Environmental impact of fracking: Difference between revisions
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== Seismology == |
== Seismology == |
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Hydraulic fracturing causes [[induced seismicity]] called microseismic events or [[microearthquake]]s. The magnitude of these events is usually too small to be detected at the surface, although the biggest micro-earthquakes may have the magnitude of about -1.6 [[Moment magnitude scale|(M<sub>w</sub>)]]. The injection of waste water from gas operations, including from hydraulic fracturing, into saltwater disposal wells may cause bigger low-magnitude [[earthquake|tremor]]s, being registered up to 3.3 (M<sub>w</sub>).<ref name=worldwatch/> |
Hydraulic fracturing causes [[induced seismicity]] called microseismic events or [[microearthquake]]s. These microseismic events are often used to map the horizontal and vertical extent of the fracturing.<ref name="Oilfield Review 2005/2006"/> The magnitude of these events is usually too small to be detected at the surface, although the biggest micro-earthquakes may have the magnitude of about -1.6 [[Moment magnitude scale|(M<sub>w</sub>)]]. However, as of late 2012, there have been three instances of hydraulic fracturing, through [[induced seismicity]], triggering quakes large enough to be felt by people: one each in the United States, Canada, and England.<ref name="Kim" /><ref name="AutoZV-36"/><ref name="Reuters07122013" /> The injection of waste water from gas operations, including from hydraulic fracturing, into saltwater disposal wells may cause bigger low-magnitude [[earthquake|tremor]]s, being registered up to 3.3 (M<sub>w</sub>).<ref name=worldwatch/> |
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A 2012 US Geological Survey study reported that a "remarkable" increase in the rate of M ≥ 3 earthquakes in the US midcontinent "is currently in progress", having started in 2001 and culminating in a 6-fold increase over 20th century levels in 2011. The overall increase was tied to earthquake increases in a few specific areas: the Raton Basin of southern Colorado (site of coalbed methane activity), and gas-producing areas in central and southern Oklahoma, and central Arkansas.<ref name=ellsworth/> While analysis suggested that the increase is "almost certainly man-made", the USGS noted: "USGS's studies suggest that the actual hydraulic fracturing process is only very rarely the direct cause of felt earthquakes." The increased earthquakes were said to be most likely caused by increased injection of gas-well wastewater into disposal wells.<ref>US Geological Survey, [http://www.usgs.gov/blogs/features/usgs_top_story/man-made-earthquakes/ Man-made earthquakes], accessed 22 Sept. 2013.</ref> The injection of waste water from oil and gas operations, including from hydraulic fracturing, into saltwater disposal wells may cause bigger low-magnitude [[earthquake|tremors]], being registered up to 3.3 (M<sub>w</sub>).<ref name = worldwatch /> |
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A report in the UK concluded that fracking was the likely cause of some small earth tremors that happened during shale gas drilling.<ref name="BBC 08.06.2012"/><ref name="AutoZV-34"/><ref name="AutoZV-35"/> In addition, the [[United States Geological Survey]] (USGS) reports that, "Earthquakes induced by human activity have been documented in a few locations" in the United States, Japan, and Canada, "the cause [of which] was injection of fluids into deep wells for waste disposal and secondary recovery of oil, and the use of reservoirs for water supplies."<ref name="AutoZV-36"/> The disposal and injection wells referenced are regulated under the Safe Drinking Water Act and UIC laws and are not wells where hydraulic fracturing is generally performed.{{Citation needed|date=February 2012}} |
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====Induced seismicity from hydraulic fracturing==== |
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Several earthquakes—including a [[Richter magnitude scale|magnitude 4.0]] one on New Year's Eve—that had hit Youngstown, [[Ohio]], throughout 2011 are likely linked to a disposal well for injecting wastewater used in the hydraulic fracturing process, according to seismologists at [[Columbia University]].<ref name="AutoZV-37"/> Consequently, Ohio has since tightened its rules regarding the wells,<ref name="Fountain03102012"/> increased fees, and is considering a moratorium on waste injection wells.<ref name="Fountain03102012"/> |
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The [[United States Geological Survey]] (USGS) has reported earthquakes induced by hydraulic fracturing and by disposal of hydraulic fracturing flowback into waste disposal wells in several locations. Bill Ellsworth, a geoscientist with the U.S. Geological Survey, has said, however: “We don’t see any connection between fracking and earthquakes of any concern to society.”<ref name="SoraghanMike03" /> The National Research Council (part of the National Academy of Sciences) has also observed that hydraulic fracturing, when used in shale gas recovery, does not pose a serious risk of causing earthquakes that can be felt.<ref name="NationalResearchCouncil" /> In 2013, Researchers from Columbia University and the University of Oklahoma demonstrated that in the midwestern United States, some areas with increased human-induced seismicity are susceptible to additional earthquakes triggered by the seismic waves from remote earthquakes. They recommended increased seismic monitoring near fluid injection sites to determine which areas are vulnerable to remote triggering and when injection activity should be ceased.<ref name="Kim" /><ref name="Science2013" /> |
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A British Columbia Oil and Gas Commission investigation concluded that a series of 38 earthquakes (magnitudes ranging from 2.2 to 3.8 on the [[Richter scale]]) occurring in the Horn River Basin area between 2009 and 2011 were caused by fluid injection during hydraulic fracturing in proximity to pre-existing faults. The tremors were small enough that only one of them was reported felt by people; there were no reports of injury or property damage.<ref name="CBC News 09062012" /> |
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A report in the UK concluded that hydraulic fracturing was the likely cause of two small tremors (magnitudes 2.3 and 1.4 on the [[Richter scale]]) that occurred during hydraulic fracturing of shale.<ref name = "BBC 08.06.2012" /><ref name="AutoZV-34"/><ref name="AutoZV-35" /> |
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====Induced seismicity from water disposal wells==== |
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According to the USGS only a small fraction of roughly 40,000 waste fluid disposal wells for oil and gas operations in the United States have induced earthquakes that are large enough to be of concern to the public.<ref name = "AutoZV-36" /> Although the magnitudes of these quakes has been small, the USGS says that there is no guarantee that larger quakes will not occur.<ref name="Texas08072012" /> In addition, the frequency of the quakes has been increasing. In 2009, there were 50 earthquakes greater than magnitude 3.0 in the area spanning Alabama and Montana, and there were 87 quakes in 2010. In 2011 there were 134 earthquakes in the same area, a sixfold increase over 20th century levels.<ref name="EW03292012" /> There are also concerns that quakes may damage underground gas, oil, and water lines and wells that were not designed to withstand earthquakes.<ref name = "Texas08072012" /><ref name="SITX08062012" /> |
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Several earthquakes in 2011, including a [[moment magnitude scale|4.0 magnitude]] quake on New Year's Eve that hit [[Youngstown, Ohio]], are likely linked to a disposal of hydraulic fracturing wastewater,<ref name="Kim" /> according to seismologists at [[Columbia University]].<ref name="AutoZV-37"/> A similar series of small earthquakes occurred in 2012 in Texas. Earthquakes are not common occurrences in either area. Disposal and injection wells are regulated under the [[Safe Drinking Water Act]] and UIC laws.<ref name="Underground Injection" /> |
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==Anti-fracking movement== |
==Anti-fracking movement== |
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<ref name="NYRB 08.03.2012">{{cite journal |url=http://www.nybooks.com/articles/archives/2012/mar/08/why-not-frack/ |title=Why Not Frack? |first=Bill |last = McKibben |authorlink=Bill McKibben |date=8 March 2012 |journal=[[The New York Review of Books]] |volume=59 |issue=4 |accessdate=21 February 2012}}</ref> |
<ref name="NYRB 08.03.2012">{{cite journal |url=http://www.nybooks.com/articles/archives/2012/mar/08/why-not-frack/ |title=Why Not Frack? |first=Bill |last = McKibben |authorlink=Bill McKibben |date=8 March 2012 |journal=[[The New York Review of Books]] |volume=59 |issue=4 |accessdate=21 February 2012}}</ref> |
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<ref name="Fountain03102012">{{cite news |url=http://www.businessweek.com/articles/2012-03-22/fracking-fluid-soaks-ohio |title=Fracking Fluid Soaks Ohio |author=Niquette, Mark |work=Politics and Policy |date=22 March 2012 |work = [[Bloomberg Businessweek]] |accessdate=2 April 2012}}</ref> |
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<ref name=worldwatch>{{cite report |url= http://efdsystems.org/Portals/25/Hydraulic%20Fracturing%20Paper%20-%20World%20Watch.pdf |title=Addressing the Environmental Risks from Shale Gas Development |first1=Mark |last1= Zoback |first2= Saya |last2= Kitasei |first3= Brad |last3= Copithorne |month = July |year=2010 |page=9 |publisher= [[Worldwatch Institute]] |format=PDF |accessdate=2012-05-24}}</ref> |
<ref name=worldwatch>{{cite report |url= http://efdsystems.org/Portals/25/Hydraulic%20Fracturing%20Paper%20-%20World%20Watch.pdf |title=Addressing the Environmental Risks from Shale Gas Development |first1=Mark |last1= Zoback |first2= Saya |last2= Kitasei |first3= Brad |last3= Copithorne |month = July |year=2010 |page=9 |publisher= [[Worldwatch Institute]] |format=PDF |accessdate=2012-05-24}}</ref> |
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<ref name=PEHSUConcerningEffects>{{cite report|url=http://www.propublica.org/documents/item/250048-pehsu-information-concerning-effects-on-children |title= PEHSU Information Concerning Effects on Children of Natural Gas Extraction and Hydraulic Fracturing |publisher=Propublica |author=PEHSU |date=August 2011 |accessdate=2013-05-06}}</ref> |
<ref name=PEHSUConcerningEffects>{{cite report|url=http://www.propublica.org/documents/item/250048-pehsu-information-concerning-effects-on-children |title= PEHSU Information Concerning Effects on Children of Natural Gas Extraction and Hydraulic Fracturing |publisher=Propublica |author=PEHSU |date=August 2011 |accessdate=2013-05-06}}</ref> |
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<ref name="Oilfield Review 2005/2006">{{cite journal | url= https://www.slb.com/~/media/Files/resources/oilfield_review/ors05/win05/04_the_source_for_hydraulic.ashx |title= The Source for Hydraulic Fracture Characterization | journal = Oilfield Review | publisher = [[Schlumberger]] | pages = 42–57 | issue = Winter 2005/2006 | author = Bennet, Les, ''et.al.'' |format = PDF | accessdate = 2012-09-30}}</ref> |
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<ref name="Kim">Kim, Won-Young [http://im.ft-static.com/content/images/7c4754d6-0a81-11e3-9cec-00144feabdc0.pdf 'Induced seismicity associated with fluid injection into a deep well in Youngstown, Ohio'], Journal of Geophysical Research-Solid Earth</ref> |
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<ref name="Reuters07122013" >{{cite news |url =http://www.abc.net.au/science/articles/2013/07/12/3801578.htm|title=News in Science: Earthquakes may trigger fracking tremors | first =Sharon |last=Begley |first2=Edward |last2=McAllister |date=12 July 2013 |work= ABC Science |publisher= [[Reuters]] | accessdate=17 December 2013}}</ref> |
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<ref name=ellsworth>{{cite conference |url=http://www2.seismosoc.org/FMPro?-db=Abstract_Submission_12&-sortfield=PresDay&-sortorder=ascending&-sortfield=Special+Session+Name+Calc&-sortorder=ascending&-sortfield=PresTimeSort&-sortorder=ascending&-op=gt&PresStatus=0&-lop=and&-token.1=ShowSession&-token.2=ShowHeading&-recid=224&-format=%2Fmeetings%2F2012%2Fabstracts%2Fsessionabstractdetail.html&-lay=MtgList&-find |title=Are seismicity rate changes in the midcontinent natural or manmade?| last1 = Ellsworth | first1 = W. L. | last2 = Hickman | first2 = S.H. | last3 = McGarr | first3 = A. | last4 = Michael | first4 = A. J. | last5 = Rubinstein | first5 = J. L. | conference = Seismological Society of America 2012 meeting | date = 18 April 2012 |publisher= [[Seismological Society of America]] | location = [[San Diego, California]] |date= |accessdate=2014-02-23}}</ref> |
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<ref name="SoraghanMike03">{{cite news |url=http://www.eenews.net/public/energywire/2012/04/23/3 |title=Disconnects in public discourse around 'fracking' cloud earthquake issue. |first=Mike |last=Soraghan |date=13 December 2013 |newspaper=E&E News | accessdate=27 March 2013}}</ref> |
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<ref name="NationalResearchCouncil">{{cite web |title= Induced Seismicity Potential in Energy Technologies | url = http://dels.nas.edu/Report/Induced-Seismicity-Potential-Energy-Technologies/13355 | publisher= National Academies Press | quote= The process of hydraulic fracturing a well as presently implemented for shale gas recovery does not pose a high risk for inducing felt seismic events. |accessdate=27 March 2013}}</ref> |
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<ref name="Science2013">{{Cite journal |last=van der Elst1 |first=Nicholas J. |last2=Savage |first2=Heather M. |last3=Keranen |first3=Katie M |last4=Abers |first4= Geoffrey A. |url=http://www.sciencemag.org/content/341/6142/164 |title=Enhanced Remote Earthquake Triggering at Fluid-Injection Sites in the Midwestern United States |date=12 July 2013 |journal=Science |volume=341 (6142) |pages= 164–167 |publisher=ACS Publications |doi= 10.1126/science.1238948}}</ref> |
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<ref name="CBC News 09062012" >{{Cite news |url=http://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/british-columbia/story/2012/09/06/bc-fracking-earthquakes.html |title=Fracking causes minor earthquakes, B.C. regulator says |date=6 September 2012 |newspaper = [[The Canadian Press]] |publisher= Canadian Broadcast Company — British Columbia |accessdate=2012-10-28|id=}}</ref> |
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<ref name="Texas08072012">{{cite video | people = Rachel Maddow, Terrence Henry | year = 2012 | title =Rachel Maddow Show: Fracking waste messes with Texas | medium = video | publisher = [[MSNBC]] | date=7 August 2012 |accessdate= 2012-09-30 | time = 9:24 - 10:35 }}</ref> |
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<ref name="EW03292012">{{Cite news |title='Remarkable' spate of man-made quakes linked to drilling, USGS team says |first = Mike | last = Soraghan | url = http://eenews.net/public/energywire/2012/03/29/1 |date=29 March 2012 |publisher= E&E | work = EnergyWire |accessdate=2012-11-09}}</ref> |
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<ref name="SITX08062012">{{cite web |url= http://stateimpact.npr.org/texas/2012/08/06/how-fracking-disposal-wells-are-causing-earthquakes-in-dallas-fort-worth/ |title=How Fracking Disposal Wells Are Causing Earthquakes in Dallas-Fort Worth |first=Terrence | last = Henry |date= 6 August 2012|work=State Impact Texas |publisher = [[NPR]] |accessdate= 9 November 2012}}</ref> |
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<ref name="Underground Injection">{{cite web|title=EPA Underground Injection Control Program|url=http://water.epa.gov/type/groundwater/uic/index.cfm|accessdate=2012-04-13}}</ref> |
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}} |
}} |
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Revision as of 16:18, 15 March 2014
![]() | This article may require cleanup to meet Wikipedia's quality standards. The specific problem is: this is too US-centric and some of information presented in this article belongs better to the Environmental impact of hydraulic fracturing in the United States article. It also contains some original research which was discussed while cleaning-up the Hydraulic fracturing article. (August 2012) |
![](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/73/Hydraulic_Fracturing-Related_Activities.jpg/220px-Hydraulic_Fracturing-Related_Activities.jpg)
Environmental impact of hydraulic fracturing includes the potential contamination of ground water, risks to air quality, noise pollution, the potential migration of gases and hydraulic fracturing chemicals to the surface, the potential mishandling of waste, and the health effects of these, like cancer.[1][2] Many cases of suspected groundwater contamination have been documented.[3][4] The EPA has noted that "Ground water contamination with constituents such as those found at Pavillion is typically infeasible or too expensive to remediate or restore (GAO 1989)."[5] A review of a University of Texas Austin study led by Charles G. Groat, reported no direct evidence that fracking's actual injection phase resulted in contamination of ground water.[6][7][8] In the study "fracking" was defined as referring only to the injection of fluid under pressure and excluded the impact of equipment failure, spills, the nature of the fluids, preparations prior to injection, and events following the injection, such as disposal of wastewater.[6] The review suggests that problems occur due to leaks in its fluid or waste storage apparatus which it does not consider part of fracking. The review also says that gaps remain in understanding fracking.[7][8] Because hydraulic fracturing was invented in the United States,[9] and therefore has a longer history there, most of the studies of the environmental impact have been conducted there.
Scientific debate
It has been reported that the industry and governmental pressure have made it difficult to conduct and report the results of comprehensive studies of hydraulic fracturing. EPA investigations into the oil and gas industry's environmental impact have been narrowed in scope and/or reportedly had negative findings removed due to this pressure.[10][11][12] A 2012 Cornell University report noted that it was difficult to assess health impact because of legislation, proprietary secrecy, and non-disclosure agreements that allow hydraulic fracturing companies to keep the proprietary chemicals used in the fluid secret. Pre-drilling tests and other assessments have also found that water supplies—especially private water wells—often suffer from high levels of naturally occurring contaminants, as the US Geological Survey concluded in August 2011.[13] Nonetheless, these particular Cornell researchers recommended requiring disclosure of all hydraulic fracturing fluids, that nondisclosure agreements not be allowed when public health is at risk, testing animals (and their products) raised near hydraulic fracturing sites against animals raised near hydraulic fracturing sites prior to selling them to market, monitoring of water, soil, and air more closely, and testing the air, water, soil, and animals prior to drilling and at regular intervals thereafter. Despite the lack of conclusive data, however, the researchers also wrote that "a ban on shale gas drilling is essential for the protection of public health."[14] The co-chair of the Chemicals Technical Options Committee for the United Nations Environment Program, Dr. Ian Rae, recently criticized the Cornell researchers' conclusions, saying, "It certainly does not qualify as a scientific paper but is, rather, an advocacy piece that does not involve deep analysis of the data gathered to support its case." Rae added that the Cornell researchers "cannot be regarded as experts" in this particular field. Others have pointed out that the study does still raise important questions, and it echoes similar concerns of some landowners and environmental groups.[15] In addition, after court cases concerning contamination from hydraulic fracturing are settled, the documents are sealed. While the American Petroleum Institute denies that this practice has hidden problems with gas drilling, others believe it has and could lead to unnecessary risks to public safety and health.[16]
![](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a2/Steve_Katz_and_Bob_Castelli_call_for_hydrofracking_ban.jpg/300px-Steve_Katz_and_Bob_Castelli_call_for_hydrofracking_ban.jpg)
The New York Times reported that the results of the 2004 EPA study were censored due to strong industry influence and political pressure (regulatory capture).[10] An early draft of the study discussed the possibility of dangerous levels of fracking fluid contamination and mentioned "possible evidence" of aquifer contamination. The final report concluded simply that fracking "poses little or no threat to drinking water".[10] The study's scope was narrowed so that it only focused on the injection of fracking fluids, ignoring other aspects of the process such as disposal of fluids and environmental concerns such as water quality, fish kills, and acid burns. The study was concluded before public complaints of contamination started emerging.[17]: 780 The study's conclusion that the injection of fracking fluids into coalbed methane wells posed a minimal threat to underground drinking water sources[18] may have influenced the 2005 Congressional decision that hydraulic fracturing should continue to be regulated by the states and not under the federal Safe Drinking Water Act.
The 2012 EPA Hydraulic Fracturing Draft Plan was also narrowed. It does not include studying the effects of iodine-131 (found in Philadelphia's drinking water)[19][20][21] or other radioactive tracer isotopes used in hydraulic fracturing.[22][23][24] Nor does the draft plan include evaluating the impact of wastewater. Christopher Portier, director of the US CDC's National Center for Environmental Health and the Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry, argued that, in addition to the EPA's plans to investigate the impact of fracking on drinking water, additional studies should be carried out to determine whether wastewater from the wells can harm people or animals and vegetables they eat.[25] A group of US doctors called for a moratorium on fracking in populated areas until such studies had been done.[26][27]
Proponents of hydraulic fracturing have claimed in the press and other media that the recent University of Texas Study ("Fact-Based Regulation for Environmental Protection in Shale Gas Development") found that hydraulic fracturing caused no environmental contamination,[28][29] although the study did note that other steps in the drilling process—excepting the actual injection of the fluid—have been sources of environmental contamination.[6] Conflicting interpretations of this study are based on disagreement between industry and the environmental community about what "hydraulic fracturing" actually is: Industry notes that hydraulic fracturing is a specific process, which takes place after the well has been drilled and the drilling equipment has left the pad; the environmental community, however, uses hydraulic fracturing, or "fracking," to describe the entire production phase. The radioactivity of the injected fluid itself was not assessed in the University of Texas study.[6]
As of 2009, state regulators from across the country stated that they had seen no evidence of hydraulic fracturing contaminating water in their respective jurisdictions.[30] In May 2011 EPA Administrator Lisa P. Jackson testified in a Senate Hearing Committee stating that she is not aware of any proof where the fracking process itself has contaminated water.[31] EPA and other reports released since that time, however, have identified hydraulic fracturing as the likely source of water contamination.[3][5][16][32][33][34]
Air emissions
The main hydraulic-fracturing-related air emissions are methane emissions from the wells during fracturing and emissions from hydraulic fracturing equipment, such as compressor stations. According to the study conducted by professor Robert W. Howarth et al. of Cornell University, "3.6% to 7.9% of the methane from shale-gas production escapes to the atmosphere in venting and leaks over the lifetime of a well." According to the study, this is at least 30% more, and perhaps even 100% more, than from conventional gas production. The study explains these higher emissions with hydraulic fracturing and drill out following the fracturing.[35] Methane gradually breaks down in the atmosphere, forming carbon dioxide. It means its greenhouse-gas footprint is worse than coal or oil for timescales of less than fifty years.[35][36] However, several studies have argued that the paper was flawed and/or come to completely different conclusions, including assessments by experts at the US Department of Energy,[37] by Carnegie Mellon University[38] and the University of Maryland,[39] as well as by the Natural Resources Defense Council, which concluded that the Howarth et al. paper's use of a 20-year time horizon for global warming potential of methane is "too short a period to be appropriate for policy analysis."[40] In January 2012, Howarth's colleagues at Cornell University responded with their assessment, arguing that the Howarth paper was "seriously flawed" because it "significantly overestimate[s] the fugitive emissions associated with unconventional gas extraction, undervalue[s] the contribution of 'green technologies' to reducing those emissions to a level approaching that of conventional gas, base[s] their comparison between gas and coal on heat rather than electricity generation (almost the sole use of coal), and assume[s] a time interval over which to compute the relative climate impact of gas compared to coal that does not capture the contrast between the long residence time of CO2 and the short residence time of methane in the atmosphere."[41] The authors of that response conclude that "shale gas has a GHG footprint that is half and perhaps a third that of coal," based upon "more reasonable leakage rates and bases of comparison." Howarth et al. responded to this criticism: "We stand by our approach and findings. The latest EPA estimate for methane emissions from shale gas falls within the range of our estimates but not those of Cathles et al, which are substantially lower."[42][43]
In 2008, measured ambient concentrations near drilling sites in Sublette County, Wyoming were frequently above the National Ambient Air Quality Standards (NAAQS) of 75ppb and have been recorded as high as 125 ppb.[44] A 2011 study for the city of Fort Worth, Texas, examining air quality around natural gas sites "did not reveal any significant health threats."[45][46] In DISH, Texas, elevated levels of disulfides, benzene, xylenes and naphthalene have been detected in the air, emitted from the compressor stations.[47] People living near shale gas drilling sites often "complain of headaches, diarrhea, nosebleeds, dizziness, blackouts, muscle spasms, and other problems."[48] Cause-and-effect relationships have not been established in all cases.[48] In Garfield County, Colorado, another area with a high concentration of drilling rigs, volatile organic compound emissions increased 30% between 2004 and 2006; during the same period there was a rash of health complaints from local residents. Epidemiological studies that might confirm or rule out any connection between these complaints and fracking are virtually non-existent.[2] In 2012, researchers from the Colorado School of Public Health showed that air pollution caused by fracking may contribute to "acute and chronic health problems" for those living near drilling sites.[49]
Water consumption
The large volumes of water required have raised concerns about fracking in arid areas, such as Karoo in South Africa.[9] During periods of low stream flow it may affect water supplies for municipalities and industries such as power generation, as well as recreation and aquatic life. It may also require water overland piping from distant sources.[50] Over its lifetime an average well requires 3 to 5 million US gallons (11,000 to 19,000 m3) of water for the initial hydraulic fracturing operation and possible restimulation frac jobs.[50][51] Using the case of the Marcellus Shale as an example, fracking accounted for 650 million US gallons per year (2,500,000 m3/a) or less than 0.8% of annual water use in the area overlying the Marcellus Shale as of 2010.[50] To minimize water consumption, recycling is one possible option.[52]
Groundwater contamination
The 2011 University of Texas study described the environmental impact of each of the separate parts of the overall hydraulic fracturing process, or "phases of the shale gas development life cycle."[6] These parts include of (1) drill pad construction and operation, (2) the construction, integrity, and performance of the wellbores, (3) the injection of the fluid once it is underground (which proponents consider the actual "fracking"), (4) the flowback of the fluid back towards the surface, (5) blowouts, often unreported, which spew hydraulic fracturing fluid and other byproducts across surrounding area, (5) integrity of other pipelines involved and (6) the disposal of the flowback, including waste water and other waste products.[28][29] Associated problems include (1) Groundwater Contamination, (2) Blowouts and House Explosions, (3) Water Consumption and Supply, (4) Spill Management and Surface Water Protection, (5) Atmospheric Emissions, (6) Health Effects[6] All but the injection stage were reported to be sources of contamination in the University of Texas study.[6] The study concluded that if hydraulic fracturing is to be conducted in an environmentally safe manner, these issues need to be addressed first.[6] Proponents have reported that groundwater contamination doesn't come directly from the "fracking" part of the process (the injection of hydraulic fracturing chemicals into Shale rock formations) but from other parts of the hydraulic fracturing process. Injection cannot be accomplished, however, without the accompanying stages. Poorly constructed or damaged wellbores and pipelines can allow the fluid to flow into aquifers.[6] Volatile chemicals held in waste water evaporation ponds can to evaporate into the atmosphere, or overflow. In one of the cases described by a 2012 Cornell University study (conducted in Colorado, Louisiana, New York, Ohio, Pennsylvania and Texas) impounded wastewater was released into a field and pond, killing at least 70 animals.[14] The runoff can also end up in groundwater systems. Groundwater may become contaminated by trucks carrying fracking chemicals and wastewater if they are involved in accidents on the way to fracking sites or disposal destinations. Disposal of fracking fluid by injection can cause earthquakes, and release of unprocessed or under-processed waste water into rivers can contaminate water supplies.[6] Critics have noted that it is "difficult for researchers to be objective if their university receives a lot of grants and funds from the industry."[53] An Energy Institute spokesperson said that the study was not funded by the industry. He said funds came from the university, which has a variety of funding sources.[53] There are extensive links between UT and the oil & gas industry, with the giving of Royal Dutch Shell to the university currently standing at more than $24.8 million, $4m alone having been handed over for 2012.[54][55] Since 2011, Shell has partnered Texas in a program called Shell-UT Unconventional Research, and the university has a similar research program in place with Exxon Mobil.[56] Halliburton, the largest supplier of fracking services in the United States, has also given millions of dollars to the university.[57] Statoil announced a $5m research agreement with UT's Bureau of Economic Geology in September 2011, whose program director, Ian Duncan, was the senior contributor for the parts of the Texas study to do with the environmental impacts of shale gas development.[6][58][59]
In DISH, Texas, elevated levels of disulphides, benzene, xylenes and naphthalene have been detected in the air.[47] According to an article in 'Environmental Health Perspectives,' people living near shale gas drilling sites often "complain of headaches, diarrhea, nosebleeds, dizziness, blackouts, muscle spasms, and other problems."[48] Cause-and-effect relationships have not been established.[48] Additionally, the Colorado Oil & Gas Conservation Commission has found some wells containing thermogenic methane due to oil and gas development upon investigating complaints from residents.[60]
A 2011 report by the Massachusetts Institute of Technology addressed groundwater contamination, noting "There has been concern that these fractures can also penetrate shallow freshwater zones and contaminate them with fracturing fluid, but there is no evidence that this is occurring. There is, however, evidence of natural gas migration into freshwater zones in some areas, most likely as a result of substandard well completion practices by a few operators. There are additional environmental challenges in the area of water management, particularly the effective disposal of fracture fluids". This study encourages the use of industry best practices to prevent such events from recurring.[61]
A review published in February 2012 found no direct evidence that fracking's actual injection phase resulted in contamination of ground water, and suggests that reported problems occur due to leaks in its fluid or waste storage apparatus; the review says that methane in water wells in some areas probably comes from natural resources.[7][8]
Waste water management
As the fracturing fluid flows back through the well, it consists of spent fluids and may contain dissolved constituents such as minerals and brine waters. It may account for about 30–70% of the original fracture fluid volume. In addition, natural formation waters may flow to the well and need treatment. approaches to managing these fluids, commonly known as produced water, include underground injection, municipal and commercial wastewater treatment and discharge, self‐contained systems at well sites or fields, or recycling to fracture future wells.[62] However, the quantity of waste water needing treatment and the improper configuration of sewage plants have become an issue in some regions of the United States. Much of the wastewater from hydraulic fracturing operations is processed by public sewage treatment plants, which are not equipped to remove radioactive material and are not required to test for it.[63][64]
Health Risks Due to Environmental Contamination of Fracking Fluids
Fracking fluids have the potential to enter water sources, and air currents through chemical spills, through evaporation of wastewater, and through errors in the drilling process.[64] Trace amounts of these chemicals may affect the health of those working on or living near the wells. In Colorado, the U.S. Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry sampled 14 sites, and found high levels of carcinogens such as benzene, tetrachloroethene, and 1-4 dichlorobenzene.[65] In July 2011, the EPA released new emissions guidelinees stating that current standards could lead to an unacceptably high risk of cancers for those living near drilling operations.[65] Pediatric Environmental Health Specialty Units(PEHSU) also found chemical contamination of drinking water near fracking operations in New York and Pennsylvania that involved detectable and harmful levels of benzene toluene, ethyl benzene, xylene, ethylene glycol, glutaldehyde, and other biocides such as hydrochloric acid, and hydrogen treated light petroleum distillates.[66] Human exposure to these chemicals can result in cancer, adverse effects of the reproductive, neurological, and endocrine systems.[66] Exposure to specialized chemical solutions patented by energy service companies, such as Zetaflow, used by Weatherford International, may result in kidney and liver damage, irritated lung tissue, decreased blood pressure, dizziness, and vomiting according to their Meterial Safety Data Sheet.[67]
PEHSU has linked higher vulnerability in children to health risks associated with chemical exposure to fracking fluids.[66] This increased risk is due to a higher ratio of consumption pound for pound versus adults' rate of consumption, along with the inability to metabolize certain toxants that the body is able to metabolize as an adult.[66] The same kind of vulnerability is also exhibited in development of the fetus during pregnancy, and health risks may involve neural tube defects, decreased birth perameters, and childhood leukemia.[66]
The growing of oil and natural gas drilling employing fracking technology is steady around different regions of the United States, but the maintenance of wastewater gathered after the drilling process containing fracking fluids is lagging behind.[68] In Pennsylvania, the Department of Environmental Protection reported that the resources to properly regulate wastewater-handling facilities were unavailable, inspecting facilities every 20 years rather than every 2 years as called for by regulation.[68]
Public health benefits of shale gas from hydraulic fracturing
Richard A. Muller, a Principal of the China Shale Fund,[69] argues that the benefits from shale gas made available by fracking, by displacing harmful air pollution from coal, far outweigh their combined environmental costs. In a 2013 report for the Centre for Policy Studies, Muller writes that air pollution, mostly from coal burning, kills over three million people each year, primarily in the developing world. The report does not reference any studies on air pollution associated with gas produced through hydraulic fracturing.[70]
Radioactive contamination
The New York Times has reported radiation in hydraulic fracturing wastewater released into rivers in Pennsylvania.[64] It collected data from more than 200 natural gas wells in Pennsylvania and has posted a map entitled Toxic Contamination from Natural Gas Wells in Pennsylvania. Sand containing gamma-emitting tracer isotopes is used to trace and measure fractures.[22] The Water Research Foundation, Philadelphia Water Department, Water Environment Research Federation, and The American Water Works Association are currently investigating hydraulic fracturing as a potential source of the Iodine-131 found in Philadelphia's drinking water.[71] Individuals exposed to high enough levels of radiation may experience symptoms of acute radiation syndrome, including fatigue, leukopenia, fever, diarrhea, vomiting, nose bleeds, dizziness, disorientation, low blood pressure, seizures, and tremors.[72] The Times stated "never-reported studies" by the United States Environmental Protection Agency and a "confidential study by the drilling industry" concluded that radioactivity in drilling waste cannot be fully diluted in rivers and other waterways.[73] Despite this, as of early 2011 federal and state regulators did not require sewage treatment plants that accept drilling waste (which is mostly water) to test for radioactivity. In Pennsylvania, where the drilling boom began in 2008, most drinking-water intake plants downstream from those sewage treatment plants have not tested for radioactivity since before 2006.[64] The New York Times reporting has been criticized by aggrieved parties,[74] but one venerable science writer has taken issue with one instance of the newspaper's presentation and explanation of its calculations regarding dilution,[75] charging that a lack of context made the article's analysis uninformative.[76]
According to a Times report in February 2011, wastewater at 116 of 179 deep gas wells in Pennsylvania "contained high levels of radiation," but its effect on public drinking water supplies is unknown because water suppliers are required to conduct tests of radiation "only sporadically".[77] The New York Post stated that the Pennsylvania Department of Environmental Protection reported that all samples it took from seven rivers in November and December 2010 "showed levels at or below the normal naturally occurring background levels of radioactivity", and "below the federal drinking water standard for Radium 226 and 228."[78] However the samples taken by the state at at least one river, (the Monongahela, a source of drinking water for parts of Pittsburgh), were taken upstream from the sewage treatment plants accepting drilling waste water.[79]
In Pennsylvania, much of this wastewater from hydraulic fracturing operations is processed by public sewage treatment plants. However, many sewage plants say that they are incapable of removing the radioactive components of this waste, which is often released into major rivers. Industry officials, though, claim that these levels are diluted enough that public health is not compromised.[64] This is a major concern as it provides the possibility for radioactive waste to enter into public water supplies.
The New York Times has implicated the DEP in industry-friendly inactivity, requesting rather than requiring them to handle their own flowback waste rather than sending it to public water treatment facilities.[80] However, former Pennsylvania DEP Secretary John Hanger, who served under Gov. Ed Rendell (D), has affirmed that municipal drinking water throughout the state is safe, but added that the environmentalists were accurate in stating that Pennsylvania's water treatment plants were not equipped to treat hydraulic fracturing water.[81] Current Pennsylvania DEP Secretary Michael Krancer serving under Gov. Tom Corbett (R) has denied that untreated wastewater is being discharged into the state's waterways.[82] It has been observed that Corbett received over a million dollars in gas industry contributions,[83] more than all his competitors combined, during his election campaign.[84] The New York Times reported that regulations are lax in Pennsylvania.[64] The oil and gas industry is generally left to police itself in the case of accidents. Unannounced inspections are not made by regulators: the companies report their own spills, and create their own remediation plans.[64] A recent review of the state-approved plans found them to appear to be in violation of the law.[64] Treatment plants are still not equipped to remove radioactive material and are not required to test for it.[64] Despite this, in 2009 the Ridgway Borough's public sewage treatment plant, in Elk County, PA, facility was sent wastewater containing radium and other types of radiation at at 275-780 times the drinking-water standard. The water being released from the plant was not tested for radiation levels.[64] Part of the problem is that growth in waste produced by the industry has outpaced regulators and state resources.[64] It should be noted that "safe drinking water standards" have not yet been set for many of the substances known to be in hydrofracturing fluids or their radioactivity levels,[64] and their levels are not included in public drinking water quality reports.[85]
Seismology
Hydraulic fracturing causes induced seismicity called microseismic events or microearthquakes. These microseismic events are often used to map the horizontal and vertical extent of the fracturing.[86] The magnitude of these events is usually too small to be detected at the surface, although the biggest micro-earthquakes may have the magnitude of about -1.6 (Mw). However, as of late 2012, there have been three instances of hydraulic fracturing, through induced seismicity, triggering quakes large enough to be felt by people: one each in the United States, Canada, and England.[87][88][89] The injection of waste water from gas operations, including from hydraulic fracturing, into saltwater disposal wells may cause bigger low-magnitude tremors, being registered up to 3.3 (Mw).[90]
A 2012 US Geological Survey study reported that a "remarkable" increase in the rate of M ≥ 3 earthquakes in the US midcontinent "is currently in progress", having started in 2001 and culminating in a 6-fold increase over 20th century levels in 2011. The overall increase was tied to earthquake increases in a few specific areas: the Raton Basin of southern Colorado (site of coalbed methane activity), and gas-producing areas in central and southern Oklahoma, and central Arkansas.[91] While analysis suggested that the increase is "almost certainly man-made", the USGS noted: "USGS's studies suggest that the actual hydraulic fracturing process is only very rarely the direct cause of felt earthquakes." The increased earthquakes were said to be most likely caused by increased injection of gas-well wastewater into disposal wells.[92] The injection of waste water from oil and gas operations, including from hydraulic fracturing, into saltwater disposal wells may cause bigger low-magnitude tremors, being registered up to 3.3 (Mw).[90]
Induced seismicity from hydraulic fracturing
The United States Geological Survey (USGS) has reported earthquakes induced by hydraulic fracturing and by disposal of hydraulic fracturing flowback into waste disposal wells in several locations. Bill Ellsworth, a geoscientist with the U.S. Geological Survey, has said, however: “We don’t see any connection between fracking and earthquakes of any concern to society.”[93] The National Research Council (part of the National Academy of Sciences) has also observed that hydraulic fracturing, when used in shale gas recovery, does not pose a serious risk of causing earthquakes that can be felt.[94] In 2013, Researchers from Columbia University and the University of Oklahoma demonstrated that in the midwestern United States, some areas with increased human-induced seismicity are susceptible to additional earthquakes triggered by the seismic waves from remote earthquakes. They recommended increased seismic monitoring near fluid injection sites to determine which areas are vulnerable to remote triggering and when injection activity should be ceased.[87][95]
A British Columbia Oil and Gas Commission investigation concluded that a series of 38 earthquakes (magnitudes ranging from 2.2 to 3.8 on the Richter scale) occurring in the Horn River Basin area between 2009 and 2011 were caused by fluid injection during hydraulic fracturing in proximity to pre-existing faults. The tremors were small enough that only one of them was reported felt by people; there were no reports of injury or property damage.[96]
A report in the UK concluded that hydraulic fracturing was the likely cause of two small tremors (magnitudes 2.3 and 1.4 on the Richter scale) that occurred during hydraulic fracturing of shale.[97][98][99]
Induced seismicity from water disposal wells
According to the USGS only a small fraction of roughly 40,000 waste fluid disposal wells for oil and gas operations in the United States have induced earthquakes that are large enough to be of concern to the public.[88] Although the magnitudes of these quakes has been small, the USGS says that there is no guarantee that larger quakes will not occur.[100] In addition, the frequency of the quakes has been increasing. In 2009, there were 50 earthquakes greater than magnitude 3.0 in the area spanning Alabama and Montana, and there were 87 quakes in 2010. In 2011 there were 134 earthquakes in the same area, a sixfold increase over 20th century levels.[101] There are also concerns that quakes may damage underground gas, oil, and water lines and wells that were not designed to withstand earthquakes.[100][102]
Several earthquakes in 2011, including a 4.0 magnitude quake on New Year's Eve that hit Youngstown, Ohio, are likely linked to a disposal of hydraulic fracturing wastewater,[87] according to seismologists at Columbia University.[103] A similar series of small earthquakes occurred in 2012 in Texas. Earthquakes are not common occurrences in either area. Disposal and injection wells are regulated under the Safe Drinking Water Act and UIC laws.[104]
Anti-fracking movement
An anti-fracking movement has emerged both internationally with involvement of international environmental organizations and nation states such as France and locally in affected areas such as Balcombe in Sussex where the Balcombe drilling protest was in progress during summer 2013.[105]
See also
![](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/24/Wikinews-logo.svg/40px-Wikinews-logo.svg.png)
- Cost of electricity by source
- Directional drilling
- Environmental concerns with electricity generation
- Environmental impact of petroleum
- Environmental impact of the oil shale industry
- Environmental impact of hydraulic fracturing in the United States
- ExxonMobil Electrofrac
- Gasland a 2011 documentary nominated for an Oscar
- FrackNation a 2012 documentary
- Hydraulic fracturing by country
- Hydraulic fracturing in the United States
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- ^ a b Rachel Maddow, Terrence Henry (7 August 2012). Rachel Maddow Show: Fracking waste messes with Texas (video). MSNBC. Event occurs at 9:24 - 10:35.
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(help)CS1 maint: date and year (link) - ^ Soraghan, Mike (29 March 2012). "'Remarkable' spate of man-made quakes linked to drilling, USGS team says". EnergyWire. E&E. Retrieved 2012-11-09.
- ^ Henry, Terrence (6 August 2012). "How Fracking Disposal Wells Are Causing Earthquakes in Dallas-Fort Worth". State Impact Texas. NPR. Retrieved 9 November 2012.
- ^ "Ohio Quakes Probably Triggered by Waste Disposal Well, Say Seismologists" (Press release). Lamont–Doherty Earth Observatory. 6 January 2012. Retrieved 22 February 2012.
- ^ "EPA Underground Injection Control Program". Retrieved 2012-04-13.
- ^ Jan Goodey (Undated, but July, 2013). "The UK's anti fracking movement is growing". The Ecologist. Retrieved July 29, 2013.
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