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{{Short description|Battle in 1177}}
{{Short description|Battle in 1177}}
{{Infobox military conflict
{{Infobox military conflict
| conflict = Battle of Tonlé Sap<br>សមរភូមិទន្លេសាប
| conflict = Battle of Tonlé Sap
| partof = [[Khmer–Cham wars]]
| partof = [[Khmer–Cham wars]]
| image = Angkor - Bayon - 032 Battle Scenes (8581861528).jpg
| image = Angkor - Bayon - 032 Battle Scenes (8581861528).jpg
| image_size = 292px
| image_size = 282
| caption = Relief of Cham forces at temple of [[Bayon]].
| caption = Relief at temple of [[Bayon]].
| date = 13 June 1177{{sfn|Golzio|2021|p=29}}
| date = 13 June 1177{{sfn|Golzio|2021|p=29}}
| casus = An influence dispute.
| casus = ?
| territory = [[Kambuja]]
| territory =
| place = [[Tonlé Sap]]<br>[[Angkor]]
| place = [[Tonlé Sap]]
| result = [[Phan Rang–Tháp Chàm|Panduranga]] victory.<br>[[Kambuja]] was colonized for three years.
| result =[[Phan Rang–Tháp Chàm|Panduranga]] victory.
| location = [[Tonlé Sap]]
| location = [[Tonlé Sap]]
| combatant1 = [[File:Flag of Cambodia (pre-1863).svg|23px]] [[Khmer Empire]]
| combatant1 = [[File:Flag of Cambodia (pre-1863).svg|23px]] [[Khmer Empire]]
| combatant2 = [[File:Burgee of commander of a squadron of submarines of the Regia Marina.svg|23px]] [[Champa]]
| combatant2 = [[Champa]]
| commander1 = [[File:Flag of Cambodia (pre-1863).svg|23px]] [[Tribhuvanadityavarman]]<br>[[File:Burgee of commander of a squadron of submarines of the Regia Marina.svg|23px]] [[Jaya Harivarman II]]
| commander1 = [[File:Flag of Cambodia (pre-1863).svg|23px]] [[Tribhuvanadityavarman]]
| commander2 = [[Jaya Indravarman IV]]
| commander2 = [[File:Burgee of commander of a squadron of submarines of the Regia Marina.svg|23px]] [[Jaya Indravarman IV]]<br>[[File:ROCN Duty Ship Pennant.svg|23px]] [[Po Klaung Yăgrai]]<br>[[File:Fatimid Flag.svg|23px]] [[Montagnard (Vietnam)|Montagnard forces]]
| strength1 = unknown
| strength1 = unknown
| strength2 = unknown
| strength2 = unknown
| casualties1 = unknown
| casualties1 = unknown
| casualties2 = unknown
| casualties2 = unknown
}}
}}
'''Battle of Tonlé Sap'''<ref>[http://www.gettyimages.com/detail/photo/the-bayon-bas-relief-depicts-a-battle-on-high-res-stock-photography/148571467 The Bayon bas-relief depicts a battle on the Tonlé Sap lake, Angkor Thom]</ref> ({{lang-km|សមរភូមិទន្លេសាប}}, {{lang-vi|Thủy chiến Tonlé Sap}}, {{lang-fr|Bataille de Tonlé Sap}}) was a battle between [[Champa|Cham mandalas]] and [[Khmer Empire]] in 1177.
'''Battle of Tonlé Sap'''<ref>[http://www.gettyimages.com/detail/photo/the-bayon-bas-relief-depicts-a-battle-on-high-res-stock-photography/148571467 The Bayon bas-relief depicts a battle on the Tonlé Sap lake, Angkor Thom]</ref> ([[French language|French]]: ''Bataille de Tonlé Sap'') was a battle between [[Champa]] and [[Khmer Empire]] in 1177.
__TOC__
==History==
{{see also|Tonlé Sap|Angkor}}
⚫
The 12th-century was a time of conflict and brutal power struggles. Under [[Suryavarman II]] (reigned 1113–1150) the [[History of Cambodia|Khmer kingdom]] united internally{{sfn|Higham|2004|p=113}} and the largest temple of Angkor was built in a period of 37 years: [[Angkor Wat]], dedicated to the god [[Vishnu]]. In the east, his campaigns against [[Champa]] and [[Đại Việt|Annam]], were unsuccessful,{{sfn|Higham|2004|p=114}} though he did sack [[Vijaya (Champa)|Vijaya]] in 1145 and depose [[Jaya Indravarman III]].{{sfn|Maspero|2002|p=75-56}} The Khmers occupied Vijaya until 1149, when they were driven out by [[Jaya Harivarman I]].{{sfn|Coedès|1968|p=160}} Suryavarman II sent a mission to the [[Chola dynasty]] of south India and presented a precious stone to the Chola Emperor [[Kulothunga Chola I]] in 1114.{{sfn|Kulke|Rothermund|1998|p=125}}{{sfn|Prakash|Lombard|1999|p=29-30}}


==Prologue==
⚫
Another period followed in which kings reigned briefly and were violently overthrown by their successors. Finally in 1177 the Angkor capital was raided and looted in a naval battle on the [[Tonlé Sap]] lake by a Cham fleet under [[Po Klong Garai]] king of Champa and lord of Panduranga.{{sfn|Golzio|2021|p=29}} Then [[Tribhuvanadityavarman]] king of Angkor was killed.{{sfn|Maspero|2002|p=78}}{{sfn|Coedès|1968|p=164}}{{sfn|Higham|2001|p=120}}{{sfn|Coedès|1968|pp=163–164, 166}}
⚫
The 12th century was a time of conflict and brutal power struggles. Under [[Suryavarman II]] (reigned 1113–1150) the [[History of Cambodia|Khmer kingdom]] united internally{{sfn|Higham|2004|p=113}} and the largest temple of Angkor was built in a period of 37 years: [[Angkor Wat]], dedicated to the god [[Vishnu]]. In the east, his campaigns against [[Champa]], and [[Đại Việt|Annam]], were unsuccessful,{{sfn|Higham|2004|p=114}} though he did sack [[Vijaya (Champa)|Vijaya]] in 1145 and depose [[Jaya Indravarman III]].{{sfn|Maspero|2002|p=75-56}} The Khmers occupied Vijaya until 1149, when they were driven out by [[Jaya Harivarman I]].{{sfn|Coedès|1968|p=160}} Suryavarman II sent a mission to the [[Chola dynasty]] of south India and presented a precious stone to the Chola Emperor [[Kulothunga Chola I]] in 1114.{{sfn|Kulke|Rothermund|1998|p=125}}{{sfn|Prakash|Lombard|1999|p=29-30}}


⚫
Another period followed in which kings reigned briefly and were violently overthrown by their successors. Finally in 1177 the Angkor capital was raided and looted in a naval battle on the [[Tonlé Sap]] lake by a Cham fleet under [[Jaya Indravarman IV]] king of Champa.{{sfn|Golzio|2021|p=29}} Then [[Tribhuvanadityavarman]] king of Angkor was killed.{{sfn|Maspero|2002|p=78}}{{sfn|Coedès|1968|p=164}}
One of Indravarman IV's inscriptions erected in the [[Po Inu Nagar]] temple dated to 1183 recounts how extravagant were the looting gold and silver treasures from the country of Kambu(ja) that were stacked on horse carts, carried to Champa, and were used to donate to the divine [[Po Inu Nagar]] by Queen Parameśvari, Queen Rāya, all of the king's Princess Bhägyavatī, Sumitrā, and Sudakṣiṇā, while the rest of the looted Khmer trophy were given to his people throughout the kingdom.<ref>{{citation|last=Golzio|first=Karl-Heinz|year=2004|title=Inscriptions of Campā based on the editions and translations of Abel Bergaigne, Étienne Aymonier, Louis Finot, Édouard Huber and other French scholars and of the work of R. C. Majumdar. Newly presented, with minor corrections of texts and translations, together with calculations of given dates|publisher=Shaker Verlag}}</ref>


⚫
==See also==
The whereabouts of [[Tribhuvanadityavarman]]'s ally [[Jaya Harivarman II]] was completely unknown until now, however, soon after, an anonymous character was brought up by [[Po Klong Garai]] to be new [[king of Champa]] with the title [[Jaya Indravarman IV]]. He immediately married both Parameśvari and Rāya as his [[harem]]s.<ref name=Maspero>Maspero, Gaston, 2002, The Champa Kingdom, Bangkok: White Lotus Co., Ltd., {{ISBN|9747534991}}</ref>{{rp|77–79}} In 1190, the Khmer king [[Jayavarman VII]], the son and successor of [[Dharanindravarman II]], sought vengeance against [[Champa]]. The capital was taken by [[Vidyanandana]] and Indravarman was brought back to [[Kambuja]] as a prisoner. The King of [[Kambuja]] later released him in an attempt to regain is throne in 1191. However, Vidyanandana defeated him and had Jaya put to death.<ref name=Maspero/>{{rp|78–79}}
⚫
{{commons category|Battle of Tonlé Sap}}
⚫
* [[Khmer–Cham wars]]
* [[Po Klong Garai]]
* [[Tribhuvanadityavarman]]
⚫
* [[Bayon]]


==Culture==
==References==
=== Citations ===
{{see also|Raglai people|Javanese people}}
⚫
{{reflist|30em}}
[[File:Southeast Asian Historical Mandalas.svg|thumb|right|222px|Mandala regime in XI-XII centuries.]]
[[File:Bayon Angkor Relief1.jpg|thumb|right|222px|A scene from the eastern gallery shows a Khmer army on the march.]]
This event marked the final sublimation of the [[Mandala (political model)|mandala]] regime in what is now [[South Central Coast]] of modern [[Vietnam]]. Soon after, it was disrupted by the expansionist ambitions of the [[Thăng Long]] dynasties, followed by the [[Mongol invasion of Champa|Mongol invasion of the South]]. For [[Kambuja]], heavy losses in the central area forced them to abandon the [[Mekong Delta|lower Mekong region]], leaving this place deserted for several centuries until the [[Nguyễn lords]] came to reclaim it. The influence of [[Khmer Empire]] then decreased markedly, causing [[King of Champa|Cham kings]] to seek marriage with the [[Java|Javanese royal families]] to be protected, and at the same time the Khmer court also began to receive a large number of [[Muslim]] immigration to strengthen the very remote lower [[Mekong|Mekong region]].<ref>{{Citation | last =Caldarola | first =Carlo | year =1982 | title =Religion and Societies: Asia and the Middle East | publisher =Walter de Gruyter}}</ref><ref>Hourani 1995: 70-71</ref><ref>GCRC 2006: 24</ref><ref name="Taouti">Taouti 1985: 197-198</ref> All of this created a very rapid change in the southern part of the [[Indochinese peninsula]], as [[Islam]] became increasingly influential among the aristocracy.{{sfn|Coedès|1968}}<ref>[http://vietnamnet.vn/thegioi/hoso/2006/12/648002/ Sự khác biệt giữa người Sunni và Shia là gì?]</ref><ref>[http://www.vnexpress.net/Vietnam/The-gioi/Anh/2007/12/3B9FD675/ Mỗi năm, hàng triệu người hành hương về thánh địa Makkah]</ref><ref>{{Webarchive|url=https://archive.today/20130502143530/www.vnexpress.net/Vietnam/The-gioi/Anh/2007/12/3B9FD675/ |date=2013-05-02 }}</ref>
<ref>Alberto Pérez Pereiro (2012). [https://repository.asu.edu/attachments/97673/content//tmp/package-jqN2y7/PerezPereiro_asu_0010E_12343.pdf Historical Imagination, Diasporic Identity And Islamicity Among The Cham Muslims of Cambodia]</ref><ref>{{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170808141736/https://repository.asu.edu/attachments/97673/content//tmp/package-jqN2y7/PerezPereiro_asu_0010E_12343.pdf |date=2017-08-08 }}. ARIZONA STATE UNIVERSITY</ref><ref>Claudia Seise (2009). [https://www.academia.edu/567094/The_Cham_Minority_in_Cambodia_Division_within_-_Introduction_to_Contemporary_Changes_in_Cham_Communities The Cham Minority in Cambodia: Division within - Introduction to Contemporary Changes in Cham Communities]. State Islamic University of Yogyakarta</ref><ref>Philipp Bruckmayr (2019). [https://books.google.com.vn/books/about/Cambodia_s_Muslims_and_the_Malay_World.html?id=psqiDwAAQBAJ&redir_esc=y Cambodia's Muslims and the Malay world: Malay language, Jawi script, and Islamic factionalism from the 19th century to the present]. Leiden; Boston: Brill, [2019]</ref>


⚫
===Bibliography===
For centuries, the [[Central Highlands (Vietnam)|Midland Highlands]] with its rugged terrain and many ethnic groups with very different cultures has been a point of contention between [[Khmer Empire]] and [[Champa|Cham mandalas]] since the decline of [[Nokor Phnom]]. In order to survive, minorities must always find a way to please one of the two forces, or sometimes both. According to some reports of [[Henri Maspero]] and [[Alexandre Yersin]], ethnic minorities such as [[Raglai people|Raglai]], [[Churu people|Churu]], [[Jarai people|Jarai]], [[Mnong people|Mnong]], [[Bahnar people|Bahnar]], [[Rade people|Rhade]]... still keep legends about the merits of [[Po Klong Garai]], whom was deified in [[Central Highlands (Vietnam)|Montagnards]] area. The annual [[Mbang Katé|Katé festival]] in [[Ninh Thuận]] và [[Lâm Đồng]] is traditionally to celebrate the day [[Po Klong Garai]] led his army across [[Central Highlands (Vietnam)|Montagnards]] mountains to enter [[Tonlé Sap|Khmer land]].<ref>[https://khamphaninhthuan.com/truyen-thuyet-vua-po-klong-garai-kp/ Legend of the boy selling betel nut riding a white elephant in Ninhthuan]</ref> According to the epics (hmon), [[Raglai people|Raglai]], [[Bahnar people|Bahnar]] and [[Rade people|Rhade]] people also paid tribute [[elephant]]s and helped the armies of [[Po Klong Garai]] complete the expedition. According to this tradition, only the [[Raglai people|Raglai men]] can hold the role of high priest because they have protected the king until his death, and at the same time hid the king's treasures for generations.<ref>Nguyễn Hữu Bài, et al. 2014. ''Văn hóa dân gian Raglai ở Khánh Hòa''. Hồ Chí Minh City : Nhà xuất bản văn hóa - văn nghệ. {{ISBN|978-604-68-1078-0}}</ref><ref>[https://cand.com.vn/doi-song-van-hoa/Bi-an-quanh-doi-Trau-i565808/ Mysteries around Betel Hill]</ref><ref>[https://cuongde.org/index.php/du-ky/351-nguyen-tri-man5/368-doc-duong-gio-bui-truyen-thuyet-poklong-garai Legends of Po Klaung Yagrai]</ref>
⚫
* {{cite book |last=Aymonier|first=Etienne|year=1893|title=The History of Tchampa (the Cyamba of Marco Polo, Now Annam Or Cochin-China)|publisher=Oriental University Institute}}
⚫
* {{cite book|last= Coedès|first= George|author-link= George Coedès|editor-last1=Vella|editor-first1=Walter F.|others= trans.Susan Brown Cowing|title= The Indianized States of Southeast Asia|year= 1968|publisher= University of Hawaii Press|isbn= 978-0-8248-0368-1}}
⚫
*{{cite journal |title=The rise of the Angkorian Empire in reality and in the imagination of the 11th century: How it became the paramount power|last=Golzio |first=Karl-Heinz | author-mask = |journal=Journal of Global Archaeology|year=2021|volume=|issue= |pages=1–38|doi =10.34780/a11-ef6n|doi-access=free}}
⚫
* {{cite book|last=Higham |first=Charles |year=2004 |title=The Civilization of Angkor |publisher=University of California Press |isbn=978-0-520-24218-0}}
⚫
* {{cite book|last1=Kulke|first1=Hermann|first2=Dietmar|last2=Rothermund |year=1998 |title=A History of India |publisher=Routledge |isbn=0-41515-482-0}}
⚫
* {{cite book|last=Maspero|first=Georges|year=2002|title=The Champa Kingdom|publisher=White Lotus Co., Ltd}}
⚫
* {{cite book|last1=Prakash|first1=Om|last2=Lombard|first2=Denys |year=1999 |title=Commerce and Culture in the Bay of Bengal, 1500-1800 |publisher=Manohar}}


The most vivid and important vestiges of the [[Tonlé Sap]] campaign are reflected a lot in the [[Bayon]] ruins. In the eastern part of the southern gallery, a naval battle on the [[Tonlé Sap]] between Khmer and Cham forces.


⚫
{{DEFAULTSORT:Battle of Tonle Sap}}
⚫
==See also==
⚫
{{commonscat|Battle of Tonlé Sap}}
⚫
*[[Khmer–Cham wars]]
*[[Tonlé Sap]]
⚫
*[[Bayon]]
*[[Mandala (political model)|Mandala]]
*[[Fall of Angkor]]
==References==
⚫
{{reflist|4}}
==See also==
⚫
===Bibliography===
{{refbegin}}
⚫
*{{cite book |last=Aymonier|first=Etienne|year=1893|title=The History of Tchampa (the Cyamba of Marco Polo, Now Annam Or Cochin-China)|publisher=Oriental University Institute}}
⚫
*{{cite book|last= Coedès|first= George|author-link= George Coedès|editor-last1=Vella|editor-first1=Walter F.|others= trans.Susan Brown Cowing|title= The Indianized States of Southeast Asia|year= 1968|publisher= University of Hawaii Press|isbn= 978-0-8248-0368-1}}
⚫
*{{cite journal |title=The rise of the Angkorian Empire in reality and in the imagination of the 11th century: How it became the paramount power|last=Golzio |first=Karl-Heinz | author-mask = |journal=Journal of Global Archaeology|year=2021|volume=|issue= |pages=1–38|doi =10.34780/a11-ef6n|doi-access=free}}
⚫
*{{cite book|last=Higham |first=Charles |year=2004 |title=The Civilization of Angkor |publisher=University of California Press |isbn=978-0-520-24218-0}}
⚫
*{{cite book|last1=Kulke|first1=Hermann|first2=Dietmar|last2=Rothermund |year=1998 |title=A History of India |publisher=Routledge |isbn=0-41515-482-0}}
⚫
*{{cite book|last=Maspero|first=Georges|year=2002|title=The Champa Kingdom|publisher=White Lotus Co., Ltd}}
⚫
*{{cite book|last1=Prakash|first1=Om|last2=Lombard|first2=Denys |year=1999 |title=Commerce and Culture in the Bay of Bengal, 1500-1800 |publisher=Manohar}}
*{{cite book | author=Albanese, Marilia |title=The Treasures of Angkor | location=Vercelli | publisher=White Star Publishers| date=2006 | type = Paperback | isbn=978-88-544-0117-4}}
*Briggs, Lawrence Robert (1951, reprinted 1999). ''The Ancient Khmer Empire''. White Lotus. {{ISBN|974-8434-93-1}}
*Falser, Michael (2020). ''Angkor Wat – A Transcultural History of Heritage. Volume 1: Angkor in France. From Plaster Casts to Exhibition Pavilions. Volume 2: Angkor in Cambodia. From Jungle Find to Global Icon''. Berlin-Boston DeGruyter {{ISBN|978-3-11-033584-2}}
*Forbes, Andrew; Henley, David (2011). ''Angkor, Eighth Wonder of the World''. Chiang Mai: Cognoscenti Books. {{ASIN|B0085RYW0O}}
*Freeman, Michael and Jacques, Claude (1999). ''Ancient Angkor''. River Books. {{ISBN|0-8348-0426-3}}.
* {{cite book |last1=Higham |first1=Charles |title=The civilization of Angkor |date=2001 |publisher=Phoenix |location=London |isbn=1-84212-584-2 <!-- Appears to be the ISBN for a different edition of the book -->}}
*Higham, Charles (2003). ''Early Cultures of Mainland Southeast Asia''. Art Media Resources. {{ISBN|1-58886-028-0}}
*Hing Thoraxy. Achievement of "APSARA": Problems and Resolutions in the Management of the Angkor Area
*{{cite book | author=Jessup, Helen Ibbitson | author2=Brukoff, Barry |title=Temples of Cambodia – The Heart of Angkor | location=Bangkok | publisher=River Books| date=2011 | type = Hardback | isbn=978-616-7339-10-8}}
*Petrotchenko, Michel (2011). ''Focusing on the Angkor Temples: The Guidebook'', 383 pages, Amarin Printing and Publishing, 2nd edition, {{ISBN|978-616-305-096-0}}
*Ray, Nick (2002). ''Lonely Planet guide to Cambodia'' (4th edition). {{ISBN|1-74059-111-9}}
*{{Citation | last =Gin | first =Ooi Keat | year =2004 | title =Southeast Asia: A Historical Encyclopedia, from Angkor Wat to Timor. R-Z. Volume three | publisher =ABC-CLIO}}
*{{Citation | last =Hooker | first =M.B. | year =1988 | title =Islam in South East Asia | publisher =Brill}}
{{refend}}
===External links===
*[https://factsanddetails.com/southeast-asia/Cambodia/sub5_2f/entry-6643.html Angkor Wat: Its Layout, Architecture nnd Components]
*[https://www.topworldimages.com/streetview/Angkor_Wat Multimedia Resources of Angkor Wat] March 2023
*[http://poncar.de/gallery.cfm?kategorien_id=3 Angkor Wat and Angkor photo gallery by Jaroslav Poncar] May 2010
*Buckley, Michael (1998). ''Vietnam, Cambodia and Laos Handbook''. Avalon Travel Publications. Online excerpt [http://www.veloasia.com/library/buckley/churning_milk.html The Churning of the Ocean of Milk] retrieved 25 July 2005
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{{DEFAULTSORT:Battle of Tonlé Sap}}
[[Category:Po Klong Garai]]
[[Category:Po Klong Garai]]
⚫
[[Category:Khmer Empire]]
[[Category:History of Champa]]
[[Category:History of Champa]]
⚫
[[Category:Events of Khmer Empire]]

Revision as of 09:41, 16 September 2023

Battle of Tonlé Sap
Part of Khmer–Cham wars

Relief at temple of Bayon.
Date13 June 1177[1]
Location
Tonlé Sap
Result Panduranga victory.
Belligerents
Khmer Empire Champa
Commanders and leaders
Tribhuvanadityavarman Jaya Indravarman IV
Strength
unknown unknown
Casualties and losses
unknown unknown

Battle of Tonlé Sap[2] (French: Bataille de Tonlé Sap) was a battle between Champa and Khmer Empire in 1177.

Prologue

The 12th century was a time of conflict and brutal power struggles. Under Suryavarman II (reigned 1113–1150) the Khmer kingdom united internally[3] and the largest temple of Angkor was built in a period of 37 years: Angkor Wat, dedicated to the god Vishnu. In the east, his campaigns against Champa, and Annam, were unsuccessful,[4] though he did sack Vijaya in 1145 and depose Jaya Indravarman III.[5] The Khmers occupied Vijaya until 1149, when they were driven out by Jaya Harivarman I.[6] Suryavarman II sent a mission to the Chola dynasty of south India and presented a precious stone to the Chola Emperor Kulothunga Chola I in 1114.[7][8]

Another period followed in which kings reigned briefly and were violently overthrown by their successors. Finally in 1177 the Angkor capital was raided and looted in a naval battle on the Tonlé Sap lake by a Cham fleet under Jaya Indravarman IV king of Champa.[1] Then Tribhuvanadityavarman king of Angkor was killed.[9][10]

See also

Wikimedia Commons has media related to Battle of Tonlé Sap.

References

Citations

  1. ^ a b Golzio 2021, p. 29.
  2. ^ The Bayon bas-relief depicts a battle on the Tonlé Sap lake, Angkor Thom
  3. ^ Higham 2004, p. 113.
  4. ^ Higham 2004, p. 114.
  5. ^ Maspero 2002, p. 75-56.
  6. ^ Coedès 1968, p. 160.
  7. ^ Kulke & Rothermund 1998, p. 125.
  8. ^ Prakash & Lombard 1999, p. 29-30.
  9. ^ Maspero 2002, p. 78.
  10. ^ Coedès 1968, p. 164.

Bibliography

  • Aymonier, Etienne (1893). The History of Tchampa (the Cyamba of Marco Polo, Now Annam Or Cochin-China). Oriental University Institute.
  • Coedès, George (1968). Vella, Walter F. (ed.). The Indianized States of Southeast Asia. trans.Susan Brown Cowing. University of Hawaii Press. ISBN 978-0-8248-0368-1.
  • Golzio, Karl-Heinz (2021). "The rise of the Angkorian Empire in reality and in the imagination of the 11th century: How it became the paramount power". Journal of Global Archaeology: 1–38. doi:10.34780/a11-ef6n.
  • Higham, Charles (2004). The Civilization of Angkor. University of California Press. ISBN 978-0-520-24218-0.
  • Kulke, Hermann; Rothermund, Dietmar (1998). A History of India. Routledge. ISBN 0-41515-482-0.
  • Maspero, Georges (2002). The Champa Kingdom. White Lotus Co., Ltd.
  • Prakash, Om; Lombard, Denys (1999). Commerce and Culture in the Bay of Bengal, 1500-1800. Manohar.
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