United States and state terrorism: Difference between revisions
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rv Morton Devonshire vandalism--please *cite* why these are not valid sources. One is a NY times article, and is valid; if the others are not please explain changes on talk page. Consensus is not one. |
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{{mergefrom|American terrorism}} |
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{{NPOV}} |
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{{Otheruses|American terrorism (disambiguation)}} |
{{Otheruses|American terrorism (disambiguation)}} |
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The following incidents have been described in notable sources as acts of '''[[State terrorism]] by the United States of America'''. |
The following incidents have been described in notable sources as acts of '''[[State terrorism]]''' by the '''[[United States of America]]'''. |
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== |
==Definition== |
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{{main|Definition of terrorism}} |
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According to 'Centro de Estudios Sobre America. "Crisis de Octubre: Cronologia." Informe Especial', a CIA agent named Carlos Antonio Rodriguez Cabo committed various acts of terrorism.<ref>[http://www.gwu.edu/~nsarchiv/bayofpigs/chron.html The Bay of Pigs Invasion/Playa Girón: a Chronology of Events]</ref> |
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The [[United States Department of State]] maintains a [[U.S. list of state sponsors of international terrorism|list of states]] it considers to be supporters of [[terrorism]]. However, critics have long accused the United States government of also perpetrating or supporting activities which could be defined as terrorism. The US [[Federal Bureau of Investigation]] defines a terrorist act as, |
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{{cquote|''The unlawful use of force or violence against persons or property to intimidate or coerce a government, the civilian population, or any segment thereof, in furtherance of political or social objectives.''}} |
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The United States government has conspired with organized crime figures to assassinate the Cuban head of state. In August 1960, Colonel Sheffield Edwards, director of the CIA's Office of Security, proposed the assassination of Fidel Castro by mafia assassins. Between August 1960, and April 1961, the CIA with the help of the Mafia pursued a series of plots to poison or shoot Castro (CIA, Inspector General's Report on Efforts to Assassinate Fidel Castro, p. 3, 14, archived at: www.gwu.edu/~nsarchiv/bayofpigs/chron.html). |
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As Dr. Daniele Ganser of the [[ETH Zürich]] notes,<ref name = "Ganser"> {{cite book |
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==Honduras== |
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| last =Ganser |
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According to Robert Parry, writing for Consortiumnews.com, the final report of [[Guatemala]]'s [[Historical Clarification Commission]], the government of the United States, through various agencies including the CIA, provided direct and indirect support for [[Honduran]] death-squad operations that killed tens of thousands of civilians and raped and tortured many tens of thousands more. |
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| first =Daniele |
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| authorlink = |
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| title =Natos Secret Armies: Operation Gladio and Terrorism in Western Europe |
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| publisher = |
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| id =ISBN 0714656070 |
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}}</ref> the operations directive which set up the [[CIA]] falls under this definition. NSC 10/2 states the CIA shall, |
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{{cquote|''Plan and conduct covert operations which are conducted or sponsored by this government against hostile foreign states or groups or in support of friendly foreign states or groups but which are so planned and conducted that any US Government responsibility for them is not evident to unauthorised persons and that if uncovered the US Government can plausibly disclaim any responsibility for them. Covert action shall include any covert activities related to: propaganda; economic warfare; preventive direct action, including sabotage, anti-sabotage, demolition, and evacuation measures; subversion against hostile states, including assistance to underground resistance movements, gurrillas and refugee liberation groups, and support of indigenous anti-Communist elements in threatened countries of the free world.''<ref>NSC 10/2: National Security Council Directive on Office of Special Projects, June 18, 1948. Formmerly Top Secret, obtained by Etzold and Gaddis under [[FOIA]] rules</ref>}} |
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==Guatemala== |
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According to Robert Parry, writing for Consortiumnews.com, the same report also concluded that the U.S. government also gave money and training to a [[Guatemalan]] military unit that committed "acts of genocide" against the [[Mayans]]. <ref>[http://www.consortiumnews.com/1999/052699a1.html Consortium News], May 26, 1999 </ref> |
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Dr. Ganser's research has also uncovered a Pentagon document, "''Field Manual FM 30-31B''", detailing the methodology for launching terrorist attacks in nations that "''do not react with sufficient effectiveness''" against "''communist subversion.''" The manual states that the most dangerous moment comes when leftist groups "''renounce the use of force''" and embrace the democratic process. It is then that "''U.S. army intelligence must have the means of launching special operations which will convince Host Country Governments and public opinion of the reality of the insurgent danger.''" These "''special operations must remain strictly secret''", the document warns.<ref name = "cry"> {{cite web |
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==Iraq== |
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| title =Crytome: Field Manual FM 30-31B |
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According to Joel Brinkley in an article at CommonDreams.org, former U.S. intelligence officials say the CIA orchestrated a bomb and sabotage campaign against [[Baghdad]] that included civilian and government targets between 1992 and 1995 <ref>[http://www.commondreams.org/headlines04/0609-02.htm Ex-C.I.A. Aides Say Iraq Leader Helped Agency in 90's Attacks]</ref>. The civilian targets included at least one school bus, killing schoolchildren, and a movie theater, killing many people. |
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| work = |
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| url =http://cryptome.org/cia-FM30-31B.htm |
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| accessdate=2006-07-30 |
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}} </ref><ref name="usinfo">{{cite web |
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| title =Misinformation about "Gladio/Stay Behind" Networks Resurfaces |
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| work =US Dept of State Official Website, 20 Jan 2006 |
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| url =http://usinfo.state.gov/media/Archive/2006/Jan/20-127177.html |
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| accessdate=2006-07-30 |
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}} </ref> |
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== |
==Latin America== |
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===Cuba=== |
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The United States has refused to put on trial or to extradite [[Luis Posada Carriles]], Guillermo Novo Sampol, Pedro Remon, and Gaspar Jimenezand to [[Cuba]] or [[Venezuela]], although they are accused of having perpetrated terrorist acts. <ref>[http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/articles/A57838-2004Sep2.html Moral Misstep: Some Terrorists Get a Hero's Welcome], Washington Post, Sept. 3, 2004</ref>. |
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{{Further|[[Church Committee]]}} |
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According to 'Centro de Estudios Sobre America. "Crisis de Octubre: Cronologia." Informe Especial', a CIA agent named Carlos Antonio Rodriguez Cabo committed various acts of terrorism.<ref name = "NSA"> {{cite web |
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| title =The Bay of Pigs Invasion/Playa Girón: a Chronology of Events |
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| work =The National Security Archive |
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| url =http://www.gwu.edu/~nsarchiv/bayofpigs/chron.html |
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| accessdate=2006-07-30 |
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}} </ref> |
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The United States has refused to put on trial or to extradite [[Luis Posada Carriles]], Guillermo Novo Sampol, Pedro Remon, and Gaspar Jimenezand to [[Cuba]] or [[Venezuela]], although they are accused of having perpetrated terrorist acts. <ref name="wp">{{cite journal |
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| first =Marcela |
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| last =Sanchez |
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| authorlink = |
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| year =September 3 |
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| month =2004 |
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| title =Moral Misstep: Some Terrorists Get a Hero's Welcome |
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| journal =Washington Post |
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| url =http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/articles/A57838-2004Sep2.html |
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}}</ref> |
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===Honduras=== |
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In the 1980s, the United States financed and trained the Honduran military and attempted to knowingly whitewash the Honduran military's terrorist campaign, including torture in secret jails and extra-judicial killings.<ref name = "BS"> {{cite journal |
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| first =Gary |
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| last = Cohn |
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| authorlink = |
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| coauthors =Ginger Thompson |
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| year =1995 |
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| month =June 18 |
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| title =Unearthed: Fatal Secrets A carefully crafted deception |
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| journal =Baltimore Sun |
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| url =http://www.baltimoresun.com/news/local/bal-negroponte4,0,2326054.story |
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}}</ref> The terror campaign targeted hundreds of Honduran labor leaders, union organizers and human rights attorneys. |
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===Nicaragua=== |
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{{Further|[[Psychological Operations in Guerrilla Warfare]] }} |
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In 1984, a CIA manual for training the Nicaraguan [[contras]] in psychological operations was discovered, entitled "Psychological Operations in Guerrilla War".<ref name = "manual"> {{cite web |
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| title =Declassified Army and CIA Manuals |
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| work =Latin American Working Group |
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| url =http://www.lawg.org/misc/Publications-manuals.htm |
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| accessdate=2006-07-30 |
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}} </ref> |
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The manual recommended “selective use of violence for propagandistic effects” and to “neutralize” (i.e., kill) government officials. Nicaraguan Contras were taught to lead: |
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{{cquote|...demonstrators into clashes with the authorities, to provoke riots or shootings, which lead to the killing of one or more persons, who will be seen as the martyrs; this situation should be taken advantage of immediately against the Government to create even bigger conflicts.}} |
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The manual also recommended: |
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{{cquote|...selective use of armed force for PSYOP [psychological operations] effect.... Carefully selected, planned targets — judges, police officials, tax collectors, etc. — may be removed for PSYOP effect in a UWOA [unconventional warfare operations area], but extensive precautions must insure that the people “concur” in such an act by thorough explanatory canvassing among the affected populace before and after conduct of the mission.<ref name = "FFF"> {{cite web |
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| title =Terrorism Debacles in the Reagan Administration |
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| work =The Future of Freedom Foundation |
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| url =http://www.fff.org/freedom/fd0406c.asp |
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| accessdate=2006-07-30 |
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}} </ref>}} |
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==Middle East== |
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According to former U.S. intelligence officials, the CIA orchestrated a bomb and sabotage campaign against [[Baghdad]] that included civilian and government targets between 1992 and 1995. The civilian targets included at least one school bus, killing schoolchildren, and a movie theater, resulting in many civilian casualities.<ref name="NYT">{{cite journal |
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| first =Joel |
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| last =Brinkley |
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| authorlink = |
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| coauthors = |
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| year =June 9 |
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| month =2004 |
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| title =Ex-C.I.A. Aides Say Iraq Leader Helped Agency in 90's Attacks |
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| journal =New York Times |
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| volume = |
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| pages = |
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| id = |
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| url =http://www.commondreams.org/headlines04/0609-02.htm |
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}}</ref> |
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In 1953 agent [[Kermit Roosevelt, Jr.]] oversaw [[Operation Ajax]], which involved organised riots and the training of right-wing terrorist groups in a successful effort to overthrow democratically-elected [[Iranian]] government of Prime Minister [[Mohammed Mossadegh]], and reverse the nationalisation of [[Anglo-Iranian Oil Company]] (later renamed [[The British Petroleum Company|BP]]). Following the coup, Iran became a US [[client state]] under the dictatorship of the Shah until the [[Iranian Revolution]] of 1979, when Iran again became a target.{{Fact}} <!--Can we have a source for training right wing terrorist groups? Thanks--> |
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==Western Europe== |
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{{main| Operation Gladio}} |
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On [[October 24]], [[1990]] it was acknowledged by Italian Prime Minister [[Giulio Andreotti]] to the [[Italian Parliament]] that [[NATO]] had long held a secret policy of support and training for right wing terrorist organisations in member states.<ref name = "ed"> {{cite journal |
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| first =Ed |
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| last =Vulliamy |
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| authorlink = |
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| coauthors = |
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| year =1990 |
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| month =5 December |
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| title =Secret agents, freemasons, fascists... and a top-level campaign of political 'destabilisation' |
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| journal =The Guardian |
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| volume = |
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| issue = |
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| pages =12 |
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| id = |
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| url =http://www.cambridgeclarion.org/press_cuttings/vinciguerra.p2.etc_graun_5dec1990.html |
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}}</ref><ref name = "felix"> {{cite journal |
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| first =Felix |
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| last =Würsten |
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| authorlink = |
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| year =2005 |
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| month =October 2 |
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| title =Conference "Nato Secret Armies and P26": The dark side of the West |
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| journal =ETH Life Magazine |
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| volume = |
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| url =http://www.ethlife.ethz.ch/e/articles/sciencelife/NatoGeheimarmee.html |
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}}</ref><ref name = "gladio"> {{cite journal |
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| first =Charles |
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| last =Richards |
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| authorlink = |
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| coauthors = |
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| year =1990 |
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| month =1 December |
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| title =Gladio is still opening wounds |
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| journal =The Independent |
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| volume = |
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| issue = |
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| pages =12 |
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| id = |
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| url = http://www.cambridgeclarion.org/press_cuttings/gladio.parliamentary.committee_indep_1dec1990.html |
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}}</ref> The policy, which is codenamed [[Operation Gladio]], and related terrorist groups are thought to have carried out the [[Bologna massacre|Bologna massacre (1980)]]<ref name = "translate"> {{cite web |
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| title =Translated from Bologna massacre Association of Victims Italian website |
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| work =Google.com |
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| url =http://translate.google.com/translate?sourceid=navclient-menuext&hl=en&u=http://www.stragi.it/index.php?pagina=vicenda |
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| accessdate=2006-07-30 |
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}}{{it icon}} </ref><ref name = "mt"> {{cite journal |
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| first =Chris |
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| last =Floyd |
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| authorlink = |
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| coauthors = |
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| year =2005 |
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| month =February 18 |
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| title =Global Eye - Sword Play |
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| journal =The Moscow Times |
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| volume = |
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| pages = |
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| id = |
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| url =http://context.themoscowtimes.com/stories/2005/02/18/120.html |
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}}</ref> the [[Paris massacre of 1961|Paris massacre (1961)]], <ref name="Ganser"/> political [[Belgian stay-behind network|assassinations in Belgium]], military coups in [[Greek military junta of 1967-1974|Greece (1967)]] and [[Military coup in Turkey, 1980|Turkey (1980)]] and an attempted coup in [[Algiers putsch|France (1961)]]. It should be noted that coup attempts are not typically considered terrorist acts, as they are directed at members of the government rather than the general population.{{fact}} |
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The supposed aim of this group was to prevent [[Communist]] movements in Western Europe gaining power. However, many<ref name = "tim"> {{cite journal |
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| first =Tim |
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| last =Howells |
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| authorlink = |
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| coauthors = |
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| year =November 28 |
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| month =2005 |
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| title =How our governments use terrorism to control us |
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| journal =The On-Line Journal Special Reports |
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| volume = |
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| pages = |
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| id = |
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| url =http://www.onlinejournal.com/artman/publish/article_277.shtml |
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}}</ref><ref name = "arthur"> {{cite journal |
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| first =Arthur E. |
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| last =Rowse |
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| authorlink = |
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| coauthors = |
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| year =January 31 |
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| month =2004 |
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| title =Gladio: The Secret U.S. War to Subvert Italian Democracy |
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| journal =Independent Media Center |
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| volume = |
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| issue = |
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| id = |
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| url =http://italy.indymedia.org/news/2004/01/473314.php?theme=1 |
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}}</ref><ref name="Ganser"/> researchers have commented that the true aim was often to increase the power and control of the United States over Europe.<ref name="Ganser"/> Officially, NATO refuses to comment on the issue, or confirm or deny the existence of Operation Gladio.<ref name="Ganser"/><ref name="usinfo"/> |
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On 22 November 1990, the [[European Parliament]] passed a resolution condemning Gladio<ref name = "GLADIO"> {{cite web |
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| title =GLADIO EP 22.11.90, joint resolution replacing B3-2021, 2058, 2068, 2078 and 2087/90, RESOLUTION on the GLADIO affair Appendix 2 |
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| work =European Parliament, 22.11.90 |
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| url =http://www.poptel.org.uk/cgi-bin/dbs2/statewatch?query=Gladio&mode=records&row_id=7255 |
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| accessdate=2006-07-30 |
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}} </ref> and requesting full investigations. In 2000, an Italian Parliament Commission report from the "Gruppo Democratici di Sinistra l'Ulivo" concluded that the [[strategy of tension]] had been supported by the United States to "stop the [[PCI]] (Communist Party), and to a certain degree also the [[PSI]], from reaching executive power in the country". A 2000 [[Italian Senate]] report, stated that "Those massacres, those bombs, those military actions had been organised or promoted or supported by men inside Italian state institutions and, as has been discovered more recently, by men linked to the structures of [[CIA|United States intelligence]]."<ref name = "anti"> {{cite journal |
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| first = |
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| authorlink = |
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| coauthors = |
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| year =2000 |
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| month =June 24 |
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| title =US 'supported anti-left terror in Italy' |
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| journal =[[The Guardian]] |
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| volume = |
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| issue = |
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| pages = |
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| id = |
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| url =http://www.cambridgeclarion.org/press_cuttings/us.terrorism_graun_24jun2000.html |
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}}</ref><ref name = "obit"> {{cite journal |
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| first =Philip |
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| last =Willan |
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| authorlink = |
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| coauthors = |
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| year =2001 |
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| month =June 21 |
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| title =Obituary: Paolo Emilio Taviani |
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| journal =[[The Guardian]] |
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| volume = |
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| pages = |
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| id = |
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| url =http://www.guardian.co.uk/obituaries/story/0,,510075,00.html |
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}}</ref> |
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==Court Cases== |
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===Nicaragua vs. United States=== |
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{{main|Nicaragua vs. United States}} |
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''The Republic of Nicaragua vs. The United States of America''<ref name="name">Official name: ''Military and Paramilitary Activities in and against Nicaragua (Nicar. v. U.S.), Jurisdiction and Admissibility, 1984 ICJ REP. 392'' June 27, 1986.</ref> was a case heard in [[1986]] by the [[International Court of Justice]] which found that the [[United States]] had violated [[international law]] by supporting [[Contra (guerrillas)|Contra]] guerrillas in their war against the [[Nicaragua]]n government and by mining Nicaragua's harbors. |
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The Court ruled in Nicaragua's favor, but the United States refused to abide by the Court's decision, on the basis that the court erred in finding that it had jurisdiction to hear the case.<ref name="law"> {{cite journal | author= Morrison, Fred L. | title=Legal Issues in The Nicaragua Opinion| journal=American Journal of International Law | year=January 1987 | volume=81 | issue=| pages= 160-166| url= http://bailey83221.livejournal.com/55750.html}} "Appraisals of the ICJ's Decision. Nicaragua vs United State (Merits)"</ref> The court stated that the United States had been involved in the "unlawful use of force".<ref name = "icj"> {{cite web |
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| title =International Court of Justice Year 1986, 27 June 1986, General list No. 70, paragraphs 251, 252, 157, 158, 233. |
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| work =International Court of Justice |
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| url =http://www.gwu.edu/~jaysmith/nicus3.html |
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| accessdate=2006-07-30 |
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}} [http://www.icj-cij.org/icjwww/icases/inus/inus_ijudgment/inus_ijudgment_19860627.pdf Large PDF file from the ICJ website]</ref> Author Naom Chomsky argues that: |
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{{cquote|''The World Court considered their case, accepted it, and presented a long judgment, several hundred pages of careful legal and factual analysis that condemned the United States for what it called “unlawful use of force”--which is the judicial way of saying “international terrorism”--ordered the United States to terminate the crime and to pay substantial reparations, many billions of dollars, to the victim''.<ref name = "chom"> {{cite web |
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| title =On the War in Afghanistan Noam Chomsky interviewed by Pervez Hoodbhoy |
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| work =chomsky.info |
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| url =http://www.chomsky.info/interviews/20011127.htm |
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| accessdate=2006-07-30 |
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}}</ref> |
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}} |
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The ICJ used the [[Psychological Operations in Guerrilla Warfare]] CIA manual as evidence in the case. |
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===Iran vs. United States=== |
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In 1988 [[Iran Air Flight 655]] was shot down by the [[USS Vincennes (CG-49)|USS Vincennes]] while enroute from [[Bandar Abbas]] to [[Dubai]] killing all 290 civilian passengers. The US claimed the act it to be an error. However, following the incident, the men of the Vincennes were all awarded combat-action ribbons and the air-warfare co-ordinator won the navy's Commendation Medal for "heroic achievement" noting his "ability to maintain his poise and confidence under fire" that enabled him to "quickly and precisely complete the firing procedure." In 1989 Iran took the US to the [[International Court of Justice]] over the incident.<ref>{{cite web| url=http://www.icj-cij.org/icjwww/igeneralinformation/ibbook/Bbook8-1.59.htm| title=Aerial Incident of 3 July 1988 (Islamic Republic of Iran v. United States of America)| accessdate=2006-03-31}}</ref> The US chose to settle out of court, paying Iran $61.2m compensation.<ref>{{cite journal| first =| last =| authorlink =| coauthors =| year =| month =| title =1988: US warship shoots down Iranian airliner| journal =BBC News: On This Day, 3rd July | volume =| issue =| pages =| id =| url =http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/july/3/newsid_4678000/4678707.stm}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal| first =| last =| authorlink =| coauthors =| year =2000| month =July| title =Iran remembers US 'crime'| journal =BBC News| volume =| issue =| pages =| id =| url =http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/world/monitoring/media_reports/815779.stm}}</ref> |
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===Yugoslavia v. United States=== |
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The [[Federal Republic of Yugoslavia]] brought an "unlawful use of force" action in 1999 against the US and other NATO members, in response to [[Operation Allied Force|NATO bombing]] in the [[Kosovo War]].<ref name = "ICJ"> {{cite web |
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| title =Application instituting proceedings ''Legality of the Use of Force (Yugoslavia v. United States of America) |
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| work =International Court of Justice |
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| url =http://www.icj-cij.org/icjwww/idocket/iyus/iyusapplication/iyus_application_19990428.html |
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| accessdate=2006-07-30 |
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}} </ref> The International Court dismissed the case because the US did not recognize the FRY government and did not accept the court's jurisdiction.<ref name = "ICJ2"> {{cite web |
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| title =The Court rejects the request for the indication of provisional measures submitted by Yugoslavia and dismisses the case |
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| work =International Court of Justice press release 99/33 June 2, 1999 |
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| url =http://www.icj-cij.org/icjwww/ipresscom/iPress1999/ipresscom9933_iyus_19990602.htm |
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| accessdate=2006-07-30 |
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}} </ref> Similar cases were taken by Yugoslavia against each NATO member state<ref>{{cite web| title=List of Contentious Cases by Country (Serbia)| work = International Court of Justice (Website) | url =http://www.icj-cij.org/icjwww/idecisions/icasesbycountry.htm#Serbia |accessdate=2006-08-13}}</ref> |
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== References == |
== References == |
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==Further reading == |
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* {{cite book |
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| last =Gareau |
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| first =Frederick H. |
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| authorlink = |
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| coauthors = |
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| year =March 2004 |
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| title =State Terrorism and the United States : From Counterinsurgency to the War on Terrorism |
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| publisher =Clarity Press |
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| location = |
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| id =ISBN 0932863396 |
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}} |
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==See also== |
==See also== |
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*[[List of acts labelled as state terrorism sorted by state]] |
*[[List of acts labelled as state terrorism sorted by state]] |
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Revision as of 06:50, 14 August 2006
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The following incidents have been described in notable sources as acts of State terrorism by the United States of America.
Definition
The United States Department of State maintains a list of states it considers to be supporters of terrorism. However, critics have long accused the United States government of also perpetrating or supporting activities which could be defined as terrorism. The US Federal Bureau of Investigation defines a terrorist act as,
The unlawful use of force or violence against persons or property to intimidate or coerce a government, the civilian population, or any segment thereof, in furtherance of political or social objectives.
As Dr. Daniele Ganser of the ETH Zürich notes,[1] the operations directive which set up the CIA falls under this definition. NSC 10/2 states the CIA shall,
Plan and conduct covert operations which are conducted or sponsored by this government against hostile foreign states or groups or in support of friendly foreign states or groups but which are so planned and conducted that any US Government responsibility for them is not evident to unauthorised persons and that if uncovered the US Government can plausibly disclaim any responsibility for them. Covert action shall include any covert activities related to: propaganda; economic warfare; preventive direct action, including sabotage, anti-sabotage, demolition, and evacuation measures; subversion against hostile states, including assistance to underground resistance movements, gurrillas and refugee liberation groups, and support of indigenous anti-Communist elements in threatened countries of the free world.[2]
Dr. Ganser's research has also uncovered a Pentagon document, "Field Manual FM 30-31B", detailing the methodology for launching terrorist attacks in nations that "do not react with sufficient effectiveness" against "communist subversion." The manual states that the most dangerous moment comes when leftist groups "renounce the use of force" and embrace the democratic process. It is then that "U.S. army intelligence must have the means of launching special operations which will convince Host Country Governments and public opinion of the reality of the insurgent danger." These "special operations must remain strictly secret", the document warns.[3][4]
Latin America
Cuba
According to 'Centro de Estudios Sobre America. "Crisis de Octubre: Cronologia." Informe Especial', a CIA agent named Carlos Antonio Rodriguez Cabo committed various acts of terrorism.[5]
The United States has refused to put on trial or to extradite Luis Posada Carriles, Guillermo Novo Sampol, Pedro Remon, and Gaspar Jimenezand to Cuba or Venezuela, although they are accused of having perpetrated terrorist acts. [6]
Honduras
In the 1980s, the United States financed and trained the Honduran military and attempted to knowingly whitewash the Honduran military's terrorist campaign, including torture in secret jails and extra-judicial killings.[7] The terror campaign targeted hundreds of Honduran labor leaders, union organizers and human rights attorneys.
Nicaragua
In 1984, a CIA manual for training the Nicaraguan contras in psychological operations was discovered, entitled "Psychological Operations in Guerrilla War".[8]
The manual recommended “selective use of violence for propagandistic effects” and to “neutralize” (i.e., kill) government officials. Nicaraguan Contras were taught to lead:
...demonstrators into clashes with the authorities, to provoke riots or shootings, which lead to the killing of one or more persons, who will be seen as the martyrs; this situation should be taken advantage of immediately against the Government to create even bigger conflicts.
The manual also recommended:
...selective use of armed force for PSYOP [psychological operations] effect.... Carefully selected, planned targets — judges, police officials, tax collectors, etc. — may be removed for PSYOP effect in a UWOA [unconventional warfare operations area], but extensive precautions must insure that the people “concur” in such an act by thorough explanatory canvassing among the affected populace before and after conduct of the mission.[9]
Middle East
According to former U.S. intelligence officials, the CIA orchestrated a bomb and sabotage campaign against Baghdad that included civilian and government targets between 1992 and 1995. The civilian targets included at least one school bus, killing schoolchildren, and a movie theater, resulting in many civilian casualities.[10]
In 1953 agent Kermit Roosevelt, Jr. oversaw Operation Ajax, which involved organised riots and the training of right-wing terrorist groups in a successful effort to overthrow democratically-elected Iranian government of Prime Minister Mohammed Mossadegh, and reverse the nationalisation of Anglo-Iranian Oil Company (later renamed BP). Following the coup, Iran became a US client state under the dictatorship of the Shah until the Iranian Revolution of 1979, when Iran again became a target.[citation needed]
Western Europe
On October 24, 1990 it was acknowledged by Italian Prime Minister Giulio Andreotti to the Italian Parliament that NATO had long held a secret policy of support and training for right wing terrorist organisations in member states.[11][12][13] The policy, which is codenamed Operation Gladio, and related terrorist groups are thought to have carried out the Bologna massacre (1980)[14][15] the Paris massacre (1961), [1] political assassinations in Belgium, military coups in Greece (1967) and Turkey (1980) and an attempted coup in France (1961). It should be noted that coup attempts are not typically considered terrorist acts, as they are directed at members of the government rather than the general population.[citation needed]
The supposed aim of this group was to prevent Communist movements in Western Europe gaining power. However, many[16][17][1] researchers have commented that the true aim was often to increase the power and control of the United States over Europe.[1] Officially, NATO refuses to comment on the issue, or confirm or deny the existence of Operation Gladio.[1][4]
On 22 November 1990, the European Parliament passed a resolution condemning Gladio[18] and requesting full investigations. In 2000, an Italian Parliament Commission report from the "Gruppo Democratici di Sinistra l'Ulivo" concluded that the strategy of tension had been supported by the United States to "stop the PCI (Communist Party), and to a certain degree also the PSI, from reaching executive power in the country". A 2000 Italian Senate report, stated that "Those massacres, those bombs, those military actions had been organised or promoted or supported by men inside Italian state institutions and, as has been discovered more recently, by men linked to the structures of United States intelligence."[19][20]
Court Cases
Nicaragua vs. United States
The Republic of Nicaragua vs. The United States of America[21] was a case heard in 1986 by the International Court of Justice which found that the United States had violated international law by supporting Contra guerrillas in their war against the Nicaraguan government and by mining Nicaragua's harbors. The Court ruled in Nicaragua's favor, but the United States refused to abide by the Court's decision, on the basis that the court erred in finding that it had jurisdiction to hear the case.[22] The court stated that the United States had been involved in the "unlawful use of force".[23] Author Naom Chomsky argues that:
The World Court considered their case, accepted it, and presented a long judgment, several hundred pages of careful legal and factual analysis that condemned the United States for what it called “unlawful use of force”--which is the judicial way of saying “international terrorism”--ordered the United States to terminate the crime and to pay substantial reparations, many billions of dollars, to the victim.[24]
The ICJ used the Psychological Operations in Guerrilla Warfare CIA manual as evidence in the case.
Iran vs. United States
In 1988 Iran Air Flight 655 was shot down by the USS Vincennes while enroute from Bandar Abbas to Dubai killing all 290 civilian passengers. The US claimed the act it to be an error. However, following the incident, the men of the Vincennes were all awarded combat-action ribbons and the air-warfare co-ordinator won the navy's Commendation Medal for "heroic achievement" noting his "ability to maintain his poise and confidence under fire" that enabled him to "quickly and precisely complete the firing procedure." In 1989 Iran took the US to the International Court of Justice over the incident.[25] The US chose to settle out of court, paying Iran $61.2m compensation.[26][27]
Yugoslavia v. United States
The Federal Republic of Yugoslavia brought an "unlawful use of force" action in 1999 against the US and other NATO members, in response to NATO bombing in the Kosovo War.[28] The International Court dismissed the case because the US did not recognize the FRY government and did not accept the court's jurisdiction.[29] Similar cases were taken by Yugoslavia against each NATO member state[30]
References
- ^ a b c d e Ganser, Daniele. Natos Secret Armies: Operation Gladio and Terrorism in Western Europe. ISBN 0714656070.
{{cite book}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter:|coauthors=(help) - ^ NSC 10/2: National Security Council Directive on Office of Special Projects, June 18, 1948. Formmerly Top Secret, obtained by Etzold and Gaddis under FOIA rules
- ^ "Crytome: Field Manual FM 30-31B". Retrieved 2006-07-30.
- ^ a b "Misinformation about "Gladio/Stay Behind" Networks Resurfaces". US Dept of State Official Website, 20 Jan 2006. Retrieved 2006-07-30.
- ^ "The Bay of Pigs Invasion/Playa Girón: a Chronology of Events". The National Security Archive. Retrieved 2006-07-30.
- ^ Sanchez, Marcela (September 3). "Moral Misstep: Some Terrorists Get a Hero's Welcome". Washington Post.
{{cite journal}}: Check date values in:|year=(help); Cite has empty unknown parameter:|coauthors=(help); Unknown parameter|month=ignored (help)CS1 maint: year (link) - ^ Cohn, Gary (1995). "Unearthed: Fatal Secrets A carefully crafted deception". Baltimore Sun.
{{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter|coauthors=ignored (|author=suggested) (help); Unknown parameter|month=ignored (help) - ^ "Declassified Army and CIA Manuals". Latin American Working Group. Retrieved 2006-07-30.
- ^ "Terrorism Debacles in the Reagan Administration". The Future of Freedom Foundation. Retrieved 2006-07-30.
- ^ Brinkley, Joel (June 9). "Ex-C.I.A. Aides Say Iraq Leader Helped Agency in 90's Attacks". New York Times.
{{cite journal}}: Check date values in:|year=(help); Cite has empty unknown parameter:|coauthors=(help); Unknown parameter|month=ignored (help)CS1 maint: year (link) - ^ Vulliamy, Ed (1990). "Secret agents, freemasons, fascists... and a top-level campaign of political 'destabilisation'". The Guardian: 12.
{{cite journal}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter:|coauthors=(help); Unknown parameter|month=ignored (help) - ^ Würsten, Felix (2005). "Conference "Nato Secret Armies and P26": The dark side of the West". ETH Life Magazine.
{{cite journal}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter:|coauthors=(help); Unknown parameter|month=ignored (help) - ^ Richards, Charles (1990). "Gladio is still opening wounds". The Independent: 12.
{{cite journal}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter:|coauthors=(help); Unknown parameter|month=ignored (help) - ^ "Translated from Bologna massacre Association of Victims Italian website". Google.com. Retrieved 2006-07-30.Template:It icon
- ^ Floyd, Chris (2005). "Global Eye - Sword Play". The Moscow Times.
{{cite journal}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter:|coauthors=(help); Unknown parameter|month=ignored (help) - ^ Howells, Tim (November 28). "How our governments use terrorism to control us". The On-Line Journal Special Reports.
{{cite journal}}: Check date values in:|year=(help); Cite has empty unknown parameter:|coauthors=(help); Unknown parameter|month=ignored (help)CS1 maint: year (link) - ^ Rowse, Arthur E. (January 31). "Gladio: The Secret U.S. War to Subvert Italian Democracy". Independent Media Center.
{{cite journal}}: Check date values in:|year=(help); Cite has empty unknown parameter:|coauthors=(help); Unknown parameter|month=ignored (help)CS1 maint: year (link) - ^ "GLADIO EP 22.11.90, joint resolution replacing B3-2021, 2058, 2068, 2078 and 2087/90, RESOLUTION on the GLADIO affair Appendix 2". European Parliament, 22.11.90. Retrieved 2006-07-30.
- ^ "US 'supported anti-left terror in Italy'". The Guardian. 2000.
{{cite journal}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter:|coauthors=(help); Unknown parameter|month=ignored (help) - ^ Willan, Philip (2001). "Obituary: Paolo Emilio Taviani". The Guardian.
{{cite journal}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter:|coauthors=(help); Unknown parameter|month=ignored (help) - ^ Official name: Military and Paramilitary Activities in and against Nicaragua (Nicar. v. U.S.), Jurisdiction and Admissibility, 1984 ICJ REP. 392 June 27, 1986.
- ^ Morrison, Fred L. (January 1987). "Legal Issues in The Nicaragua Opinion". American Journal of International Law. 81: 160–166.
{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: year (link) "Appraisals of the ICJ's Decision. Nicaragua vs United State (Merits)" - ^ "International Court of Justice Year 1986, 27 June 1986, General list No. 70, paragraphs 251, 252, 157, 158, 233". International Court of Justice. Retrieved 2006-07-30. Large PDF file from the ICJ website
- ^ "On the War in Afghanistan Noam Chomsky interviewed by Pervez Hoodbhoy". chomsky.info. Retrieved 2006-07-30.
- ^ "Aerial Incident of 3 July 1988 (Islamic Republic of Iran v. United States of America)". Retrieved 2006-03-31.
- ^ "1988: US warship shoots down Iranian airliner". BBC News: On This Day, 3rd July.
{{cite journal}}: Cite has empty unknown parameters:|month=and|coauthors=(help) - ^ "Iran remembers US 'crime'". BBC News. 2000.
{{cite journal}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter:|coauthors=(help); Unknown parameter|month=ignored (help) - ^ "Application instituting proceedings Legality of the Use of Force (Yugoslavia v. United States of America)". International Court of Justice. Retrieved 2006-07-30.
- ^ "The Court rejects the request for the indication of provisional measures submitted by Yugoslavia and dismisses the case". International Court of Justice press release 99/33 June 2, 1999. Retrieved 2006-07-30.
- ^ "List of Contentious Cases by Country (Serbia)". International Court of Justice (Website). Retrieved 2006-08-13.
Further reading
- Gareau, Frederick H. (March 2004). State Terrorism and the United States : From Counterinsurgency to the War on Terrorism. Clarity Press. ISBN 0932863396.
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