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==== Bofors 40mm anti-aircraft guns ====
==== Bofors 40mm anti-aircraft guns ====
Arguably the best light [[anti-aircraft gun]] of World War II, the 40mm Bofors was used on almost every major warship in the U.S. and U.K. fleet during World War&nbsp;II from about 1943 to 1945. Although a descendant of German and Swedish designs, the Bofors mounts used by the United States Navy during World War II had been heavily "Americanized" to bring the guns up to the standards of the U.S. Navy. This resulted in a gun system set to English standards (now known as the [[United States customary units|Standard System]]) with interchangeable ammunition, which simplified the logistics situation for World War II. When coupled with hydraulic couple drives to reduce salt contamination and the Mark&nbsp;51 director for improved accuracy, the 40mm Bofors became a fearsome adversary, accounting for roughly half of all Japanese aircrafts shot down between 1 October 1944 and 1 February 1945.<ref name="Bofors">{{cite web | last = DiGiulian | first = Tony | title = Sweden, British, USA, German and Japanese Bofors 40 mm/56 (1.57") Model 1936 | url=http://www.navweaps.com/Weapons/WNUS_4cm-56_mk12.htm | publisher = Navweaps.com | date = 2008-05-14 | accessdate = 2008-07-25 }}</ref>
Arguably the most efficient light [[anti-aircraft gun]] of World War II, the 40mm Bofors was used on almost nearly major warship in the U.S. and U.K. fleet during World War&nbsp;II from about 1943 to 1945. Although a descendant of German and Swedish designs, the Bofors mounts used by the United States Navy during World War II had been heavily "Americanized" to bring the guns up to the standards of the U.S. Navy. This resulted in a gun system set to English standards (now known as the [[United States customary units|Standard System]]) with interchangeable ammunition, which simplified the logistics situation for World War II. When coupled with hydraulic couple drives to reduce salt contamination and the Mark&nbsp;51 director for improved accuracy, the 40mm Bofors became a fearsome adversary, accounting for roughly half of all Japanese aircrafts shot down between 1 October 1944 and 1 February 1945.<ref name="Bofors">{{cite web | last = DiGiulian | first = Tony | title = Sweden, British, USA, German and Japanese Bofors 40 mm/56 (1.57") Model 1936 | url=http://www.navweaps.com/Weapons/WNUS_4cm-56_mk12.htm | publisher = Navweaps.com | date = 2008-05-14 | accessdate = 2008-07-25 }}</ref>


==== Oerlikon 20mm anti-aircraft guns ====
==== Oerlikon 20mm anti-aircraft guns ====

Revision as of 05:28, 31 December 2008

An outboard profile of Alaska in standard haze gray (click image for higher detail)
Class overview
NameAlaska class
BuildersNew York Shipbuilding Corporation[1][2][3]
OperatorsUnited States Navy
Preceded byN/A
Succeeded byN/A
In commission17 June 1944–17 February 1947
Completed2
Cancelled4 (Hawaii was laid down but never completed)
Active0
Laid up0
Lost0
Retired2
Preserved0
General characteristics
Class and type"Large cruiser"
Displacementlist error: <br /> list (help)
29,771 tons
34,253 tons(full load)[4]
Length808 ft 6 in (246.43 m) overall[4]
Beam91 ft 9.375 in (27.97493 m)[4]
Draft27 ft 1 in (8.26 m) (mean)[1] 31 ft 9.25 in (9.6838 m) (maximum)[4]
Propulsionlist error: <br /> list (help)
4-shaft General Electric steam turbines, double-reduction gearing,[5] 8 Babcock & Wilcox boilers[6]
150,000 shp (112 MW)[4]
Speed31.4[2]–33 knots[6][11][9] (36.1–38 mph)
Range12,000 nautical miles (22,000 km) at 15 knots (28 km/h)[4]
Complement1,517[6][9]–1,799[10]–2,251[1][2][A 2]
ArmamentNine 12-inch (305 mm)/50 caliber Mark 8 guns[4] (3×3) twelve 5-inch (127 mm)/38 caliber dual-purpose[5] guns[4] (6×2)[5] 56 ×40mm (1.57 in)[4] Bofors (14x4)[5] 34 × 20mm Oerlikon (34×1)[4][5]
Armorlist error: <br /> list (help)
Main side belt: 9" gradually thinning to 5"[6]

Armor deck: 3.8&ndash4.0"[6]
Weather (main) deck: 1.40"[4][6]
Splinter (third) deck: 0.625"[6]
Barbettes: 11–13"[6]
Turrets: 12.8" face, 5" roof, 5.25–6" side and 5.25 rear.[6]

Conning tower:10.6" with 5" roof[9][6]
Aircraft carried4× OS2U Kingfisher or SC Seahawk[8][A 1]
Aviation facilitiesEnclosed hangar[6] located amidships[7]

The Alaska class battlecruisers (officially rated as "large cruisers")[12] were a class of six fast battlecruisers ordered prior to World War II for the United States Navy. Unlike normal U.S. battleship and cruiser naming practices,[A 3] all were named after "territories or insular areas" of the United States.[13][A 4] They were the last 'true' dreadnoughts to fly the U.S. flag.[14][A 5]

Of the six that were planned, only three were laid down; two were completed, and the third's construction was suspended on 16 April 1945 when she was 84% complete. The finished two, Alaska and Guam, served with the U.S. Navy for the last two years of World War II as bombardment ships and fast carrier escorts. They were both decommissioned in 1947 after having spent only 32 and 29 months in service, respectively.

The original idea for a U.S. battlecruiser class began in the early 1930s, when the U.S. Navy wanted a counter to the "pocket battleships" (Deutschland class) that were being launched and commissioned by Germany. Though nothing resulted immediately, planning for ships that eventually evolved into the Alaska class began in the later 1930s after the deployment of Germany's Scharnhorst class and rumors that Japan was constructing a new battlecruiser class.[11][A 6] The Alaska class were intended to serve as "cruiser-killers", seeking out to destroy these post-Treaty heavy cruisers. To facilitate this, they were given large guns of a new and expensive design, limited armor protection against 12-inch shells, and machinery capable of speeds of about 31–33 knots (36–38 mph, 58–61 km/h).

Design and service

Genesis

Heavy cruiser development had been held steady between World War I and World War II by the terms of the Washington Naval Treaty and successor treaties and conferences. In this treaty, the United States, Britain, Japan, France, and Italy had agreed to limit heavy cruisers to 10,000 tons displacement with 8-inch main armament. U.S. "treaty cruisers" designed between the wars followed this pattern. After the Treaty was effectively lapsed in 1939, the designs were slightly enlarged into the Baltimore class.[15]

The initial impetus for the design of the Alaska class came from the deployments of the "pocket battleships"[3] and intelligence reports that stated Japan was planning or building "super cruisers" that were much more powerful than U.S. heavy cruisers.[6][7][A 7] The Navy responded in 1938, when a request from the General Board was sent to the Bureau of Construction and Repair for a "comprehensive study of all types of naval vessels for consideration for a new and expanded building program."[16] The President at the time, Franklin Delano Roosevelt, might have inspired the idea for the class with his desire to counter the raiding abilities of Japanese cruisers and German battlecruisers/"pocket battleships",[17] but these claims are difficult to verify.[18][6]

Design process

The design process of the Alaska class was "torturous"[11] due to the numerous changes and modifications made to the ships' layouts by many different departments and individuals.[11] Indeed, the ship had planned at least nine different layouts,[19] ranging from 6,000-ton Atlanta class antiaircraft cruisers,[17] to "overgrown" heavy cruisers,[11] to a 38,000-ton mini-battleship that would have been armed with twelve 12-in. guns and sixteen 5-in. guns.[17] The General Board, in an attempt to keep the displacement under 25,000 tons, allowed the designers to have only limited underwater protection in their designs to try to save weight. As a result, the Alaska class, when built, were vulnerable to torpedoes and shells that fell short of the ship.[20] Early in their development, the class used the designation "CC", which signified that they were to be battlecruisers in the tradition of the Lexington class;[A 8] however, the designation was later changed to "CB" to reflect their new name of "large cruiser", and the practice of referring to them as "battlecruisers" was officially discouraged.[18]

The new class was officially ordered in September 1940 along with a plethora of other ships as a part of the 70% Expansion Two-Ocean Navy Act.[7][21][A 9] The new ships' role had been altered slightly; in addition to their surface-to-surface role, it was also planned for them to protect carrier groups. Because of their bigger guns, greater size and increased speed, they would be more valuable in this role than heavy cruisers, and they would also provide insurance against reports that Japan was building "super cruisers" more powerful than U.S. heavy cruisers.[7]

Yet another drastic change was considered during the "carrier panic" of early 1942. At this point, the Navy and the President realized that the United States needed more carriers as quickly as possible with Saratoga out until at least May for repairs after torpedo damage; in addition to this, the Lexington lost after the Battle of the Coral Sea. As a result, the Bureau of Ships decided to convert a few hulls that were currently under construction to aircraft carriers; however, they still had to decide which hulls would be converted. So, at different times during 1942, they considered converting some of the Cleveland-class light cruisers, a few of the Baltimore-class heavy cruisers, all six of the Alaska class, or even one of the Iowa-class battleships.[22]

Alaska being launched on 15 August 1943

A conversion of the Alaska battlecruisers to carriers was "particularly attractive"[22] because of the many similarities between the design of the Essex-class aircraft carriers and the Alaskas, including the same machinery.[12] However, when compared with the Essex class, the Alaskas would have had a shorter flight deck (so they could have carried only 90% of the aircraft),[22] would have been 11 feet lower in the water, and could travel 8,000 miles fewer at 15 knots (17 mph). In addition, the large cruiser design did not include the massive underwater protections found in normal carriers due to the armor weight devoted to counter shell fire. In the end, the Cleveland class was chosen because the biggest factor was "speed of production", which was found with the Clevelands but not the others.[23]

Of the six Alaska class battlecruisers that were planned, only three were ever laid down. The first two, Alaska and Guam, were completed. Hawaii, the third, was canceled; construction upon her was suspended on 16 April 1947 when she was 84% complete.[3][16] The last three, Philippines, Puerto Rico and Samoa, were delayed since all available materials and slipways were allocated to higher priority ships, such as aircraft carriers, destroyers, and submarines. Construction had still not begun when steel shortages[24] and a realization that these "cruiser killers" had no more cruisers to hunt—the fleets of Japanese cruisers had already been defeated by aircraft and submarines—made the Alaska class "white elephants".[6] As a result, construction upon the last three members of the Alaska class never began, and they were officially canceled on 24 June 1943.[25][26][27]

Service history

Guam during her shakedown cruise on 13 November 1944.

The two completed Alaska class ships (Alaska and Guam) served with the U.S. Navy in the last years of World War II. Similar to the contemporary Iowa-class fast battleships, their speed made them useful as shore bombardment ships and fast carrier escorts. Both protected Franklin when she was on her way to be repaired in Guam after being hit by two Japanese bombs. Afterward, Alaska supported the landings on Okinawa, while Guam went to San Pedro Bay to become the leader of a new task force, Cruiser Task Force 95. Guam, joined by Alaska, four light cruisers, and nine destroyers, led the task force into the East China and Yellow Seas to conduct raids upon shipping. However, they only encountered Chinese junks.[1][2] By the end of the war, the two had become highly regarded within the fleet as excellent carrier escorts.[9]

After the war, both ships were decommissioned and "mothballed" in 1947[1][2] after having spent 32 and 29 months in service, respectively.[17] The still-incomplete Hawaii was considered for a conversion to be the Navy's first guided-missile cruiser for a time;[A 10] this lasted until 26 February 1952, when a different conversion to a "large command ship" was contemplated. In anticipation of this, her classification was changed to CBC-1. This would have made her a "larger sister" for Northampton,[6] but a year and a half later (9 October 1954) she was re-designated CB-3. Hawaii was struck from the Naval Vessel Register (NVR) on 9 June 1958 and was sold for scrap in 1959.[3]

In 1958, the Bureau of Ships prepared two feasibility studies to see if Alaska and Guam could be suitably converted into guided missile cruisers. The first study involved removing all of the guns in favor of four different missile systems. At $160 million, this was seen as cost-prohibitive, so a second study was initiated. This study left the forward batteries (the two 12" triple turrets and three of the 5" dual turrets) alone and added a reduced version of the first plan on the stern of the ship. This would have cost about $82 million, a little more than half of the first study, but it was still seen as too expensive.[28] As a result, both were stricken from the Naval Vessel Register on 1 June 1960. Alaska was sold for scrap on 30 June 1960, and Guam on 24 May 1961.[1][2]

"Large cruisers" or "battlecruisers"?

USS Missouri (top) and USS Alaska moored at the same pier; note the size difference between the two.

When the Alaska class cruisers were being designed, they were officially designated by the U.S. Navy as "large cruisers".[1][17] The U.S. Navy named the individual vessels after U.S. territories, rather than states (as was the tradition with battleships) or cities (cruisers) to symbolize the belief that these ships were supposed to play a intermediate role between heavy cruisers and fully-fledged battlecruisers. However, when they were finally completed, launched, and commissioned, they had the "size of a battleship but the capabilities of a cruiser."[11] Outside of Saratoga, members of the Alaska class were the least maneuverable ships in the U.S. Navy[11] due to the decision to use a cruiser-like single rudder instead of a battleship-like dual.[18] They resembled contemporary battleships in appearance and weighed only 5000 tons lower in displacement. They also mounted the familiar 2-A-1 main battery,[A 11] massive columnar mast and cluster of 5"/38 DP guns along the sides of the superstructure. Additionally, while the battleships carried eight (older refitted ships) or ten (post-South Dakota) 5"/38 twin mounts flanking the superstructure, the Alaskas only carried six: four at the superstructure corners, and one at each fore and aft on the centerline.[29][30]

There are two main arguments for terming the Alaska class as "large cruisers". The first is their armor; while they were able to withstand more fire from guns than any cruiser afloat, they were virtually defenseless against torpedoes or shells that fell short of their mark, as they had no sub-divisions within the hull and no anti-torpedo scheme.[11] The second lies entirely in their design. The Alaska class ships were, from the keel up, simple extensions of the designs of the Washington Naval Treaty heavy cruisers, which had maximum limits of 8" guns and 10,000 tons.[18] In addition, despite being much larger than the Baltimore class (the newest heavy cruiser class, which debuted just two years before), the secondary battery of the "large cruisers" were only slightly larger. Whereas the Alaska class carried twelve 5"/38 caliber, fifty-six 40mm, and thirty-four 20mm guns, the Baltimore class carried the same number of 5"/38s, eight fewer 40mm, and only ten fewer 20mm.[6]

Despite these two arguments, many contemporary historians believe the Alaska class should be classified instead as battlecruisers[10][31] for two main reasons: firstly, they were, in terms of displacement, about twice as heavy as the newest heavy cruisers (the Baltimore class).[31] Secondly, they had much larger guns; while the Alaska class carried nine 12"/50 caliber guns which were as good as, if not superior to, the old 14"/50 caliber gun that had been used on the U.S. Navy's pre-treaty battleships,[32] the Baltimore class had an equal number of 8"/55 caliber Marks 12 and 15 guns.[33]

Armament

Main battery

Guam firing her main battery during a training session sometime in 1944–1945.

As built, the Alaska class had nine 12"/50 caliber Mark 8 guns mounted in three triple (3-gun) turrets,[32] with two turrets forward and one aft, a configuration known as "2-A-1". The previous 12" gun manufactured for the U.S. Navy was the Mark 7 version, which had been designed and installed in the 1912 Wyoming-class battleships. The Mark 8 was "greatly superior" to this version; in fact, it "was by far the most powerful weapon of its caliber ever placed in service.[34] Designed in 1939, it weighed 121,856 pounds (55,273 kg) including the breech and was capable of an average rate of fire of 2.4–3 rounds a minute. It could throw a 1,140 lb. (517.093 kg) Mark 18 armor piercing shell 38,573 yards (35,271 meters) at an elevation of 45°, while the "barrel life" of the guns was 344 shots[32] (comparable to the 16"/50 caliber Mark 7 gun found in the Iowa battleships, Alaska battlecruisers could fire about 54 more shots).[35]

The turrets were very similar to those of the Iowa class battleships. The Alaska class had a two-stage powder hoist versus the one-stage hoist in the Iowa class ships. This made it safer to operate the guns in addition to increasing the rate of fire. There was also a "projectile rammer" that transferred shells from storage on the ship to the rotating ring that fed the guns. However, this feature proved unsatisfactory, and it was not included upon Hawaii or any subsequent ships.[32]

Because Alaska and Guam were the only two ships to mount these guns, only ten turrets were made during the war (three for each ship including Hawaii, with one spare). They cost the Navy $1,550,000 each, and were the most expensive heavy guns purchased by the U.S. Navy in World War II.[18]

Secondary battery

The secondary battery of the Alaska class was composed of twelve 5-inch (127 mm)/38 caliber guns in twin turrets, with four turrets offset on each side of the superstructure (two on each beam) and two centerline turrets fore and aft. The 5"/38 had originally been intended for use on only destroyers being built in the 1930s, but by 1934 and into World War II it was being installed on almost all of the U.S.'s major warships, including aircraft carriers, battleships, and heavy and light cruisers.[36]

Anti-aircraft battery

Crew of a Bofors 40 mm gun on Alaska mount loading clips into the loaders of the left pair of guns on 6 March 1945, during the Invasion of Iwo Jima

For anti-aircrat armament, the Alaska class ships carried 56 x 40mm guns and 34 x 20mm guns. These numbers are comparable to 48 x 40mm and 24 x 20mm on the smaller Baltimore class heavy cruisers and 80 x 40mm and 49 x 20mm on the larger Iowa battleships.[1][37][38]

Bofors 40mm anti-aircraft guns

Arguably the most efficient light anti-aircraft gun of World War II, the 40mm Bofors was used on almost nearly major warship in the U.S. and U.K. fleet during World War II from about 1943 to 1945. Although a descendant of German and Swedish designs, the Bofors mounts used by the United States Navy during World War II had been heavily "Americanized" to bring the guns up to the standards of the U.S. Navy. This resulted in a gun system set to English standards (now known as the Standard System) with interchangeable ammunition, which simplified the logistics situation for World War II. When coupled with hydraulic couple drives to reduce salt contamination and the Mark 51 director for improved accuracy, the 40mm Bofors became a fearsome adversary, accounting for roughly half of all Japanese aircrafts shot down between 1 October 1944 and 1 February 1945.[39]

Oerlikon 20mm anti-aircraft guns

The Oerlikon 20mm anti-aircraft gun was one of the most extensively used anti-aircraft guns of World War II; The U.S. alone manufactured a total of 124,735 of these guns. When activated in 1941, they replaced the 0.50" (12.7mm) M2 Browning MG on a one-for-one basis. The Oerlikon gun remained the primary anti-aircraft weapon of the United States Navy until the introduction of the 40mm Bofors in 1943.[40]

Ships

  • USS Alaska (CB-1) was commissioned on 17 June 1944. She served in the Pacific, screening aircraft carriers, providing shore bombardment at Okinawa and going on raiding missions in the East China Sea. She was decommissioned on 17 February 1947 after less than three years of service and was scrapped in 1960.[1]
  • USS Guam (CB-2) was commissioned on 17 September 1944. She served in the Pacific with Alaska almost all of the same operations. Along with Alaska, she was decommissioned on 17 February 1947 and was scrapped in 1961.[2]
  • USS Hawaii (CB-3) was intended as a third ship of the class, but she was never completed. Numerous plans to utilize her as a guided missile cruiser or a large command ship in the years after the war came to nothing and she was scrapped.[3]
  • USS Philippines (CB-4) was planned as the fourth ship of the class. She was to be built at Camden, New Jersey, but was canceled before being laid down.[25]
  • USS Puerto Rico (CB-5) was planned as the fifth ship of the class. She was to be built at Camden, New Jersey, but was canceled before being laid down.[26]
  • USS Samoa (CB-6) was planned as the sixth ship of the class. She was to be built at Camden, New Jersey, but was canceled before being laid down.[27]

See also

Notes

A painting depicting what one of the Lexington-class battlecruisers would have looked like had they been built; this class were the only other battlecruisers ever designed by the U.S. Navy outside of the Alaskas.
  1. ^ The Seahawk made its operational debut upon Guam on 22 October 1944.
  2. ^ Sources vary greatly on just how many people composed the complement of the ship.
  3. ^ With only a very few exceptions, U.S. battleships were named for states, e.g. USS Nevada (BB-36) or USS New Jersey (BB-62), while cruisers were named for cities, e.g. USS Juneau (CL-52) or USS Quincy (CA-71). See United States ship naming conventions
  4. ^ Alaska and Hawaii were "insular areas" of the United States at this time; they acceded to the Union as the forty-ninth and fiftieth States in 1959.
  5. ^ Her armor and many of her weapons could be compared to the old dreadnoughts that sailed during World War I, though the Alaska class was a good deal faster than those older battleships. However, the "super-dreadnought", which started in the U.S. with Nevada, was superior in terms of firepower (14"–16" guns) and armor.
  6. ^ Jane's thought that this mythical battlecruiser, the notional Chichibu class (Fitzsimons, Volume 1, 58.), would have six 12-inch guns and 30-knot (34.52 mph) speed packed into a 15,000-ton ship. See Worth, 305.
  7. ^ Japan actually developed plans for two of the "super cruisers" in 1941, though it was mostly in response to these new Alaskas. However, the ships were never ordered due to the greater need for carriers.
  8. ^ The Lexington class would have been designated CC-1 through CC-6, had they been built.
  9. ^ Along with the Alaska's, there were 210 other ships ordered at the same time: two Iowa-class battleships, five Montana-class battleships, twelve Essex-class aircraft carriers, four Baltimore-class heavy cruisers, 19 Cleveland-class light cruisers, four Atlanta-class light cruisers, 52 Fletcher-class destroyers, twelve Benson-class destroyers and 73 Gato-class submarines.
  10. ^ a similar proposal was made to convert the uncompleted Iowa-class battleship USS Kentucky (BB-66) into the first guided missile battleship (BBG), but as with the proposal for Hawaii this conversion never materialized, and Kentucky was scrapped in 1958.
  11. ^ It was also found on the North Carolina-class battleship, South Dakota-class battleship, Iowa-class battleship and Baltimore class heavy cruiser.

References

  1. ^ a b c d e f g h i "Alaska". Dictionary of American Naval Fighting Ships. Navy Department, Naval History and Heritage Command. {{cite web}}: Unknown parameter |accessdaymonth= ignored (help); Unknown parameter |accessyear= ignored (|access-date= suggested) (help)
  2. ^ a b c d e f g "Guam". DANFS. {{cite web}}: Unknown parameter |accessdaymonth= ignored (help); Unknown parameter |accessyear= ignored (|access-date= suggested) (help)
  3. ^ a b c d e "Hawaii". DANFS. {{cite web}}: Unknown parameter |accessdaymonth= ignored (help); Unknown parameter |accessyear= ignored (|access-date= suggested) (help)
  4. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k Dulin, Jr., Garzke, Jr., 184.
  5. ^ a b c d e Fitzsimons, Bernard, ed., Volume 1, 59.
  6. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p Gardiner and Chesneau, 122.
  7. ^ a b c d Pike, John (2008). "CB-1 Alaska Class". GlobalSecurity.org. {{cite web}}: Unknown parameter |accessdaymonth= ignored (help); Unknown parameter |accessyear= ignored (|access-date= suggested) (help)
  8. ^ Swanborough and Bowers, 148.
  9. ^ a b c d Miller, 200.
  10. ^ a b Osbourne, 245.
  11. ^ a b c d e f g h Worth, 305.
  12. ^ a b Fitzsimons, Volume 1, 58.
  13. ^ Greer, 84.
  14. ^ Morison, Morison, Polmar, 83.
  15. ^ Bauer and Roberts, 139.
  16. ^ a b Dulin, Jr., Garzke, Jr., 189.
  17. ^ a b c d e Dulin, Jr. and Garzke, Jr., 179.
  18. ^ a b c d e Morison and Polmar, 85.
  19. ^ Dulin, Jr. and Garzake, Jr., 179–183.
  20. ^ Dulin, Jr., Garzke, Jr., 183.
  21. ^ Rohwer, 40.
  22. ^ a b c Friedman, 190.
  23. ^ Friedman, 191.
  24. ^ Fitzsimons, Volume 1, p.59.
  25. ^ a b "Philippines". DANFS. {{cite web}}: Unknown parameter |accessdaymonth= ignored (help); Unknown parameter |accessyear= ignored (|access-date= suggested) (help)
  26. ^ a b "Puerto Rico". DANFS. {{cite web}}: Unknown parameter |accessdaymonth= ignored (help); Unknown parameter |accessyear= ignored (|access-date= suggested) (help)
  27. ^ a b "Samoa". DANFS. {{cite web}}: Unknown parameter |accessdaymonth= ignored (help); Unknown parameter |accessyear= ignored (|access-date= suggested) (help)
  28. ^ Dulin, Jr., Garzke Jr., 187.
  29. ^ An example of an older refitted ship: "Nevada". DANFS. {{cite web}}: Unknown parameter |accessdaymonth= ignored (help); Unknown parameter |accessyear= ignored (|access-date= suggested) (help)
  30. ^ An example of a newer ship: "South Dakota". DANFS. {{cite web}}: Unknown parameter |accessdaymonth= ignored (help); Unknown parameter |accessyear= ignored (|access-date= suggested) (help)
  31. ^ a b Morison, Morison and Polmar, 84.
  32. ^ a b c d DiGiulian, Tony (2008-02-07). "12"/50 (30.5 cm) Mark 8". Navweaps.com. Retrieved 2008-10-15.
  33. ^ DiGiulian, Tony (2008-02-07). "8"/55 (20.3 cm) Marks 12 and 15". Navweaps.com. Retrieved 2008-10-15.
  34. ^ Dulin, Jr. and Garzke, Jr., 190.
  35. ^ DiGiulian, Tony (2008-02-07). "United States of America 16"/50 (40.6 cm) Mark 7". Navweaps.com. Retrieved 2008-10-16.
  36. ^ DiGiulian, Tony (2008-03-27). "United States of America 5"/38 (12.7 cm) Mark 12". Navweaps.com. Retrieved 2008-07-25.
  37. ^ "Baltimore". DANFS. {{cite web}}: Unknown parameter |accessdaymonth= ignored (help); Unknown parameter |accessyear= ignored (|access-date= suggested) (help)
  38. ^ "Iowa". DANFS. {{cite web}}: Unknown parameter |accessdaymonth= ignored (help); Unknown parameter |accessyear= ignored (|access-date= suggested) (help)
  39. ^ DiGiulian, Tony (2008-05-14). "Sweden, British, USA, German and Japanese Bofors 40 mm/56 (1.57") Model 1936". Navweaps.com. Retrieved 2008-07-25.
  40. ^ DiGiulian, Tony (2008-05-14). "British, Swiss and USA 20 mm/70 (0.79") Oerlikon Marks 1, 2, 3 and 4". Navweaps.com. Retrieved 2008-07-25.

Bibliography

  • Bauer, Karl Jack; Roberts, Stephen S. (1991). Register of Ships of the U.S. Navy, 1775-1990: Major Combatants. Greenwood Publishing Group. ISBN 0313-2-6202-0.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) Google books link
  • Dulin, Jr.,Robert O.; Garzke, Jr.; William H. (1976). Battleships: United States Battleships in World War II. Naval Institute Press. ISBN 1557-5-0174-2.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) Google Books link
  • Fitzsimons, Bernard, ed. (1978). Illustrated Encyclopedia of 20th Century Weapons and Warfare. Vol. Volume 1. London: Phoebus. {{cite book}}: |author= has generic name (help); |volume= has extra text (help)CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  • Friedman, Norman (1983). U.S. Aircraft Carriers: An Illustrated Design History. Naval Institute Press. ISBN 0870-2-1739-9.
  • Gardiner, Robert; Chesneau, Roger (1980). Conway's All the World's Fighting Ships, 1922-1946. Naval Institute Press. ISBN 0870-2-1913-8.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) Google Books link
  • Greer, Gordon B. (2004). The First Decade of the Twentieth Century. iUniverse. ISBN 0595-3-0725-6.
  • Miller, David (2005). Illustrated Directory of Warships of the World: From 1860 to the Present. ABC-CLIO. ISBN 1851-0-9857-7. Google books link
  • Morison, Samuel Loring; Polmar, Norman (2003). The American Battleship. Zenith Imprint. ISBN 0760-3-0989-2.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) Google Books link
  • Osborne, Eric W. (2004). Cruisers and Battle Cruisers: An Illustrated History of Their Impact. ABC-CLIO. ISBN 1851-0-9369-9. Google Books link
  • Rohwer, Jürgen (1992). Chronology of the War at Sea, 1939-1945: The Naval History of World War Two. Naval Institute Press. ISBN 1591-1-4119-2. Google books link
  • Swanborough, Gordon; Bowers, Peter M. (1968). United States Navy Aircraft Since 1911. Funk & Wagnalls.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) Google books link, though no preview available.
  • Tucker, Spencer C.; Roberts, Priscilla Mary; Greene, Jack; Kingseed, Cole C.; Muir, Malcolm; Zabecki, David T. (DRT); Millett, Allan R. (FRW) (1976). World War II: A Student Encyclopedia. Naval Institute Press. ISBN 1557-5-0174-2.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) Google Books link
  • Worth, Richard (2002). Fleets of World War II. Da Capo Press. ISBN 0306-8-1116-2.
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