Jump to content

Chiropractic education: Difference between revisions

Edit links
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Browse history interactively
← Previous editNext edit →
Content deleted Content added
VisualWikitext
m →Components: clean-up
Neuraxis (talk | contribs)
2,086 edits
rmv merge with history, this is about schools of chiropractic (education). This article reflects current practices as well.
Line 1: Line 1:
{{db-histmerge|Schools of chiropractic}}
[[File:CMCC cauduceus.jpg|thumb|350px|Founded in 1945, the [[Canadian Memorial Chiropractic College]], in [[Toronto]], [[Ontario]], [[Canada]].]]
[[File:CMCC cauduceus.jpg|thumb|350px|Founded in 1945, the [[Canadian Memorial Chiropractic College]], in [[Toronto]], [[Ontario]], [[Canada]].]]
'''Schools of Chiropractic''' trains future chiropractors. The entry criteria, structure, teaching methodology and nature of chiropractic programs offered at chiropractic schools vary considerably around the world{{citation needed|date=February 2013}}. To help standardize chiropractic education, in 2005 the World Health Organization published guidelines for basic training in chiropractic. <ref name=WHO>http://www.who.int/medicines/areas/traditional/Chiro-Guidelines.pdf</ref> In general, the World Health Organization lists three potential educational paths involving full‐time chiropractic education across the globe. This includes: 1 – 4 years of pre-requisite training in basic sciences at university level followed by a 4 year full‐time Doctorate program; DC. A 5 year integrated bachelor degree; BSc (Chiro). A 2 - 3 year Masters program following the completion of a bachelor degree; MSc (Chiro).<ref name=WHO-guidelines/>
'''Schools of Chiropractic''' trains future chiropractors. The entry criteria, structure, teaching methodology and nature of chiropractic programs offered at chiropractic schools vary considerably around the world{{citation needed|date=February 2013}}. To help standardize chiropractic education, in 2005 the World Health Organization published guidelines for basic training in chiropractic. <ref name=WHO>http://www.who.int/medicines/areas/traditional/Chiro-Guidelines.pdf</ref> In general, the World Health Organization lists three potential educational paths involving full‐time chiropractic education across the globe. This includes: 1 – 4 years of pre-requisite training in basic sciences at university level followed by a 4 year full‐time Doctorate program; DC. A 5 year integrated bachelor degree; BSc (Chiro). A 2 - 3 year Masters program following the completion of a bachelor degree; MSc (Chiro).<ref name=WHO-guidelines/>

Revision as of 02:42, 19 February 2013

File:CMCC cauduceus.jpg
Founded in 1945, the Canadian Memorial Chiropractic College, in Toronto, Ontario, Canada.

Schools of Chiropractic trains future chiropractors. The entry criteria, structure, teaching methodology and nature of chiropractic programs offered at chiropractic schools vary considerably around the world[citation needed]. To help standardize chiropractic education, in 2005 the World Health Organization published guidelines for basic training in chiropractic. [1] In general, the World Health Organization lists three potential educational paths involving full‐time chiropractic education across the globe. This includes: 1 – 4 years of pre-requisite training in basic sciences at university level followed by a 4 year full‐time Doctorate program; DC. A 5 year integrated bachelor degree; BSc (Chiro). A 2 - 3 year Masters program following the completion of a bachelor degree; MSc (Chiro).[2]

Regardless of the model of education utilized, prospective chiropractors without relevant prior health care education or experience, must spend no less than 4200 student/teacher contact hours (or the equivalent) in four years of full‐time education. This includes a minimum of 1000 hours of supervised clinical training.[2] Health professionals with advanced clinical degrees, such as medical doctors, can meet the educational and clinical requirements to practice as a chiropractor in 2200 hours, which is most commonly done in countries where the profession is in its infancy.[1] Upon meeting all clinical and didactic requirements of chiropractic school, a degree in chiropractic medicine is granted.

Components

Basic sciences

Recognized programmes either require essential basic science components as prerequisites, or include necessary units of chemistry, physics and biology within the first‐year curriculum.

Pre-clinical sciences

The preclinical science components within chiropractic programmes generally include: anatomy, physiology, biochemistry, pathology, microbiology, pharmacology and toxicology, psychology, dietetics and nutrition, and public health.

Clinical sciences

Clinical science components would include or cover: history‐taking skills, general physical examination, laboratory diagnosis, differential diagnosis, radiology, neurology, rheumatology, eyes, ears, nose and throat, orthopaedics, basic paediatrics, basic geriatrics, basic gynaecology and obstetrics, and basic dermatology.[2]

Interventions

Chiropractic education and training prepares future chiropractors to be able multi-modal treatment approaches includes:

  • manual procedures, particularly spinal adjustment, spinal manipulation, other joint manipulation, joint mobilization, soft‐tissue and reflex techniques;
  • exercise, rehabilitative programmes and other forms of active care;
  • psychosocial aspects of patient management;
  • patient education on spinal health, posture, nutrition and other lifestyle modifications;
  • emergency treatment and acute pain management procedures as indicated;
  • other supportive measures, which may include the use of back supports and orthotics;
  • recognition of contraindications and risk management procedures, the limitations of chiropractic care, and of the need for protocols relating to referral to other health professionals.

Research

Contemporary chiropractic education emphasizes the importance of research in evaluating chiropractic management of neuromusculoskeletal and related disorders as well as critical thinking skills emphasized in evidence-based medicine. Chiropractic education regarding research includes:

  • basic research methodology and biostatistics;
  • interpretation of evidence‐based procedures/protocols and best‐practice principles;
  • an epidemiological approach to clinical record‐keeping, encouragement to document particular case‐studies and participate in field research projects;
  • development of a critical‐thinking approach in clinical decision‐making, the consideration of published papers and relevant clinical guidelines;
  • development of the necessary skills to keep abreast of the relevant current research and literature.

International degrees in Chiropractic

Degree Full Name Nation(s) in which it is awarded
B.App.Sc. (clin). & B.C.Sc. Bachelor of Applied Science (Clinical Science) & Bachelor of Chiropractic Science  Japan
B.Sc. (chiro) & B.C. Bachelor of Science (Chiropractic) & Bachelor of Chiropractic  Australia,  Japan
B.App.Sc. (Compl) & M.Clin.Chiro. Bachelor of Applied Science (Complementary Medicine) & Master of Clinical Chiropractic  Australia
B.Chiro. Bachelor of Chiropractic  New Zealand
B.Chiro. & M.Chiro Bachelor of Chiropractic & Master of Chiropractic  Australia
B.Sc. (Hons) Chiro Bachelor of Science (Hons) Chiropractic  Malaysia
B.Tech. (chiro) and M.Tech. (chiro) Bachelor in Technology (Chiropractic) & Master in Technology (Chiropractic)  South Africa
D.C. Doctor of Chiropractic  Brazil,  Canada,  France,  Japan,  Mexico,  South Korea,  Spain,  Sweden
M.C. or M.Chiro. Master of Chiropractic or Master in Chiropractic  Australia,  Switzerland,  United Kingdom
M.C.B. Master in Clinical Biomechanics  Denmark
M.Tech. (chiro) Master in Technology, Chiropractic  South Africa

Investigations

Spinal dysfunction/subluxation

Main article: Spinal dysfunction

Spinal dysfunction, dubbed subluxation by chiropractors, is hypothesized to interfere with optimal biomechanics, thereby altering proper neurological function. Chiropractic theory suggests spinal dysfunction/subluxation may contribute to neuromusculoskeletal and visceral disorders via aberrant spinal segmental and suprasegmental reflexes. While spinal manipulation is widely seen as a reasonable treatment option for biomechanical disorders of the spine, such as neck pain and low back pain, the use of spinal manipulation to treat non-musculoskeletal complaints remains controversial.[3] Chiropractors suggest spinal manipulation normalizes spine biomechanics, and as a consequence, normalizes afferent input to the central nervous system resulting in optimized neurological function and improved health outcomes.[4]

Manual and manipulative therapy

The medicinal use of spinal manipulation can be traced back over 3000 years to ancient Chinese writings. Hippocrates, the "father of medicine" used manipulative techniques,[5] as did the ancient Egyptians and many other cultures. A modern re-emphasis on manipulative therapy occurred in the late 19th century in North America with the emergence of the osteopathic medicine and chiropractic medicine.[6]It describes techniques where the hands are used to manipulate, massage, mobilize, adjust, stimulate, apply traction to, or otherwise influence the spine and related tissues.[7] Spinal manipulation gained mainstream recognition[8] and acceptance during the 1980s,[9]which has led to increased collaboration between chiropractors and medical doctors. Currently they are developing inter-professional pathways of care for manual and conservative treatment of neuromusculoskeletal disorders.[10][11][12] It is the most common intervention used in chiropractic care. [13] In North America, chiropractors perform over 90% of all manipulative treatments[14] with the balance provided by osteopathic medicine and physical therapy. Manipulation under anesthesia or MUA is a specialized manipulative procedure that typically occurs in hospitals administered under general anesthesia.[15] Typically, it is performed on patients who have failed to respond to other forms of treatment.[16] There has been considerable debate on the safety of spinal manipulation, in particular with the cervical spine.[17] Although serious injuries and fatal consequences can occur and are likely to be under-reported,[18] these are generally considered to be rare when spinal manipulation is employed skillfully and appropriately.[2]

Safety

The safe application of spinal manipulation requires a thorough medical history, assessment, diagnosis and plan of management. Manipulative therapists, including chiropractors, must rule out contraindications to HVLA spinal manipulative techniques. Absolute contraindications refers to diagnoses and conditions that put the patient at risk to developing adverse events. For example, a diagnosis of rheumatoid arthritis and other conditions that structurally destabilizes joints, is an absolute contraindication of SMT to the upper cervical spine. Relative contraindications, such as osteoporosis are conditions where increased risk is acceptable in some situations and where mobilization and soft-tissue techniques would be treatments of choice. Most contraindication apply only to the manipulation of the affected region.[19]

Adverse events in spinal manipulation studies are believed to be under-reported [20] and appear to be more common following HVLA manipulation than mobilization.[21] Mild, frequent and temporary adverse events occur in SMT which include temporary increase in pain, tenderness and stiffness.[17] These events typically dissipates within 24–48 hours [22] Serious injuries and fatal consequences , especially to SM in the upper cervical region, can occur.[23] but are regarded as rare when spinal manipulation is employed skillfully and appropriately.[19]

There is considerable debate regarding the relationship of spinal manipulation to the upper cervical spine and stroke. Stroke is statistically associated with both general practitioner and chiropractic services in persons under 45 years of age suggesting that these associations are likely explained by preexisting conditions.[24][25][26] Weak to moderately strong evidence supports causation (as opposed to statistical association) between cervical manipulative therapy and vertebrobasilar artery stroke.[27] A 2012 systematic review determined that there is insufficient evidence to support a strong association or no association between cervical manipulation and stroke.[28]

Evidence-based practice guidelines

The 1990s resulted in a growing scholarly interest in chiropractic, which helped efforts to improve service quality and establish clinical guidelines. In the current advent of the evidence-based medicine era, chiropractic scholars have generated evidence-based systematic reviews and practice guidelines with respect to the management of acute and chronic low back pain,[29][30] thoracic pain, neck pain,[31] headache,[32] radiography,[33] [34] [35] as well as extremity conditions;[36][37] tendinopathy[38] myofascial pain/trigger points,[39] and non-musculoskeletal conditions.[40]


Licensure and regulation

See also: List of chiropractic schools

Regulations for chiropractic practice vary considerably from country to country. In some countries, such as. the United States of America, Canada and some European countries, chiropractic has been legally recognized and formal university degrees have been established. In these countries, the profession is regulated and the prescribed educational qualifications are generally consistent, satisfying the requirements of the respective accrediting agencies.  However, many countries have not yet developed chiropractic education or established laws to regulate the qualified practice of chiropractic. In addition, in some countries, other qualified health professionals and lay practitioners may use techniques of spinal manipulation and claim to provide chiropractic services, although they may not have received chiropractic training in an accredited programme.

United States

Graduates of chiropractic schools receive the degree Doctor of Chiropractic (DC), are referred to as doctor, and are eligible to seek licensure in all jurisdictions. The Council on Chiropractic Education (CCE) sets minimum guidelines for chiropractic colleges,[41] but additional requirements may be needed for a license depending on the jurisdiction where a chiropractor chooses to practice.[citation needed] All 18 chiropractic institutions are accredited by the CCE.[42] The minimum prerequisite for enrollment in a chiropractic college set forth by the CCE is 90 semester hours, and the minimum cumulative GPA for a student entering is 3.0 on a 4.0 scale.[3] Common prerequisite classes include those of the biological, chemical, & physical sciences, including: human anatomy and physiology, embryology, genetics, microbiology, immunology, cellular biology, exercise physiology, kinesiology, general chemistry, organic chemistry, analytical chemistry, biochemistry, toxicology/pharmacology, nutrition, nuclear medicine, physics, biomechanics, and statistics.[43] American chiropractic schools tend to have lower entry requirements than medical or dental schools.[44] In 2005, only one chiropractic college required a bachelors degree as an admission requirement.[45]

Australia

In Australia, a minimum of five-years worth of chiropractic education is needed before one may register as a practicing chiropractor. Chiropractic is taught at four public universities: RMIT in Melbourne, Murdoch University in Perth, Macquarie University in Sydney and new in 2012 Central Queensland University in Mackay. The RMIT, UCQ and Macquarie programs graduate chiropractors with a bachelors degree followed by a masters degree while Murdoch University graduates attain a double bachelors degree, any of which is necessary for registration with state registration boards.[46]

A graduate of RMIT will have attained a Bachelor of Applied Science (Chiropractic) and a Master of Clinical Chiropractic.[47] Similarly, a typical graduate of Macquarie University will have a Bachelor of Chiropractic Science followed by a Master of Chiropractic.[48] Murdoch University graduates possess the double-degree of Bachelor of Science (Chiropractic Science) / Bachelor of Chiropractic.[49] Students at University of Central Queensland graduate with a Bachelor of Science (Chiropractic) followed by a Master of Chiropractic Science.[50]

Canada

There are currently two schools of chiropractic in Canada: Canadian Memorial Chiropractic College, in Toronto, Ontario and the Universite du Quebec a Trois Rivieres, in Trois Rivieres, Quebec. Both programs are fully accredited by the Canadian Federation of Chiropractic Regulatory and Educational Accrediting Boards.[51] In 2010, the majority of students (87%) entering the CMCC program had completed a baccalaureate university degree, and approximately 3% have a graduate degree.[52] The CMCC program is a privately funded institution and requires four years of full-time study, including a 12-month clinical internship.[53] The UQTR and CMCC programs both include courses in anatomy, biochemistry, embryology, immunology, microbiology, neurology, clinical nutrition, pathology, physiology, principles of chiropractic, radiology, and other basic and clinical medical sciences.[54]

Pilot projects involving doctors of chiropractic in hospital emergency rooms in the province of Ontario are underway.[55]Canadian Chiropractic Examining Board requires all candidates to complete a 12 month clinical internship to obtain licensure, as well as write a total of three exams in their fourth year of study. Candidates must successfully pass Components A and B (Written Cognitive Skills Examination) to be eligible for the Clinical Skills Examination.[56] Canadian accrediting standards are higher than the United States, and admission requirements into the Doctorate of Chiropractic Degree program are the strictest in North America.[57]

South Africa

In SA (South Africa) there are two schools of chiropractic: the Durban Institute of Technology and the University of Johannesburg.[58] They are both 6-year full-time courses leading to an MTECH or Masters of technology in Chiropractic. It's a legal requirement that chiropractors must be registered with the Allied Health Professions Council of SA (AHPCSA) the governmental statutory body in order to practice Chiropractic in SA. Being a member of the Chiropractic Association of SA (CASA) is voluntary. CASA is the only voluntary national association in the country and aims to promote the profession through publications in newspaper, interviews, internet and public enquires over the phone.

United Kingdom

In 1993, HRH Princess Diana visited the Anglo-European College of Chiropractic and became its patron. She also appeared at a news conference that launched a report calling for legislation to prevent unqualified individuals from practicing Chiropractic in the UK.[59] In 1994, Parliament passed legislation regulating the practice of Chiropractic, like other health care professions, and creating the General Chiropractic Council as the regulatory board. Since that time, it is illegal to call oneself a Chiropractor in the UK without being registered with the General Chiropractic Council.[60] There are three UK chiropractic colleges with chiropractic courses recognised by the General Chiropractic Council (GCC), the statutory governmental body responsible for the regulation of chiropractic in the UK.[61]

The McTimoney College of Chiropractic offers an Undergraduate Master Degree in human Chiropractic and two post-graduate Masters programmes in Animal Manipulation, plus a masters in Paediatric Chiropractic.[62] The Anglo-European College of Chiropractic graduates chiropractors with an undergraduate Masters degree (MChiro). The WIOC has also recently changed from a Bsc to an Mchiro programme.[citation needed]

It is a legal requirement that all chiropractors in the UK register with the GCC to practice. A minimum of 30 hours per annum Continuing Professional Development is required to retain registration.[63]

New Zealand

The College was formed in 1994 by the New Zealand Chiropractors’ Association (NZCA) to address the demand created by a shortage of chiropractors in New Zealand. Its first location was in Auckland city and its founding President was Dr Jim Stinear. By the end of 1999 New Zealand Qualifications Authority (NZQA) approval of the BSc (Chiropractic) /BSc qualification had been gained and College ownership was transferred to the NZCA Chiropractic Education Trust, a not-for-profit organisation. In 2002 the College was renamed the New Zealand College of Chiropractic. In 2005 the College obtained its first accreditation by the CCEA (Council on Chiropractic Education Australasia). The College was re-accredited in 2007 and in the same year moved to its new campus in Mount Wellington.

Fellowships and scholarly designations

Chiropractors, like other health care professionals, can pursue post-graduate education in various chiropractic specialties such as animal chiropractic, sports chiropractic as well as clinical sciences, radiology and others. There are some other chiropractic credentials, however, that are not recognized by the major health care organizations, medical or chiropractic communities. The following is a comprehensive list of the various designations that chiropractors can attain with further continuing and post-graduate education programmes.

Accreditation

Main article: Councils on Chiropractic Education International

Chiropractic is governed internationally by the Councils on Chiropractic Education International (CCEI). This body is officially recognized by the World Federation of Chiropractic and the World Health Organization as the accrediting agency for schools of chiropractic across the world. In 2005, in efforts to improving the consistency and equivalency in chiropractic schools, the basic training and safety were developed.[64]

See also

References

  1. ^ a b http://www.who.int/medicines/areas/traditional/Chiro-Guidelines.pdf
  2. ^ a b c d World Health Organization (2005). "WHO guidelines on basic training and safety in chiropractic" (PDF). Retrieved 2008-03-03. {{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help)
  3. ^ "Visceral responses to spinal manipulation". J Electromyogr Kinesiol. 22 (5): 777–784. 2012. PMID 22440554. {{cite journal}}: |access-date= requires |url= (help); Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help); Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)
  4. ^ "The effects of spinal manipulation on central integration of dual somatosensory input observed after motor training: a crossover study". JMPT. 33 (4): 261–272. 2010. {{cite journal}}: |access-date= requires |url= (help); Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
  5. ^ Swedlo DC (2002). "The historical development of chiropractic" (PDF). In Whitelaw WA (ed.) (ed.). Proc 11th Annual History of Medicine Days. Faculty of Medicine, The University of Calgary. pp. 55–58. Retrieved 2008-05-14. {{cite conference}}: |editor= has generic name (help); Unknown parameter |booktitle= ignored (|book-title= suggested) (help)
  6. ^ Keating JC Jr (2003). "Several pathways in the evolution of chiropractic manipulation". J Manipulative Physiol Ther. 26 (5): 300–21. doi:10.1016/S0161-4754(02)54125-7. PMID 12819626.
  7. ^ Winkler K, Hegetschweiler-Goertz C, Jackson PS; et al. (2003). "Spinal manipulation policy statement" (PDF). American Chiropractic Association. Retrieved 2008-05-24. {{cite web}}: Explicit use of et al. in: |author= (help)CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  8. ^ Francis RS (2005). "Manipulation under anesthesia: historical considerations". International MUA Academy of Physicians. Retrieved 2008-07-06.
  9. ^ Francis RS (2005). "Manipulation under anesthesia: historical considerations". International MUA Academy of Physicians. Retrieved 2008-07-06.
  10. ^ DeVocht JW (2006). "History and overview of theories and methods of chiropractic: a counterpoint". Clin Orthop Relat Res. 444: 243–9. doi:10.1097/01.blo.0000203460.89887.8d. PMID 16523145.
  11. ^ "Designing a framework for the delivery of collaborative musculoskeletal care involving chiropractors and physicians in community-based primary care". J Interprof Care. 24 (6): 678–89. 2010. PMID 20441400. {{cite journal}}: |access-date= requires |url= (help); Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help); Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)
  12. ^ "Changes in primary care physician's management of low back pain in a model of interprofessional collaborative care: an uncontrolled before-after study". Chiropr Man Therap. 21 (1). 2013. {{cite journal}}: |access-date= requires |url= (help); Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help); Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)
  13. ^ Christensen MG, Kollasch MW (2005). "Professional functions and treatment procedures". Job Analysis of Chiropractic. Greeley, CO: National Board of Chiropractic Examiners. pp. 121–38. ISBN 1-884457-05-3. {{cite book}}: |access-date= requires |url= (help); |format= requires |url= (help); External link in |chapterurl= (help); Unknown parameter |chapterurl= ignored (|chapter-url= suggested) (help)[dead link]
  14. ^ "About chiropractic and its use in treating low-back pain" (PDF). NCCAM. 2005. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2008-02-27. Retrieved 2008-03-24.
  15. ^ Cremata E, Collins S, Clauson W, Solinger AB, Roberts ES (2005). "Manipulation under anesthesia: a report of four cases". J Manipulative Physiol Ther. 28 (7): 526–33. doi:10.1016/j.jmpt.2005.07.011. PMID 16182028.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  16. ^ Michaelsen MR (2000). "Manipulation under joint anesthesia/analgesia: a proposed interdisciplinary treatment approach for recalcitrant spinal axis pain of synovial joint origin". J Manipulative Physiol Ther. 23 (2): 127–9. doi:10.1016/S0161-4754(00)90082-4. PMID 10714542.
  17. ^ a b Ernst, E (2007). "Adverse effects of spinal manipulation: a systematic review". Journal of the Royal Society of Medicine. 100 (7): 330–8. doi:10.1258/jrsm.100.7.330. ISSN 0141-0768. PMC 1905885. PMID 17606755. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |laydate= ignored (help); Unknown parameter |laysource= ignored (help); Unknown parameter |laysummary= ignored (help); Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)
  18. ^ E Ernst (2010). "Deaths after chiropractic: a review of published cases". Int J Clinical Practice. 64 (8): 1162–1165. doi:10.1111/j.1742-1241.2010.02352.x. PMID 20642715.
  19. ^ a b Anderson-Peacock E, Blouin JS, Bryans R; et al. (2005). "Chiropractic clinical practice guideline: evidence-based treatment of adult neck pain not due to whiplash" (PDF). J Can Chiropr Assoc. 49 (3): 158–209. PMC 1839918. PMID 17549134. {{cite journal}}: Explicit use of et al. in: |author= (help)CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
    • Anderson-Peacock E, Bryans B, Descarreaux M; et al. (2008). "A Clinical Practice Guideline Update from The CCA•CFCREAB-CPG" (PDF). J Can Chiropr Assoc. 52 (1): 7–8. PMC 2258235. PMID 18327295. {{cite journal}}: Explicit use of et al. in: |author= (help)CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  20. ^ Ernst E, Posadzki P (2012). "Reporting of adverse effects in randomised clinical trials of chiropractic manipulations: a systematic review". N Z Med J. 125 (1353): 87–140. PMID 22522273.
  21. ^ Hurwitz EL, Morgenstern H, Vassilaki M, Chiang LM (2005). "Frequency and clinical predictors of adverse reactions to chiropractic care in the UCLA neck pain study". Spine. 30 (13): 1477–84. doi:10.1097/01.brs.0000167821.39373.c1. PMID 15990659. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  22. ^ Gouveia LO, Castanho P, Ferreira JJ (2009). "Safety of chiropractic interventions: a systematic review". Spine. 34 (11): E405–13. doi:10.1097/BRS.0b013e3181a16d63. PMID 19444054.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  23. ^ Thiel HW, Bolton JE, Docherty S, Portlock JC (2007). "Safety of chiropractic manipulation of the cervical spine: a prospective national survey". Spine. 32 (21): 2375–8. doi:10.1097/BRS.0b013e3181557bb1. PMID 17906581.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  24. ^ Hurwitz EL, Carragee EJ, van der Velde G; et al. (2008). "Treatment of neck pain: noninvasive interventions: results of the Bone and Joint Decade 2000–2010 Task Force on Neck Pain and Its Associated Disorders". Spine. 33 (4 Suppl): S123–52. doi:10.1097/BRS.0b013e3181644b1d. PMID 18204386. {{cite journal}}: Explicit use of et al. in: |author= (help)CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  25. ^ Paciaroni M, Bogousslavsky J (2009). "Cerebrovascular complications of neck manipulation". Eur Neurol. 61 (2): 112–8. doi:10.1159/000180314. PMID 19065058.
  26. ^ Cassidy, JD (15). "Risk of vertebrobasilar stroke and chiropractic care: results of a population-based case-control and case-crossover study". Spine. 33 (4 Suppl): S176-83. PMID 18204390. {{cite journal}}: |access-date= requires |url= (help); Check date values in: |date= and |year= / |date= mismatch (help); Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help); Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)
  27. ^ Miley ML, Wellik KE, Wingerchuk DM, Demaerschalk BM (2008). "Does cervical manipulative therapy cause vertebral artery dissection and stroke?". Neurologist. 14 (1): 66–73. doi:10.1097/NRL.0b013e318164e53d. PMID 18195663.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  28. ^ Haynes MJ, Vincent K, Fischhoff C, Bremner AP, Lanlo O, Hankey GJ. (2012). "Assessing the risk of stroke from neck manipulation: a systematic review". International Journal of Clinical Practice. 66 (10): 940–947. doi:10.1111/j.1742-1241.2012.03004.x. PMID 22994328.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  29. ^ "Management of chronic spine-related conditions: consensus recommendations of a multidisciplinary panel". JMPT. 33 (7): 484–492. 2010. PMID 20937426. {{cite journal}}: |access-date= requires |url= (help); Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help); Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)
  30. ^ "Chiropractic management of low back disorders: report from a consensus process". JMPT. 31 (9): 651–658. 2008. PMID 19028249. {{cite journal}}: |access-date= requires |url= (help); Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help); Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)
  31. ^ "Chiropractic clinical practice guideline: evidence-based treatment of adult neck pain not due to whiplash". JCCA. 49 (3): 158-209. 2005. PMID 17549134. {{cite journal}}: |access-date= requires |url= (help); Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help); Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)
  32. ^ "Evidence-based guidelines for the chiropractic treatment of adults with headache". J Manipulative Physiol Ther. 34 (5): 274–89. 2011. PMID 21640251. {{cite journal}}: |access-date= requires |url= (help); Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help); Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)
  33. ^ "Diagnostic imaging guideline for musculoskeletal complaints in adults-an evidence-based approach-part 2: upper extremity disorders". J Manipulative Physiol Ther. 31 (1): 2–32. 2008. PMID 18308152. {{cite journal}}: |access-date= requires |url= (help); Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help); Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)
  34. ^ "Diagnostic imaging practice guidelines for musculoskeletal complaints in adults-an evidence-based approach-part 3: spinal disorders". JMPT. 31 (1): 33–88. 2008. PMID 18308153. {{cite journal}}: |access-date= requires |url= (help); Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help); Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)
  35. ^ "Diagnostic imaging practice guidelines for musculoskeletal complaints in adults--an evidence-based approach: introduction". JMPT. 30 (9): 617-83. 2007. {{cite journal}}: |access-date= requires |url= (help); Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help); Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)
  36. ^ "Manipulative therapy for lower extremity conditions: expansion of literature review". JMPT. 32 (1): 53–71. 2009. PMID 19121464. {{cite journal}}: |access-date= requires |url= (help); Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help); Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)
  37. ^ "Chiropractic treatment of upper extremity conditions: a systematic review". JMPT. 31 (2): 146–159. 2008. PMID 18328941. {{cite journal}}: |access-date= requires |url= (help); Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help); Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)
  38. ^ "Chiropractic management of tendinopathy: a literature synthesis". JMPT. 32 (1): 41–52. 2009. PMID 19121463. {{cite journal}}: |access-date= requires |url= (help); Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help); Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)
  39. ^ "Chiropractic management of myofascial trigger points and myofascial pain syndrome: a systematic review of the literature". JMPT. 32 (1): 14–24. 2009. PMID 19121461. {{cite journal}}: |access-date= requires |url= (help); Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help); Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)
  40. ^ "Chiropractic care for nonmusculoskeletal conditions: a systematic review with implications for whole systems research". J Altern Complement Med. 13 (5): 491–512. 2007. PMID 17604553. {{cite journal}}: |access-date= requires |url= (help); Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help); Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)
  41. ^ http://www.cce-usa.org/uploads/2007_January_STANDARDS.pdf
  42. ^ "Doctor of Chiro Programs". Cce-usa.org. Retrieved 2012-09-16.
  43. ^ "Admissions Requirements - D.C". Palmer.edu. Retrieved 2012-09-16.
  44. ^ Cherkin. "Chiropractic in the United States: Training, Practice, and Research" (PDF). Retrieved 18 February 2013. {{cite web}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
  45. ^ Wyatt, Lawrence H (2005-07-07). "The necessary future of chiropractic education: a North American perspective". Chiropractic & Osteopathy. 13 (10): 10. doi:10.1186/1746-1340-13-10. PMC 1181629. PMID 16001976. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)CS1 maint: unflagged free DOI (link)
  46. ^ [1][dead link]
  47. ^ RMIT Chiropractic
  48. ^ Macquarie University Department of Chiropractic
  49. ^ Murdoch University Chiropractic
  50. ^ CQU - Bachelor of Science (Chiropractic)
  51. ^ "Accreditation of Educational Programmes". Canadian Federation of Chiropractic Regulatory and Educational Accrediting Boards. Retrieved 2009-10-16.
  52. ^ "An Overview of CMCC Admissions - Shortcuts: Admissions Brochure". Canadian Memorial Chiropractic College. Retrieved 2011-08-21.
  53. ^ "Undergraduate education". Canadian Memorial Chiropractic College. Retrieved 2011-08-21.
  54. ^ "Becoming a Chiropractor". Ontario Chiropractic Association. Retrieved 2009-10-16.
  55. ^ "Chiropractic Services". St. Michael's Health Centre. Retrieved 2011-11-08.
  56. ^ Canadian Chiropractic Examining Board
  57. ^ [2]
  58. ^ "CASA : Student Info". Retrieved 2009-10-19.
  59. ^ Staff (June 18, 1993). "Chiropractic Report Calls for Registry of DCs in United Kingdom". Dynamic Chiropractic. 11 (13).
  60. ^ "Regulation of chiropractic". Retrieved 12/02/2009. {{cite web}}: Check date values in: |accessdate= (help)
  61. ^ GCC Criteria for Recognition of Degrees in Chiropractic
  62. ^ McTimoney College Prospectus
  63. ^ GCC Continuing Professional Development
  64. ^ "Basic training and safety in chiropractic". World Health Organization. Retrieved 16 February 2013.
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Chiropractic_education&oldid=538973941"