man of the Year 1965, ''Philippine Free Press'' (January 1, 1966)<ref>{{cite web |work=The Philippine Free Press |title=Ferdinand E. Marcos, Man of the Year, 1965 |url=https://philippinesfreepress.wordpress.com/1966/01/11/ferdinand-e-marcos-man-of-the-year-1965/
|date=January 1, 1966}}</ref>
* [[File:Order_of_the_Knights_of_Rizal_Ribbon.png|55px]] Knight Grand Cross of Rizal of the [[Order of the Knights of Rizal]].<ref>{{Cite web|title=Our Story|url=https://www.knights-of-rizal.org/our-story/|website=Knights of Rizal|access-date=January 24, 2022|archive-date=June 15, 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210615010658/https://www.knights-of-rizal.org/our-story/|url-status=dead}}</ref>

===Foreign honors===
* {{flag|Gabon}}: Grand Cross of the [[Order of the Equatorial Star]]
* {{flag|Japan}}: Grand Cordon of the Supreme [[Order of the Chrysanthemum]] (20 September 1966)<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.stripes.com/news/marcos-arrives-for-japan-visit-1.18414|title=Marcos arrives for Japan visit|work=Stars and Stripes|date=September 30, 1966}}</ref>
* {{flag|Romania|1965}}: [[Order of the Star of the Romanian Socialist Republic]] (9 April 1975)<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.officialgazette.gov.ph/1975/05/05/presidents-week-in-review-april-7-april-13-1975/|title=President's Week in Review: April 7 – April 13, 1975|website=Official Gazette of the Republic of the Philippines|access-date=May 22, 2020|archive-date=June 6, 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210606152717/https://www.officialgazette.gov.ph/1975/05/05/presidents-week-in-review-april-7-april-13-1975/|url-status=dead}}</ref>
* {{flag|Singapore}}: First Class (Honorary) of the [[Darjah Utama Temasek|Order of Temasek]] (15 January 1974)<ref>{{cite web |title=Prime Minister (PM) Lee Kuan Yew and Mrs Lee posing for photograph with President Ferdinand Marcos of the Philippines and Mrs Imelda Marcos at state dinner at Malacanang Palace |url=https://www.nas.gov.sg/archivesonline/photographs/record-details/def3a639-1161-11e3-83d5-0050568939ad |website=National Archives of Singapore. |access-date=August 3, 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200803235742/https://www.nas.gov.sg/archivesonline/photographs/record-details/def3a639-1161-11e3-83d5-0050568939ad |archive-date=August 3, 2020 |quote=the President conferring on PM Lee the Ancient Order of Sikatuna, rank of Rajah, and PM Lee giving him the Order of Temasek}}</ref>
* {{flag|Spain|1945}}:
** Knight of the Collar of the [[Order of Isabella the Catholic]] (22 December 1969)<ref>{{cite news|url=https://boe.es/diario_boe/txt.php?id=BOE-A-1969-54275|title=Decree 3249/1969, 22 December|work=BOE|date=December 23, 1969}}</ref>
** Grand Cross of the [[Crosses of Military Merit|Order of Military Merit]]
* {{flag|Thailand}}: Knight of the Most Auspicious [[Order of the Rajamitrabhorn]] (15 January 1968)<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Redmon |first1=Larry J. |title=An Overview of the Orders, Decorations, and Medals of the Kingdom of Thailand |journal=The Journal of the Orders and Medals Society of America |volume=51 |page=19 |url=http://www.omsa.org/files/jomsa_arch/Splits/2000/180108_JOMSA_Vol51_1_19.pdf |access-date=August 4, 2020}}</ref>
*{{flag|Indonesia}}: First Class (Adipurna) of the [[Star of the Republic of Indonesia]] (12 January 1968)<ref>{{Citation|title=Video Kunjungan Presiden Filipina Ferdinand E. Marcos Sr. di Indonesia Tahun 1968| date=January 14, 2024 |url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=sO-SlHyHC4g|accessdate=2024-02-15|language=id-ID}}</ref>

Marcos and his wife, Imelda, were jointly credited in 1989 by ''[[Guinness World Records]]'' with the largest-ever theft from a government (an estimated 5 billion to 10 billion US dollars),<ref name="guinness1989">{{cite book|title=The Guinness Book of World Records 1989|year=1988|page=[https://archive.org/details/1989guinnessbook00mcfa/page/400 400]|isbn=978-0-553-27926-9|publisher=Bantam|url=https://archive.org/details/1989guinnessbook00mcfa/page/400}}</ref> a record they still hold today.<ref name="guiness2020" />

==See also==
{{Portal|Hawaii|Politics|Law|Philippines|Switzerland|United States}}
<!---♦♦♦ Please keep the list in alphabetical order ♦♦♦--->
* ''[[Bantayog ng mga Bayani]]''
* [[Conjugal dictatorship]]
* [[Corruption in the Philippines]]
* [[Economic history of the Philippines (1965–1986)]]
* [[Ferdinand Marcos's cult of personality]]
* [[Kleptocracy]]
* [[Rolex 12]]
* [[List of films about martial law under Ferdinand Marcos]]
* [[List of South East Asian people by net worth]]
{{clear}}

==Notes==
{{Notelist}}

==References==
<!-- Per the ongoing situation (historical distortion regarding Ferdinand Marcos), it would now be advisable to have a "sources" sub-section included (the existing reference list section will be under the "citations" sub-section of the "references" section), and (probably) have book and other multimedia sources in that section. -->
{{Reflist}}

==Further reading==
* {{cite book|editor=Aquino, Belinda|title=Cronies and Enemies: The Current Philippine Scene|publisher=Philippine Studies Program, Center for Asian and Pacific Studies, University of Hawaii|year=1982}}
* [[Raymond Bonner|Bonner, Raymond]] (1987). ''Waltzing with a Dictator: The Marcoses and the Making of American Policy''. Times Books, New York {{ISBN|978-0-8129-1326-2}}
* {{cite book|author=Celoza, Albert F.|title=Ferdinand Marcos and the Philippines: the political economy of authoritarianism|publisher=Greenwood Publishing|year=1997|isbn=978-0-275-94137-6|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Sp3U1oCNKlgC}}
* Salonga, Jovito (2001). ''Presidential Plunder: The Quest for Marcos Ill-gotten Wealth''. Regina Pub. Co., Manila
* [[Sterling Seagrave|Seagrave, Sterling]] (1988): ''The Marcos Dynasty'', HarperCollins
* [[Library of Congress Country Studies]]: Philippines. ''The Inheritance from Marcos''

==External links==
{{Sister project links|wikt=Marcos|n=No|s=Author:Ferdinand Marcos|b=No|v=No}}
* [https://martiallawmuseum.ph/ The Martial Law Memorial Museum]
* [https://martiallaw.ph/ Digital Museum of Martial Law in the Philippines]
* [https://iskomunidad.upd.edu.ph/index.php/Marcos_Regime_Research The Marcos Regime Research (MRR) program] by the University of the Philippines Third World Studies Center
* [https://www.martiallawchroniclesproject.com/ The Martial Law Chronicles Project]
* [https://hrvvmemcom.gov.ph/ The Philippine Martial Law Human Rights Violations Victims' Memorial Commission Freedom Memorial website]
* {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200603204253/https://www.dnd.gov.ph/ferdinand-e-marcos.html|date=June 3, 2020|title=Ferdinand E. Marcos – Department of National Defense}}
* {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080804093918/http://www.op.gov.ph/museum/pres_marcos.asp|date=August 4, 2008|title=Philippine government website on the country's presidents}}
* {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20040923032408/http://marcospresidentialcenter.com/|date=September 23, 2004 |title=Marcos Presidential Center}}
* {{IMDb name|1300894}}

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{{The Marcoses}}
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