United States aid to Sudan: Difference between revisions
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'''United States policy on conflict mitigation and reconciliation in Sudan''' is primarily focused on humanitarian aid with funds dispersed by the [[United States Agency for International Development]] (USAID). Due to cultural and religious differences between north and south [[Sudan]], the country has been in conflict for much of the last 50 years. |
'''United States policy on conflict mitigation and reconciliation in Sudan''' is primarily focused on humanitarian aid with funds dispersed by the [[United States Agency for International Development]] (USAID). Due to cultural and religious differences between north and south [[Sudan]], the country has been in conflict for much of the last 50 years. The United States is the largest donor of aid to Sudan, followed by nations from the [[European Union]]. The [[United Nations]] has a strong presence in Sudan focused on peace building, governance, livelihoods, and basic services. Most of the USAID funding for conflict mitigation and reconciliation in Sudan has gone towards the Economic Support Fund, which will help Sudan implement the [[Comprehensive Peace Agreement]]. Early results of the program indicated local involvement in peace keeping activities. Critics of U.S. aid to Sudan are concerned about a lack of focus and strategy as well as the funding of [[child soldier]]s in Sudan. |
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==Background of conflict in Sudan== |
==Background of conflict in Sudan== |
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===Sources of conflict=== |
===Sources of conflict=== |
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Conflict in Sudan is rooted in cultural and religious differences.<ref name="U.S.DepartmentofState">{{cite web|url=http://www.state.gov/r/pa/ei/bgn/5424.htm|title=Background Note: Sudan|first=[[Bureau of African Affairs]]|date=November 9, 2010|publisher=[[United States Department of State]]|accessdate=April 11, 2011}}</ref> The country is most notably divided by the [[Arab Muslims]] of the north and the black [[Africans]] of the south who mainly practice [[Christian]] or [[animist]] beliefs.<ref name="World: Analysis Sudan: A Political and Military History">{{cite web|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/84927.stm|title=World: Analysis Sudan: a political and military history|first=BBC Research|date=February 21, 1999|publisher=[[British Broadcasting Corporation]]|accessdate=April 11, 2011}}</ref> Northerners traditionally controlled the country and have sought to unify it along the lines of |
Conflict in Sudan is rooted in cultural and religious differences.<ref name="U.S.DepartmentofState">{{cite web|url=http://www.state.gov/r/pa/ei/bgn/5424.htm|title=Background Note: Sudan|first=[[Bureau of African Affairs]]|date=November 9, 2010|publisher=[[United States Department of State]]|accessdate=April 11, 2011}}</ref> The country is most notably divided by the [[Arab Muslims]] of the north and the black [[Africans]] of the south who mainly practice [[Christian]] or [[animist]] beliefs.<ref name="World: Analysis Sudan: A Political and Military History">{{cite web|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/84927.stm|title=World: Analysis Sudan: a political and military history|first=BBC Research|date=February 21, 1999|publisher=[[British Broadcasting Corporation]]|accessdate=April 11, 2011}}</ref> Northerners traditionally controlled the country and have sought to unify it along the lines of [[Arabization]] and [[Islamization]], despite the opposition of non-Muslims, southerners, and marginalized peoples in the west and east.<ref name="U.S.DepartmentofState" /> |
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===Historical timeline=== |
===Historical timeline=== |
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{{See|War in Darfur}} |
{{See|War in Darfur}} |
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Since its independence from [[ |
Since its independence from [[British Empire|Britain]] and [[Egypt]] on January 1, 1956, Sudan has experienced two civil wars. The [[First Sudanese Civil War]] (1955 to 1972) started around the time of independence when the newly formed government failed to create a federal system. During this war there was a change of government; the policy of Arabization and Islamization was changed to one of [[communism]] and [[socialism]]. The civil war ended when the south was granted autonomy.<ref name="U.S.DepartmentofState" /> |
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The [[Second Sudanese Civil War]] began in 1983 and lasted 22 years. During this time |
The [[Second Sudanese Civil War]] began in 1983 and lasted 22 years. During this time a new civilian government was formed. Several peace-keeping efforts led to the signing of the [[Comprehensive Peace Agreement]] (CPA) that ended the war in 2005.<ref name="U.S.DepartmentofState" /> As a result of the second civil war and famine-related effects, more than four million people were displaced and there were more than two million deaths.<ref name="CIA">{{cite web|url=https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/su.html|title=The World Factbook - Sudan|publisher=[[Central Intelligence Agency]]|accessdate=April 11, 2011}}</ref> |
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| ⚫ | Much of the conflict in Sudan has resulted from a north-south divergence. In 2003 |
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[[File:Sudan Timeline.png|450px|center|thumb|Timeline of conflict in Sudan <ref name="U.S.DepartmentofState" />]] |
[[File:Sudan Timeline.png|450px|center|thumb|Timeline of conflict in Sudan <ref name="U.S.DepartmentofState" />]] |
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| ⚫ | Much of the conflict in Sudan has resulted from a north-south divergence. In 2003 a rebellion broke out in the marginalized [[Darfur]] region. This conflict has displaced nearly two million people and caused an estimated 200,000 to 400,000 deaths.<ref name="CIA" /> President [[Omar Al-Bashir]] has been accused of [[genocide]], [[war crimes]], and [[crimes against humanity]] by the [[International Criminal Court]].<ref name="U.S.DepartmentofState" /> |
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==U.S. foreign aid overview== |
==U.S. foreign aid overview== |
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{{See|History of U.S. foreign policy}} |
{{See|History of U.S. foreign policy}} |
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In 1961 |
In 1961 Congress passed the [[Foreign Assistance Act]], which separated the U.S.'s non-military and military foreign assistance programs. As part of the Act, the [[United States Agency for International Development]] (USAID) was created.<ref name="USAID history">{{cite web|url=http://www.usaid.gov/about_usaid/usaidhist.html|title=USAID History|publisher=[[United States Agency for International Development]]|accessdate=April 11, 2011}}</ref> This act was passed in the wake of the [[Marshall Plan]], in which the U.S provided aid to European countries devastated as a result of [[World War II]].<ref name="Britannica">{{cite web|url=http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/366654/Marshall-Plan|title=Marshall Plan|publisher=[[Encyclopædia Britannica Online]]|accessdate=April 11, 2011}}</ref> President [[John F. Kennedy]] supported the creation of USAID based on three tenets: |
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1. Current foreign aid programs were ill-equipped to meet the needs of the U.S and developing countries. |
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#Current foreign aid programs were ill-equipped to meet the needs of the U.S and developing countries. |
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#The 1960s was considered to be a good time for developed countries to assist developing countries.<ref name="USAID history"/> |
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===Current allocation to Sudan=== |
===Current allocation to Sudan=== |
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According to the U.S. embassy in [[Chad]], there are three key U.S. |
According to the U.S. embassy in [[Chad]], there are three key U.S. strategic objectives in Sudan: |
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# A definitive end to conflict, gross human rights abuses, and genocide in Darfur |
# A definitive end to conflict, gross human rights abuses, and genocide in Darfur<ref name="Sudan Strategic Objectives" /> |
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# Implementation of the |
# Implementation of the north-south CPA that results in a peaceful post-2011 Sudan, or an orderly path toward two separate and viable states at peace with each other<ref name="Sudan Strategic Objectives" /> |
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# Ensure that Sudan does not provide a safe haven for international terrorists |
# Ensure that Sudan does not provide a safe haven for international terrorists<ref name="Sudan Strategic Objectives">{{cite web|url=http://ndjamena.usembassy.gov/sudan-a_comprehensive_approach.html|title=Sudan— A Comprehensive Approach|publisher=[[United States Department of State]]|accessdate=April 11, 2011}}</ref> |
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The bulk of U.S. foreign aid to Sudan should, as a result, pertain to one or more of these objectives. The U.S also wants to encourage local governments to be more active in assisting its people in reaching these objectives.<ref name="Foreign Policy">{{cite web|url=http://thecable.foreignpolicy.com/posts/2009/10/19/clinton_rolls_out_new_sudan_policy|title=Clinton rolls out new Sudan policy|last=Rogin|first=Josh|date=October 19, 2009|publisher=[[Foreign Policy]]|accessdate=April 11, 2011}}</ref> |
The bulk of U.S. foreign aid to Sudan should, as a result, pertain to one or more of these objectives. The U.S. also wants to encourage local governments to be more active in assisting its people in reaching these objectives.<ref name="Foreign Policy">{{cite web|url=http://thecable.foreignpolicy.com/posts/2009/10/19/clinton_rolls_out_new_sudan_policy|title=Clinton rolls out new Sudan policy|last=Rogin|first=Josh|date=October 19, 2009|publisher=[[Foreign Policy]]|accessdate=April 11, 2011}}</ref> |
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As of 2010 |
As of 2010 the current allocation of U.S. foreign aid to Sudan is $420,349,319.<ref name="USAID Sudan report">{{cite web|url=http://www.usaid.gov/locations/sub-saharan_africa/sudan/|title=USAID: The Humanitarian Situation in Sudan|date=August 20, 2010|publisher=[[United States Agency for International Development]]|accessdate=April 11, 2011}}</ref> The U.S. had been involved with foreign aid to Sudan for many years. They gave close to $270 million between 1977-1981 and were Sudan's largest source of foreign aid by 1984. In the mid-1980s the U.S. provided Sudan with food aid, insecticides, and fertilizers. When Sudan failed to repay loans in 1985, the U.S. ceased all non-food aid. USAID continued to provide [[humanitarian assistance]] through 1991.<ref name="country data">{{cite web|url=http://www.country-data.com/cgi-bin/query/r-13371.html|title=Sudan—Foreign Aid|date=June 1991|publisher=Country Data|accessdate=April 11, 2011}}</ref> Since 2005 the U.S. government has contributed upwards of $8 billion in humanitarian aid as food aid, health care provisions, water, sanitation, and hygiene. They have also given money towards nutrition, agriculture, protection, and economic recovery programs.<ref name="U.S.DepartmentofState" /> A large portion of this funding is through USAID, which funds solely through bilateral programs rather than pooling efforts within multilateral organizations.<ref name="SudanFundingNeeds">{{cite web|url=http://pdf.usaid.gov/pdf_docs/PCAAC193.pdf|title=Southern Sudan: Funding according to need|last=Poole|first=Lydia|coauthors=Primrose, John|date=October 2010|publisher=Global Humanitarian Assistance|accessdate=April 11, 2011}}</ref> |
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====Programs==== |
====Programs==== |
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=====Peace and security===== |
=====Peace and security===== |
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A goal of USAID in Sudan is to build Sudanese capacity to address the causes and effects of political conflict, violence, and instability. USAID |
A goal of USAID in Sudan is to build local Sudanese capacity to address the causes and effects of political conflict, violence, and instability. USAID wants to strengthen consensus-building through political processes. Civil and community organizations in Darfur are also supported.<ref name="USAID Sudan report"/> |
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=====Governing justly and democratically===== |
=====Governing justly and democratically===== |
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=====Investing in people===== |
=====Investing in people===== |
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USAID focuses on health by supporting mother and child health services and reducing the impact of HIV/AIDS, malaria, tuberculosis, and other infectious diseases. It |
USAID focuses on health by supporting mother and child health services and reducing the impact of [[HIV/AIDS]], [[malaria]], [[tuberculosis]], and other infectious diseases. It supports training medical officers to increase access to health care and immunizations. To support education, it trains teachers, improves schools, and encourages parent participation in education. USAID also promotes education for girls.<ref name="USAID Sudan report"/> |
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=====Economic growth===== |
=====Economic growth===== |
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[[File:US Funding on Conflict Mitigation in Sudan.png|center|thumb|400px|Funding from 2006-2011<ref name="SudanForeignAssist" />]] |
[[File:US Funding on Conflict Mitigation in Sudan.png|center|thumb|400px|Funding from 2006-2011<ref name="SudanForeignAssist" />]] |
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In 2005 |
In 2005 USAID reported on its Sudanese funding strategy. Sudan the U.S. government's highest priority in Africa due to "its importance for counter-terrorism and regional stability, as well as the magnitude of human rights and humanitarian abuses".<ref name="SudanStrategy">{{cite web|url=http://www.usaid.gov/locations/sub-saharan_africa/countries/sudan/docs/sudan_strategy.pdf|title=USAID/Sudan 2006–08 Strategy Statement|date=December 2005|publisher=[[United States Agency for International Development]]|accessdate=April 11, 2011}}</ref> This explains the high level of U.S. funding, particularly within the peace and security sector, during the years immediately after the 2005 signing of the CPA in Sudan. The U.S. government's priority was to assist in the implementation of the agreement,<ref name="SudanForeignAssist">{{cite web|url=http://foreignassistance.gov/OU.aspx?OUID=168&FY=2011|title=Sudan|first=[[United States Department of State]]|coauthors=[[United States Agency for International Development]]|publisher=ForeignAssistance.gov|accessdate=April 11, 2011}}</ref> as Sudan's ability to achieve stability rested primarily on the CPA.<ref name="SudanStrategy" /> |
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Since 2007, of the $144.71 million of U.S. funding allocated towards |
Since 2007, of the $144.71 million of U.S. funding allocated towards conflict mitigation and reconciliation in Sudan, $141.77 million has gone towards the Economic Support Fund. USAID states the following as key objectives for the Economic Support Fund: |
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* Supporting strategically significant friends and allies through assistance designed to increase the role of the private sector in the economy, reduce government controls over markets, enhance job creation, and improve economic growth |
* Supporting strategically significant friends and allies through assistance designed to increase the role of the private sector in the economy, reduce government controls over markets, enhance job creation, and improve economic growth |
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* Developing and strengthening institutions necessary for sustainable democracy. Typical areas of assistance include technical assistance to administer and monitor elections, capacity building for non-governmental organizations, judicial training, and women's participation in politics. Assistance is also provided to support the transformation of the public sector to encourage democratic development, including training to improve public administration, promote decentralization, and strengthen local governments, parliaments, independent media and non-governmental organizations. |
* Developing and strengthening institutions necessary for sustainable democracy. Typical areas of assistance include technical assistance to administer and monitor elections, capacity building for non-governmental organizations, judicial training, and women's participation in politics. Assistance is also provided to support the transformation of the public sector to encourage democratic development, including training to improve public administration, promote decentralization, and strengthen local governments, parliaments, independent media and non-governmental organizations. |
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* Strengthening the capacity to manage the human dimension of the transition to democracy and a market economy and |
* Strengthening the capacity to manage the human dimension of the transition to democracy and a market economy and to help sustain the neediest sectors of the population during the transition period<ref name="ESFObj">{{cite web|url=http://www.usaid.gov/policy/budget/cbj2007/an/esf.html|title=Economic Support Fund|publisher=[[United States Agency for International Development]]|accessdate=April 11, 2011}}</ref> |
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One |
One use for these funds is to "assist countries and regions at risk of civil unrest by helping these |
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countries fight poverty, build democratic institutions to guarantee human rights, and provide basic |
countries fight poverty, build democratic institutions to guarantee human rights, and provide basic |
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services and economic opportunities to their populations."<ref name="ESF">{{cite web|url=http://www.usaid.gov/policy/budget/cbj2009/101425.pdf|title=Economic Support Fund|publisher=[[United States Agency for International Development]]|accessdate=April 11, 2011}}</ref> As Sudan falls under this description for "at-risk states", the Economic Support Fund will specifically help Sudan implement the CPA and support peace processes in Darfur. |
services and economic opportunities to their populations."<ref name="ESF">{{cite web|url=http://www.usaid.gov/policy/budget/cbj2009/101425.pdf|title=Economic Support Fund|publisher=[[United States Agency for International Development]]|accessdate=April 11, 2011}}</ref> As Sudan falls under this description for "at-risk states", the Economic Support Fund will specifically help Sudan implement the CPA and support peace processes in Darfur. |
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Overall U.S. funding for foreign aid to Sudan has decreased from $924.1 million in 2009 to $427.8 million in 2010, with the department requesting $440.0 million in 2011.<ref name="SudanForeignAssist" /> Of this funding, the amount allocated towards |
Overall U.S. funding for foreign aid to Sudan has decreased from $924.1 million in 2009 to $427.8 million in 2010, with the department requesting $440.0 million in 2011.<ref name="SudanForeignAssist" /> Of this funding, the amount allocated towards conflict mitigation and reconciliation in Sudan has fluctuated dramatically in recent years.<ref name="SudanForeignAssist" /> |
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U.S. funding for |
U.S. funding for conflict mitigation and reconciliation within Sudan falls under the umbrella of peace and security funding,<ref name="SudanForeignAssist" /> which is primarily administered by USAID and the [[United States Department of State]]. USAID defines its work for peace and security in Sudan in the following way: |
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"USAID works to strengthen Sudanese capacity to address the causes and consequences of political conflict, violence, and instability. This includes building the capacity of local authorities to deliver peace dividends and enforce the rule of law. USAID also assists existing mechanisms that support consensus-building through key political processes to mitigate potentially catalytic conflicts. In Darfur, USAID supports civil society and community organizations in early recovery and peace-building activities".<ref name="USAID Sudan report" /> |
"USAID works to strengthen Sudanese capacity to address the causes and consequences of political conflict, violence, and instability. This includes building the capacity of local authorities to deliver peace dividends and enforce the rule of law. USAID also assists existing mechanisms that support consensus-building through key political processes to mitigate potentially catalytic conflicts. In Darfur, USAID supports civil society and community organizations in early recovery and peace-building activities".<ref name="USAID Sudan report" /> |
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===Results=== |
===Results=== |
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The U.S. Department of State has a list of performance indicators used to determine the value of funding towards |
The U.S. Department of State has a list of performance indicators used to determine the value of funding towards peace and security objectives.<ref name="StatePSPerfIndic">{{cite web|url=http://www.state.gov/documents/organization/101762.pdf|title=Peace and Security: Indicators and Definitions|publisher=[[United States Department of State]]|accessdate=April 11, 2011}}</ref> The information used to assess performance is attained by Department of State agencies, its partners, and multilateral global bodies such as the [[United Nations]] and the [[World Bank]].<ref name="indicators">{{cite web|url=http://www.state.gov/f/indicators/|title=Standard Foreign Assistance Indicators|publisher=[[United States Department of State]]|accessdate=April 11, 2011}}</ref> |
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Because of the integrated approach to Sudanese funding from the U.S. and the global community as a whole, it is not possible to attribute specific results to U.S. funding for conflict mitigation and reconciliation in Sudan. |
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As program evaluations have become a higher priority for the U.S. government, quantifiable program results are beginning to |
As program evaluations have become a higher priority for the U.S. government, quantifiable program results are beginning to appear. In 2008 USAID funding towards Peace and Security in Sudan resulted in the following: |
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* strengthening 38 formal and informal peace-building and community-strengthening networks in Darfur, including neighborhood youth associations |
* strengthening 38 formal and informal peace-building and community-strengthening networks in Darfur, including neighborhood youth associations |
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* engagement of 102,407 people in community-based reconciliation projects throughout northern Sudan |
* engagement of 102,407 people in community-based reconciliation projects throughout northern Sudan |
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* construction of six early warning posts in volatile areas of the Greater Upper Nile |
* construction of six early warning posts in volatile areas of the Greater [[Upper Nile (state)|Upper Nile]]<ref name="USAID2010">{{cite web|url=http://www.reliefweb.int/rw/lib.nsf/db900sid/SNAA-7TR7XA/$file/usaid_ar2008.pdf?openelement|title=Fiscal Year 2008: Annual Performance Report|publisher=[[United States Agency for International Development]]|accessdate=April 11, 2011}}</ref> |
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===Reactions=== |
===Reactions=== |
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The |
The impact of U.S. aid to Sudan has been a controversial topic. A June 2010 USAID report stated "capacity building efforts in Southern Sudan are currently neither strategic nor focused. With few exceptions, [the] objectives are sweeping, unspecific, detached from actual performance, impossible to measure, and thus unlikely to succeed".<ref name="Newsweek">{{cite web|url=http://www.newsweek.com/2010/09/24/is-massive-u-s-aid-helping-south-sudan.html|title=Sorry, Sudan|last=Peraino|first=Kevin|date=September 24, 2010|publisher=[[Newsweek]]|accessdate=April 11, 2011}}</ref> One claim is that the capacity of the governmental bodies within Sudan are not enough to effectively use such funding. Aid money is either not provided where expected or used ineffectively and is therefore mostly wasted.<ref name="Newsweek" /> |
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Although not particularly linked to U.S. funding for |
Although not particularly linked to U.S. funding for conflict mitigation and reconciliation, one criticism of U.S. foreign aid towards Sudan has been in the use of such funding to provide assistance towards the [[Sudanese People's Liberation Army]] (SPLA), which enlists [[military use of children|child soldiers]]. As of December 2009, the SPLA included around 1,200 children—both boys and girls—aged between 12 and 17 years old.<ref name="ChildSold">{{cite web|url=http://www.commondreams.org/headline/2010/10/29-4|title=Child Soldiers 'No Bar' for US Aid|first=[[Al Jazeera English]]|date=October 29, 2010|publisher=[[Common Dreams NewsCenter]]|accessdate=April 11, 2011}}</ref> |
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==Other foreign aid to Sudan== |
==Other foreign aid to Sudan== |
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The U.S. has been the largest donor to Sudan in eight out of the 10 years between 2000 and 2009 and provided 33.9% of the total aid to Sudan in this period. The [[Eu institutions|European Union institutions]], which together make up the second largest donor, have provided 13.4% of the total |
The U.S. has been the largest donor to Sudan in eight out of the 10 years between 2000 and 2009 and provided 33.9% of the total aid to Sudan in this period. The [[Eu institutions|European Union institutions]], which together make up the second largest donor, have provided 13.4% of the total official development assistance between 2000 and 2009.<ref name="Sudan Aid Factsheet">{{cite web|url=http://www.globalhumanitarianassistance.org/wp-content/uploads/2011/02/Sudan-Aid-Factsheet-2011.pdf|title=Sudan Aid Factsheet 1995-2009|last=Poole|first=Lydia|publisher=Global Humanitarian Assistance|accessdate=April 11, 2011}}</ref> |
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Arab country governments, including [[Kuwait]], [[Saudi Arabia]] and [[United Arab Emirates]], made a large single contribution of U.S.$146.4 million in 2000 and a second large contribution of U.S.$81.8 million in 2008, but have otherwise been relatively small donors providing 2.3% of the total aid in the period 2000-2009.<ref name="Sudan Aid Factsheet" /> |
Arab country governments, including [[Kuwait]], [[Saudi Arabia]], and [[United Arab Emirates]], made a large single contribution of U.S.$146.4 million in 2000 and a second large contribution of U.S.$81.8 million in 2008, but have otherwise been relatively small donors, providing 2.3% of the total aid in the period 2000-2009.<ref name="Sudan Aid Factsheet" /> |
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{| class="wikitable" |
{| class="wikitable" |
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===United Nations=== |
===United Nations=== |
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The |
The United Nations has had a presence in Sudan since the 1950s and provided humanitarian assistance during the country's two civil wars. After the signing of the CPA in 2005, the UN coordinated planning and integration with government counterparts.<ref name="UN in Sudan">{{cite web|url=http://www.sd.undp.org/un_sudan.htm|title=The United Nations Serving Sudan For Over A Half-Century|publisher=[[United Nations Development Programme]]|accessdate=April 11, 2011}}</ref> Following the CPA, the UN established the following: |
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* The [[United Nations Mission in Sudan]] (UNMIS): consists of up to 10,000 military personnel, 715 police, and a large civilian component focused on the implementation of the CPA |
* The [[United Nations Mission in Sudan]] (UNMIS): consists of up to 10,000 military personnel, 715 police, and a large civilian component focused on the implementation of the CPA |
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====United Nations Development Assistance Framework==== |
====United Nations Development Assistance Framework==== |
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The [[United Nations Development Assistance Framework]] (UNDAF) is the common framework for all UN agencies working in Sudan. The overarching goal is consolidating peace and stability |
The [[United Nations Development Assistance Framework]] (UNDAF) is the common framework for all UN agencies working in Sudan. The overarching goal is consolidating peace and stability. The UN has identified four critical areas for 2009-2012:<ref name="UNDAF">{{cite web|url=http://www.unops.org/SiteCollectionDocuments/Information-disclosure/UNDAFs/Sudan-UNDAF-2009-2012.pdf|title=United Nations Development Assistance Framework (UNDAF) for Sudan 2009-2012|publisher=[[United Nations]]|accessdate=April 11, 2011}}</ref> |
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* Peace-building<ref name="UNDAF" /> |
* Peace-building<ref name="UNDAF" /> |
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* Governance and |
* Governance and rule of law<ref name="UNDAF" /> |
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* Livelihoods and |
* Livelihoods and productive sectors<ref name="UNDAF" /> |
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* Basic |
* Basic services<ref name="UNDAF" /> |
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Under the peace-building area, the UN has a goal that "by 2012, the environment for sustainable peace in Sudan is improved through increased respect for rights and human security, with special attention to individuals and communities directly affected by conflict".<ref name="UNDAF" /> Under this goal, the UN has identified three sub-outcomes: enhanced capacity of Sudanese society and |
Under the peace-building area, the UN has a goal that "by 2012, the environment for sustainable peace in Sudan is improved through increased respect for rights and human security, with special attention to individuals and communities directly affected by conflict".<ref name="UNDAF" /> Under this goal, the UN has identified three sub-outcomes: enhanced capacity of Sudanese society and government to use conflict mitigation; reduced threats from mines, explosive remnants of war, and small arms for those in conflict affected areas; and sustainable solutions for war-affected groups are supported by authorities at all levels and with active participation of communities.<ref name="UNDAF" /> |
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===Foreign aid workers expelled=== |
===Foreign aid workers expelled=== |
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In March 2009 |
In March 2009 Sudan President [[Omar al-Bashir]] ordered that all aid groups cease operations in Sudan within one year. Sudan had previously expelled 13 aid agencies, including [[Oxfam]], [[Save the Children]], and two branches of [[Medecins Sans Frontieres]].<ref name="BBC">{{cite web|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/7946306.stm|title=Sudan to 'expel all aid groups'|date=March 16, 2009|publisher=[[British Broadcasting Corporation]]|accessdate=April 11, 2011}}</ref> Some of these groups were given 24 hours to leave the country, and were told that the safety of their workers could not be guaranteed.<ref name="washington post">{{cite web|url=http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2009/03/04/AR2009030400870.html|title=Sudan Ousts Aid Groups After Court Pursues President|last=McCrummen|first=Stephanie|coauthors=Lynch, Colum|date=March 5, 2009|publisher=[[The Washington Post]]|accessdate=April 11, 2011}}</ref> Bashir accused aid groups of spying for the [[International Criminal Court]], which had issued a warrant for his arrest for alleged war crimes in Darfur. His statement was later clarified to say that the order did not apply to UN agencies.<ref name="BBC" /> |
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==See also== |
==See also== |
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Revision as of 23:18, 14 April 2011
 | The article's lead section may need to be rewritten. (March 2011) |
United States policy on conflict mitigation and reconciliation in Sudan is primarily focused on humanitarian aid with funds dispersed by the United States Agency for International Development (USAID). Due to cultural and religious differences between north and south Sudan, the country has been in conflict for much of the last 50 years. The United States is the largest donor of aid to Sudan, followed by nations from the European Union. The United Nations has a strong presence in Sudan focused on peace building, governance, livelihoods, and basic services. Most of the USAID funding for conflict mitigation and reconciliation in Sudan has gone towards the Economic Support Fund, which will help Sudan implement the Comprehensive Peace Agreement. Early results of the program indicated local involvement in peace keeping activities. Critics of U.S. aid to Sudan are concerned about a lack of focus and strategy as well as the funding of child soldiers in Sudan.
Background of conflict in Sudan
Sources of conflict
Conflict in Sudan is rooted in cultural and religious differences.[1] The country is most notably divided by the Arab Muslims of the north and the black Africans of the south who mainly practice Christian or animist beliefs.[2] Northerners traditionally controlled the country and have sought to unify it along the lines of Arabization and Islamization, despite the opposition of non-Muslims, southerners, and marginalized peoples in the west and east.[1]
Historical timeline
Since its independence from Britain and Egypt on January 1, 1956, Sudan has experienced two civil wars. The First Sudanese Civil War (1955 to 1972) started around the time of independence when the newly formed government failed to create a federal system. During this war there was a change of government; the policy of Arabization and Islamization was changed to one of communism and socialism. The civil war ended when the south was granted autonomy.[1]
The Second Sudanese Civil War began in 1983 and lasted 22 years. During this time a new civilian government was formed. Several peace-keeping efforts led to the signing of the Comprehensive Peace Agreement (CPA) that ended the war in 2005.[1] As a result of the second civil war and famine-related effects, more than four million people were displaced and there were more than two million deaths.[3]
Much of the conflict in Sudan has resulted from a north-south divergence. In 2003 a rebellion broke out in the marginalized Darfur region. This conflict has displaced nearly two million people and caused an estimated 200,000 to 400,000 deaths.[3] President Omar Al-Bashir has been accused of genocide, war crimes, and crimes against humanity by the International Criminal Court.[1]
U.S. foreign aid overview
History
In 1961 Congress passed the Foreign Assistance Act, which separated the U.S.'s non-military and military foreign assistance programs. As part of the Act, the United States Agency for International Development (USAID) was created.[4] This act was passed in the wake of the Marshall Plan, in which the U.S provided aid to European countries devastated as a result of World War II.[5] President John F. Kennedy supported the creation of USAID based on three tenets:
- Current foreign aid programs were ill-equipped to meet the needs of the U.S and developing countries.
- Allowing developing countries' economies to collapse would be "disastrous to our national security, harmful to our comparative prosperity, and offensive to our conscience."
- The 1960s was considered to be a good time for developed countries to assist developing countries.[4]
Current allocation to Sudan
According to the U.S. embassy in Chad, there are three key U.S. strategic objectives in Sudan:
- A definitive end to conflict, gross human rights abuses, and genocide in Darfur[6]
- Implementation of the north-south CPA that results in a peaceful post-2011 Sudan, or an orderly path toward two separate and viable states at peace with each other[6]
- Ensure that Sudan does not provide a safe haven for international terrorists[6]
The bulk of U.S. foreign aid to Sudan should, as a result, pertain to one or more of these objectives. The U.S. also wants to encourage local governments to be more active in assisting its people in reaching these objectives.[7]
As of 2010 the current allocation of U.S. foreign aid to Sudan is $420,349,319.[8] The U.S. had been involved with foreign aid to Sudan for many years. They gave close to $270 million between 1977-1981 and were Sudan's largest source of foreign aid by 1984. In the mid-1980s the U.S. provided Sudan with food aid, insecticides, and fertilizers. When Sudan failed to repay loans in 1985, the U.S. ceased all non-food aid. USAID continued to provide humanitarian assistance through 1991.[9] Since 2005 the U.S. government has contributed upwards of $8 billion in humanitarian aid as food aid, health care provisions, water, sanitation, and hygiene. They have also given money towards nutrition, agriculture, protection, and economic recovery programs.[1] A large portion of this funding is through USAID, which funds solely through bilateral programs rather than pooling efforts within multilateral organizations.[10]
Programs
USAID focuses on six main areas of development in Sudan.
Humanitarian assistance
USAID funds activities which support the CPA, long-term recovery, and a transition to a more peaceful and secure nation. USAID has been active in Darfur since 2004. $127.6 million for water sanitation, hygiene, health, shelter, and infrastructure was provided to Sudanese refugees in eastern Chad in 2009.[8]
Food aid
USAID has been Sudan's largest food aid donor since 2004. USAID provides an annual $30 million for a multi-year food aid development program as well as almost $680 million in emergency food aid. Darfur, displaced peoples and returnees, basic services, and food security are USAID's priorities.[8]
Peace and security
A goal of USAID in Sudan is to build local Sudanese capacity to address the causes and effects of political conflict, violence, and instability. USAID wants to strengthen consensus-building through political processes. Civil and community organizations in Darfur are also supported.[8]
Governing justly and democratically
USAID supports the CPA's core political processes. It strengthens the systems to meet the needs of citizens and government, as well as developing governmental priorities at multiple levels. In southern Sudan and three other areas, USAID assists with governmental transparency and increasing incomes. It also support elections, consultations, and referenda. A major goal is to promote participation in the civic process, consensus building, and international observation.[8]
Investing in people
USAID focuses on health by supporting mother and child health services and reducing the impact of HIV/AIDS, malaria, tuberculosis, and other infectious diseases. It supports training medical officers to increase access to health care and immunizations. To support education, it trains teachers, improves schools, and encourages parent participation in education. USAID also promotes education for girls.[8]
Economic growth
By improving infrastructure and connections from isolated communities, USAID creates a more favorable environment for market development. Improved land management for areas rich in biodiversity is also a focus.[8]
U.S. policy on conflict mitigation and reconciliation
History of funding for the program
In 2005 USAID reported on its Sudanese funding strategy. Sudan the U.S. government's highest priority in Africa due to "its importance for counter-terrorism and regional stability, as well as the magnitude of human rights and humanitarian abuses".[12] This explains the high level of U.S. funding, particularly within the peace and security sector, during the years immediately after the 2005 signing of the CPA in Sudan. The U.S. government's priority was to assist in the implementation of the agreement,[11] as Sudan's ability to achieve stability rested primarily on the CPA.[12]
Since 2007, of the $144.71 million of U.S. funding allocated towards conflict mitigation and reconciliation in Sudan, $141.77 million has gone towards the Economic Support Fund. USAID states the following as key objectives for the Economic Support Fund:
- Supporting strategically significant friends and allies through assistance designed to increase the role of the private sector in the economy, reduce government controls over markets, enhance job creation, and improve economic growth
- Developing and strengthening institutions necessary for sustainable democracy. Typical areas of assistance include technical assistance to administer and monitor elections, capacity building for non-governmental organizations, judicial training, and women's participation in politics. Assistance is also provided to support the transformation of the public sector to encourage democratic development, including training to improve public administration, promote decentralization, and strengthen local governments, parliaments, independent media and non-governmental organizations.
- Strengthening the capacity to manage the human dimension of the transition to democracy and a market economy and to help sustain the neediest sectors of the population during the transition period[13]
One use for these funds is to "assist countries and regions at risk of civil unrest by helping these countries fight poverty, build democratic institutions to guarantee human rights, and provide basic services and economic opportunities to their populations."[14] As Sudan falls under this description for "at-risk states", the Economic Support Fund will specifically help Sudan implement the CPA and support peace processes in Darfur.
Overall U.S. funding for foreign aid to Sudan has decreased from $924.1 million in 2009 to $427.8 million in 2010, with the department requesting $440.0 million in 2011.[11] Of this funding, the amount allocated towards conflict mitigation and reconciliation in Sudan has fluctuated dramatically in recent years.[11]
U.S. funding for conflict mitigation and reconciliation within Sudan falls under the umbrella of peace and security funding,[11] which is primarily administered by USAID and the United States Department of State. USAID defines its work for peace and security in Sudan in the following way:
"USAID works to strengthen Sudanese capacity to address the causes and consequences of political conflict, violence, and instability. This includes building the capacity of local authorities to deliver peace dividends and enforce the rule of law. USAID also assists existing mechanisms that support consensus-building through key political processes to mitigate potentially catalytic conflicts. In Darfur, USAID supports civil society and community organizations in early recovery and peace-building activities".[8]
Results
The U.S. Department of State has a list of performance indicators used to determine the value of funding towards peace and security objectives.[15] The information used to assess performance is attained by Department of State agencies, its partners, and multilateral global bodies such as the United Nations and the World Bank.[16]
Because of the integrated approach to Sudanese funding from the U.S. and the global community as a whole, it is not possible to attribute specific results to U.S. funding for conflict mitigation and reconciliation in Sudan.
As program evaluations have become a higher priority for the U.S. government, quantifiable program results are beginning to appear. In 2008 USAID funding towards Peace and Security in Sudan resulted in the following:
- strengthening 38 formal and informal peace-building and community-strengthening networks in Darfur, including neighborhood youth associations
- engagement of 102,407 people in community-based reconciliation projects throughout northern Sudan
- construction of six early warning posts in volatile areas of the Greater Upper Nile[17]
Reactions
The impact of U.S. aid to Sudan has been a controversial topic. A June 2010 USAID report stated "capacity building efforts in Southern Sudan are currently neither strategic nor focused. With few exceptions, [the] objectives are sweeping, unspecific, detached from actual performance, impossible to measure, and thus unlikely to succeed".[18] One claim is that the capacity of the governmental bodies within Sudan are not enough to effectively use such funding. Aid money is either not provided where expected or used ineffectively and is therefore mostly wasted.[18]
Although not particularly linked to U.S. funding for conflict mitigation and reconciliation, one criticism of U.S. foreign aid towards Sudan has been in the use of such funding to provide assistance towards the Sudanese People's Liberation Army (SPLA), which enlists child soldiers. As of December 2009, the SPLA included around 1,200 children—both boys and girls—aged between 12 and 17 years old.[19]
Other foreign aid to Sudan
The U.S. has been the largest donor to Sudan in eight out of the 10 years between 2000 and 2009 and provided 33.9% of the total aid to Sudan in this period. The European Union institutions, which together make up the second largest donor, have provided 13.4% of the total official development assistance between 2000 and 2009.[20]
Arab country governments, including Kuwait, Saudi Arabia, and United Arab Emirates, made a large single contribution of U.S.$146.4 million in 2000 and a second large contribution of U.S.$81.8 million in 2008, but have otherwise been relatively small donors, providing 2.3% of the total aid in the period 2000-2009.[20]
| Rank | Country | Total Assistance |
|---|---|---|
| 1 | United States | $901M |
| 2 | EU Institutions | $252M |
| 3 | United Kingdom | $246M |
| 4 | Netherlands | $127M |
| 5 | Japan | $124M |
| 6 | Norway | $106M |
| 7 | Canada | $94M |
| 8 | Arab Countries | $78M |
| 9 | Sweden | $60M |
| 10 | Germany | $47M |
United Nations
The United Nations has had a presence in Sudan since the 1950s and provided humanitarian assistance during the country's two civil wars. After the signing of the CPA in 2005, the UN coordinated planning and integration with government counterparts.[22] Following the CPA, the UN established the following:
- The United Nations Mission in Sudan (UNMIS): consists of up to 10,000 military personnel, 715 police, and a large civilian component focused on the implementation of the CPA
- Joint Assessment Mission for Sudan: designed to assess the country's reconstruction and development needs
- United Nations Development Assistance Framework (UNDAF) for 2009-2012: the strategic framework developed with the Government of National Unity and the Government of Southern Sudan for the activities and collaborative efforts of the UN system at the country level
- African Union/United Nations Hybrid operation in Darfur (UNAMID): placed 10,000 troops with the aim of bringing peace and stability to the Darfur region[22]
United Nations Development Assistance Framework
The United Nations Development Assistance Framework (UNDAF) is the common framework for all UN agencies working in Sudan. The overarching goal is consolidating peace and stability. The UN has identified four critical areas for 2009-2012:[23]
- Peace-building[23]
- Governance and rule of law[23]
- Livelihoods and productive sectors[23]
- Basic services[23]
Under the peace-building area, the UN has a goal that "by 2012, the environment for sustainable peace in Sudan is improved through increased respect for rights and human security, with special attention to individuals and communities directly affected by conflict".[23] Under this goal, the UN has identified three sub-outcomes: enhanced capacity of Sudanese society and government to use conflict mitigation; reduced threats from mines, explosive remnants of war, and small arms for those in conflict affected areas; and sustainable solutions for war-affected groups are supported by authorities at all levels and with active participation of communities.[23]
Foreign aid workers expelled
In March 2009 Sudan President Omar al-Bashir ordered that all aid groups cease operations in Sudan within one year. Sudan had previously expelled 13 aid agencies, including Oxfam, Save the Children, and two branches of Medecins Sans Frontieres.[24] Some of these groups were given 24 hours to leave the country, and were told that the safety of their workers could not be guaranteed.[25] Bashir accused aid groups of spying for the International Criminal Court, which had issued a warrant for his arrest for alleged war crimes in Darfur. His statement was later clarified to say that the order did not apply to UN agencies.[24]
See also
References
- ^ a b c d e f g "Background Note: Sudan". United States Department of State. November 9, 2010. Retrieved April 11, 2011.
{{cite web}}:|first=missing|last=(help); Check|first=value (help) - ^ "World: Analysis Sudan: a political and military history". British Broadcasting Corporation. February 21, 1999. Retrieved April 11, 2011.
{{cite web}}:|first=missing|last=(help) - ^ a b "The World Factbook - Sudan". Central Intelligence Agency. Retrieved April 11, 2011.
- ^ a b "USAID History". United States Agency for International Development. Retrieved April 11, 2011.
- ^ "Marshall Plan". Encyclopædia Britannica Online. Retrieved April 11, 2011.
- ^ a b c "Sudan— A Comprehensive Approach". United States Department of State. Retrieved April 11, 2011.
- ^ Rogin, Josh (October 19, 2009). "Clinton rolls out new Sudan policy". Foreign Policy. Retrieved April 11, 2011.
- ^ a b c d e f g h "USAID: The Humanitarian Situation in Sudan". United States Agency for International Development. August 20, 2010. Retrieved April 11, 2011.
- ^ "Sudan—Foreign Aid". Country Data. June 1991. Retrieved April 11, 2011.
- ^ Poole, Lydia (October 2010). "Southern Sudan: Funding according to need" (PDF). Global Humanitarian Assistance. Retrieved April 11, 2011.
{{cite web}}: Unknown parameter|coauthors=ignored (|author=suggested) (help) - ^ a b c d e "Sudan". ForeignAssistance.gov. Retrieved April 11, 2011.
{{cite web}}:|first=missing|last=(help); Check|first=value (help); Unknown parameter|coauthors=ignored (|author=suggested) (help) - ^ a b "USAID/Sudan 2006–08 Strategy Statement" (PDF). United States Agency for International Development. December 2005. Retrieved April 11, 2011.
- ^ "Economic Support Fund". United States Agency for International Development. Retrieved April 11, 2011.
- ^ "Economic Support Fund" (PDF). United States Agency for International Development. Retrieved April 11, 2011.
- ^ "Peace and Security: Indicators and Definitions" (PDF). United States Department of State. Retrieved April 11, 2011.
- ^ "Standard Foreign Assistance Indicators". United States Department of State. Retrieved April 11, 2011.
- ^ "Fiscal Year 2008: Annual Performance Report" (PDF). United States Agency for International Development. Retrieved April 11, 2011.
- ^ a b Peraino, Kevin (September 24, 2010). "Sorry, Sudan". Newsweek. Retrieved April 11, 2011.
- ^ "Child Soldiers 'No Bar' for US Aid". Common Dreams NewsCenter. October 29, 2010. Retrieved April 11, 2011.
{{cite web}}:|first=missing|last=(help); Check|first=value (help) - ^ a b Poole, Lydia. "Sudan Aid Factsheet 1995-2009" (PDF). Global Humanitarian Assistance. Retrieved April 11, 2011.
- ^ "Sudan". Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development. Retrieved April 11, 2011.
{{cite web}}:|first=missing|last=(help); Check|first=value (help); Unknown parameter|coauthors=ignored (|author=suggested) (help) - ^ a b "The United Nations Serving Sudan For Over A Half-Century". United Nations Development Programme. Retrieved April 11, 2011.
- ^ a b c d e f g "United Nations Development Assistance Framework (UNDAF) for Sudan 2009-2012" (PDF). United Nations. Retrieved April 11, 2011.
- ^ a b "Sudan to 'expel all aid groups'". British Broadcasting Corporation. March 16, 2009. Retrieved April 11, 2011.
- ^ McCrummen, Stephanie (March 5, 2009). "Sudan Ousts Aid Groups After Court Pursues President". The Washington Post. Retrieved April 11, 2011.
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