Scriptural geologist

Scriptural geologists (or mosaic geologists) were a heterogeneous group of writers in the early nineteenth century, who claimed "the primacy of literalistic biblical exegesis" and a short Young Earth time-scale. Their views were marginalised and ignored by the scientific community of their time. They "had much the same relationship to 'philosophical' (or scientific) geologists as their indirect descendants, the twentieth-century creationists." Paul Wood describes them as "mostly Anglican evangelicals" with "no institutional focus and little sense of commonality". They generally lacked any background in geology, and had little influence even in church circles.

Background

Reason for appearance

Up until the end of the 18th century Classical British scholarship was theologically based, using the Bible as a basic source for world history and chronology. The Genesis Flood was considered as a basis for explaining geological data and an old-earth cosmology was not an inevitable conclusion among the educated. Amateur and popular geologists continued to use scripture centered geology long after Hutton.

James Hutton’s revolutionary geological assertion that there was “no vestige of a beginning-no prospect of an end” at the beginning of the 19th century was difficult for the conventional mind to accept without loss of faith. According to Millhauser there were but two ways in which earnest men could possibly treat this new geology: they could work out a compromise with it, or completely reject it. Both schools had energetic and talented promoters and no one thought of allowing the faults of the contrary group to go unquestioned. This resulted in an extensive tract war engaging the talents of capable men for nearly half a century. Thomas Chalmers (a minister of the Scottish Kirk) popularized Gap creationism (or "interval" theory), a form of old Earth creationism that posits that the six-day creation as described in the Book of Genesis involved literal 24-hour days, but that there was a gap of time between two distinct creations in the first and the second verses of Genesis, explaining many scientific observations, including the age of the Earth. Chalmers’ suggestion was supported by theological liberals, what Millhauser referred to as the party of "reconciliation," such as Edward Hitchcock, W. D. Conybeare, and the future Cardinal Wiseman. Sharon Turner included it in his children’s book A Sacred History of the World. Millhauser wrote that "Its prestige was such that the " interval" theory presently became almost the official British rival to the continental one that interpreted the Six Days as six creative eras," adding his subjective estimate that "until about I850, the casual pulpit or periodical assurance that geology does not conflict with revelation was based, in possibly seven instances out of ten, on Chalmers' "interval" theory."

Historian of Religion Arthur McCalla considers that "All geological work that was taken seriously by experts took for granted the reality of deep time" and that scriptural geologists were not given "the slightest credence" by working geologists. Ralph O'Connor, a history professor at the University of Aberdeen, considers McCalla's views to be an "overstatement", and states that "the 'orthodoxy' of an old-earth cosmology was not there for the taking; it had to be painstakingly constructed, using various performance strategies designed to persuade the literate classes that the new school of geology trumped biblical exegesis in questions about earth history."

The British scriptural geologists' writings came in two waves before Darwin's writings on evolution. The first, in the 1820s, was in response to 'gap theory' and included Granville Penn's A Comparative Estimate of the Mineral and Mosaical Geologies (1822) and George Bugg's Scriptural Geology (1826). Realizing that the majority opinion was slipping away from scriptural geology, their zeal increased. While the period from 1815-1830 represents the incubation of the movement, 1830 to 1844 marks its most intense and significant activity. This was largely in response to Charles Lyell's Principles of Geology and William Buckland's Bridgewater Treatise, Geology and Mineralogy considered with reference to Natural Theology, which diverged from flood geology. Responses included George Fairholme's General View of the Geology of Scripture (1833) and The Mosaic Deluge (1837).

O'Connor wrote of the times that, "Although secularization in various forms was on the ascendant among the upper and upper-middle classes, the Bible was still the most important book in early nineteenth-century British cultural life. Although liberalizing churchmen were busily instructing people that the Bible was not intended to teach facts about the natural world, the text of Genesis 1 appeared on the face of it to suggest otherwise, with its bald statements of what had been created when. For all but a growing minority, the Bible remained a vital touchstone for speculation about the natural world; conversely, any thoughtful reading of the first few chapters of Genesis necessarily involved reflections about the natural world."

Geological competence

Professor of intellectual history David N. Livingstone states that scriptural geologists "were not, as it turns out, geologists at all", concluding that "while it may be proper to speak of Scriptural Geology, it is not really accurate to speak of Scriptural Geologists." L. Piccardi and W. Bruce Masse state that "[a]part from George Young, none of these scriptural geologists had any geological competence". David Clifford states that they were "not themselves geologists" but rather "keen but biased amateurs" and that one of them, James Mellor Brown, "felt that no scientific expertise was required when examining scientific matters." Taking a more positive view, Milton Millhauser states that the leaders of the party were "by no means ignorant of the science [they] assailed."

O'Connor argues that terminology in the 21st-century is a stumbling-block to modern analysis of geologic competence of the scriptural geologists because science today is understood in the language of Lyell and Darwin rather than that of Penn and Fairholme. Scriptural geologists saw themselves as ‘geologists’ (in the early 19th-century understanding of the term) and valued geologic fieldwork. Biblical exegesis, too, was central to science in general and earth history in particular. For the educated of the early 19th-century the Bible was itself valuable evidence. Evidence does not speak for itself, but requires interpretation. A heap of strata, or a line of Hebrew, is interpreted in various ways. To use the words ‘geology’ or ‘science’ in the 21st century sense automatically excludes Scriptural geologist perspectives on this debate, and skews the discussion from the start.

The Scriptural Geologists were ignored due to a clash between philosophical views concerning significant assumptions on the characteristics of science and Scripture. Millhauser considers the argument was not between science and religion, after all, geology and Scripture were impartial and equally revealing and concordant realities. Rather it was between the theories of one religious faction (the catastrophists and uniformitarians) and another (the Scriptural geologists). One’s philosophical view has a far more substantial impact on the Scriptural geologist argument than supposed or acknowledged. Lyell indicated that, "It is almost superfluous to remind the reader that they, who have a theory to establish, may easily overlook facts which bear against them, and, unconscious of their own partiality, dwell exclusively on what tends to support their opinions." And Russell said that scientists, "often perceive what they expect, and overlook what they do not wish to see." As major paradigm shifts occurred in theology and geology during the 19th century, more scientists accepted Darwin's theory. Although many old-earth geologists firmly rejected Darwinian evolutionism the Scriptural geologists felt that these men abetting that shift in paradigm, in spite of their intentions.

They have been described as "genteel laymen ... versed in polite literature; clergymen, linguists, and antiquaries—those, in general, with vested interests in mediating the meaning of books, rather than rocks, in churches and classrooms", although a number of them were involved in fossil collecting or scientific endeavours. However for the majority, geology was not their main scientific interest, but rather a transient or peripheral concern.

Theologians

Thomas Gisborne

Thomas Gisborne, B.A. in 1780, M.A. in 1783, from St. John's College, Cambridge, became a close friend of William Wilberforce whom he met in college. Gisborne wrote thirteen books, many of which went through numerous printings (two were interpreted into Welsh and German). Two of his books were related to science: Testimony of Natural Theology to Christianity (1818) and Considerations on Modern Theories of Geology (1837).

Sir William Cockburn, 11th Baronet

William Cockburn, B.A. in 1795, M.A. in 1798, D.D. in 1823, from St. John's College, Cambridge, was not a geologist. Gillispie described "reasonably respectable" William Cockburn, Dean of York, as spouting clerical "fulminations against science in general and all its works", and writing "clerical attacks on geology and uninformed attempts to frame theoretical systems reconciling the geological and scriptural records."

George Bugg

George Bugg, B.A. in 1795 from St. John's College, Cambridge, was ordained deacon in York and became a priest and curate of Dewsbury, near Leeds. Bugg's most significant work was his two-volume Scriptural Geology. Volume I (361 pages) appeared in 1826. Volume II (356 pages) was published in 1827. Although critics would object to associating geology with the Bible as a repetition of the mistakes the church made at the time of Galileo, Bugg held that there was a significant difference. Copernicus could easily reconcile his theory with scripture. But according to Bugg, modern geologists could not harmonize the Bible with their theories without changing the meaning of the scriptures. He contended that "the history of creation has one plain, obvious, and consistent meaning, throughout all the Word of God." There is no hint of any other meaning than the obvious one in the rest of Scripture unless the Biblical authors have misled their readers. Millhouse quotes Bugg saying, "Was ever the word of God laid so deplorably prostrate at the feet of an infant and precocious science!" Wood says the Bugg was "an embittered clergyman who could not find a benefice".

George Young

George Young, B.A. in 1801 from the University of Edinburgh, studied literature and excelled in mathematics and natural philosophy under the tutelage of Professor John Playfair. In 1806 he became the pastor of the Chapel in Cliff Street serving for 42 years until his death. He wrote A Geological Survey of the Yorkshire Coast, (with John Bird in 1822, 2nd ed. 1828) and Scriptural Geology (1838). He was a fossil collector and dealer.

Geologist Martin Simpson described Young's Geological Survey as "in every way worthy of a pupil of the celebrated Playfair." And, Piccardi and Masse said that George Young was geologically competent.

Henry Cole

Henry Cole, B.D. in 1848, D.D. in 1854 from Clare Hall, Cambridge, translated six works of Martin Luther and one each of Calvin and Melanchthon.

In 1830 theologian Adam Sedgwick generalized that Scriptural geologists promoted "a deformed progeny of heretical and fantastical conclusions, by which sober philosophy has been put to open shame, and sometimes even the charities of life have been exposed to violation." Early in 1834 he added that, "They have committed the folly and SIN of dogmatizing," and "of writing mischievous nonsense;" they have an "ignorance of the laws of nature and of material phenomena" and ideas "hatched among their own conceits;" they "have sinned against plain sense," displayed "bigotry and ignorance," and "assail[ed] with maledictions and words of evil omen" because of the "truth their eyes cannot bear to look upon;" so they invented "an ignorant and dishonest hypothesis." In 1834 Henry Cole responded in kind railing against the new geological theories by writing a 136-page "letter" entitled Popular Geology Subversive of Divine Revelation. He referred to Sedgwick's ideas as "unscriptural and anti-Christian," "scripture-defying", "revelation-subverting," and "baseless speculations and self-contradictions," which were "impious and infidel". To Cole the actual conflict was not between science and Christianity, for he held that experimental science and the study of the rocks and fossils were appropriate and valuable undertakings. Rather, he was convinced that the new geological theories about how the rocks were formed were part of a spiritual conflict that began in the Garden of Eden.

Scientists

Andrew Ure

Andrew Ure, M.A. in 1799, M.D. in 1801 in Glasgow, was a scientist and physician. He served briefly as an army surgeon then in 1803 became a member of the Faculty of Physicians and Surgeons in Glasgow as Professor of Natural Philosophy (specializing in chemistry and physics) at the Andersonian Institution (now the University of Strathclyde). He was probably the first consulting chemist in Britain and highly esteemed by contemporary scientists. He wrote A Dictionary of Chemistry (1821), Elements of the Art of Dyeing (1824), and A New System of Geology (1829).

Theologian Adam Sedgwick condemned A New System of Geology pulling "it to pieces without mercy" and calling it a "monument of folly". Gillispie chastised Andrew Ure as of the "men of the lunatic fringe" who produced clerical "fulminations against science in general and all its works". Ure was not a cleric.

George Fairholme

George Fairholme was a wealthy banker and landowner, self-taught naturalist. He was not opposed studying geology; rather, he did battle with the new theories which were, in his view, inconsistent with Scripture and scientific facts. Genesis did not teach science or geology, rather, it offers a true grasp of earth history for geologists to follow. He tried to show from geology and geography that a global Flood had molded the continents. The strata, in his view, were connected chiefly with the Flood. Charles Gillispie listed Fairholme as among "the lunatic fringe." But Millhauser said he was "by no means ignorant of the science [he] assailed"

John Murray

John Murray was self-taught early in his career, but he eventually obtain M.A. and PhD degrees. While traveling widely to observe geological and archeoloical sites he lectured and conducted experimental field research using chemical analysis to study rocks and fossils.

Other

Granville Penn

Granville Penn attended Magdalen College, Oxford and became an assistant chief clerk in the War Department. His major work on geology (1822) was A Comparative Estimate of the Mineral and Mosaical Geologies. Penn made no claim to be a geologist, yet he read the geological literature of his day.

Contemporary Hugh Miller described Granville Penn as one of "the abler and more respectable anti-geologists" and "certainly one of the most extensively informed of his class," But where Penn's view of Biblical verses conflicted with Millers own views, Miller labeled Penn's views as "mere idle glosses, ignorantly or surreptitiously introduced into the text by ancient copyists." Gillispie chastised Penn as among "men of the lunatic fringe, ... [who] got out their fantastic geologies and natural histories, a literature which enjoyed surprising vogue, but which is too absurd to disinter". Millhauser said the Penn "had come to suspect it [the new geology] of a tendency toward Lucretian materialism."

Reception

By historians of science

A number of modern historians have "rounded on scriptural geologists as simplistic fundamentalists who defended an untenable and anti-scientific worldview". Historian of science Charles Gillispie chastised a number of them as "men of the lunatic fringe, like Granville Penn, John Faber, Andrew Ure, and George Fairholme, [who] got out their fantastic geologies and natural histories, a literature which enjoyed surprising vogue, but which is too absurd to disinter". Gillispie describes their views, along with their "reasonably respectable" colleagues (such as Edward Bouverie Pusey and William Cockburn, Dean of York), as clerical "fulminations against science in general and all its works", and listed the works of Cockburn and Fairholme as among "clerical attacks on geology and uninformed attempts to frame theoretical systems reconciling the geological and scriptural records." Martin J. S. Rudwick initially dismissed them as mere 'dogmatic irritants', but later discerned a couple of points of consilience: a concern with time and sequence; and an adoption of the pictorial conventions of some scriptural geologists by the mainstream.

Bibliography of works by scriptural geologists

• 1820, Rodd, Thomas (Philobiblos), A Defence of the Veracity of Moses
• 1822, Penn, Granville, A Comparative Estimate of the Mineral and Mosaical Geologies
• 1822, Young, George, A Geological Survey of the Yorkshire Coast
• 1826, Bugg, George, Scriptural Geology
• 1828, Rennie, James, Conversation on Geology
• 1829, Ure, Andrew, A New System of Geology
• 1831, Murray, John, The Truth of Revelation (276 pages), 2nd Ed. 1840, (380 Pages)
• 1832, Turner, Sharon, Sacred History of the World
• 1833, Brown, James Mellor, Reflections on Geology
• 1833, Fairholme, George, General View of the Geology of Scripture
• 1833, Nolan, Frederick, Analogy of Revelation and Science Established
• 1834, Cole, Henry, Popular Geology Subversive of Divine Revelation
• 1836, Gisborne, Thomas, Considerations on the Modern Theory of Geology
• 1837, Fairholme, George, The Mosaic Deluge
• 1837, Roberts, Mary, The Progress of Creation
• 1838, Cockburn, William, A Letter to Professor Buckland Concerning the Origin of the World
• 1838, de Johnsone, Fouler, A Vindication of the Book of Genesis
• 1838, Murray, John, Portrait of Geology (214 pages)
• 1838, Rhind, William, Age of the Earth, Considered Geologically and Historically
• 1838, Young, George, Scriptural Geology
• 1839, Cockburn, William, The Bible Defended Against the British Association

See also

• Young Earth creationism
• Flood geology
• Biblical literalism
• Genesis creation narrative

References

Books

• Brooke, John Hedley; Cantor, G. N. (2000). Reconstructing nature: the engagement of science and religion. ISBN 0-19-513706-X. {{cite book}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)
• Clark, John (1970). The Life and Letters of the Reverend Adam Sedgwick. Westmead: Gregg International Publishers. p. 362. ISBN 0-576-29117-X.
• Clifford, David (2006). Repositioning Victorian Sciences: Shifting Centres in Nineteenth-Century Thinking. City: Anthem Press. ISBN 1-84331-212-3. {{cite book}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)
• Cole, Henry (1834). Popular Geology Subversive of Divine Revelation. pp. 52, 113. {{cite book}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)
• Gillispie, C. C. (1996). Genesis and Geology. London: Harvard University Press. ISBN 0-674-34481-2. {{cite book}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)
• Khun, Thomas S. (1970). The Structure of Scientific Revolutions. p. 76. {{cite book}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)
• Livingstone, David; Hart, Darryl G.; Noll, Mark A. (1999). Evangelicals and Science in Historical Perspective. Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-511557-0. {{cite book}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)
• McCalla, A. (2006). The creationist debate: the encounter between the Bible and the historical mind. T \& T Clark International. p. 65. ISBN 0-8264-6447-5.
• Piccardi, L. (2007). Myth and Geology. London: Geological Society. p. 46. ISBN 1-86239-216-1. {{cite book}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
• Rudwick, Martin J. S. (1988). The Great Devonian Controversy. pp. 42–44. ISBN 0-226-73102-2. {{cite book}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)
• Rupke, Nicolaas (1983). The Great Chain of History. Oxford: Clarendon Press. pp. 42–50. ISBN 0-19-822907-0. {{cite book}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)

Journals

• Lyell, Charles (1827). "Review of Scrope's Memoir on the Geology of Central France". Quarterly Review. XXXVI (72): 480. {{cite journal}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)
• Miller, Hugh (1857). The Testimony of the Rocks. pp. 367–68. {{cite book}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)
• Millhauser, Milton (1954). "The Scriptural Geologists: An Episode in the History of Opinion". Osiris. 11 (1). Saint Catherines Press: 65–86. doi:10.1086/368571. JSTOR 301663. {{cite journal}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)
• O’Connor, Ralph (2007). "Young-Earth Creationists in Early Nineteenth-century Britain? Towards a reassessment of 'Scriptural Geology'" (PDF). History of Science. 45 (150). Science History Publications Ltd: 357–403. ISSN 0073-2753. {{cite journal}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)
• Rudwick, Martin J. S. (2008). Worlds before Adam. p. 84. ISBN 0-226-73128-6. {{cite book}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)
• Russell, Colin A. (1989). "The Conflict Metaphor and its Social Origins". Science and Christian Belief,. 1 (1): 25. {{cite journal}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)CS1 maint: extra punctuation (link)
• Simpson, Martin (1884). The Fossils of the Yorkshire Lias Described from Nature. ISBN 9781407739052. {{cite book}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)
• Sedgwick, Adam (1830). "Annual General Meeting of the Geological Society, Presidential address". Philosophical Magazine, N.S. VII (40): 310. {{cite journal}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)
• Sedgwick, Adam (1834). Discourse (second ed.). pp. 148–153. {{cite book}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)
• Wood, Paul (2004). Science and Dissent in England, 1688-1945. Aldershot: Ashgate. ISBN 0-7546-3718-2. {{cite book}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)

Further reading

• Morrell, Jack (1984). Gentlemen of Science. London: Royal Historical Society. ISBN 0-86193-103-3. {{cite book}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
• Lynch, John (2002). Creationism and Scriptural Geology, 1817-1857. Bristol: Thoemmes Press. ISBN 1-85506-928-8.