Josephine Butler

A three-quarter length profile of Butler looking to the left; she wears a black dress and long white headscarf

Josephine Butler

Josephine Elizabeth Butler (née Grey; 13 April 1828 – 30 December 1906) was an English feminist and social reformer in the Victorian era. She was especially concerned with the welfare of prostitutes, although she campaigned on a broad range of women's rights. Butler grew up in a well-to-do and politically well-connected liberal family which helped develop in her a strong social conscience and firmly held religious ideals. She married George Butler, an Anglican divine and schoolmaster, and the couple had four children, the last of which, Eva, died falling from a bannister. The death was a turning point for Butler, and she focused her feelings on helping others, starting with the inhabitants of a local workhouse. She began to campaign for women's rights, which included Women's suffrage, the right to better education and the end of coverture in British law. In 1869 Butler became involved in the campaign to repeal the Contagious Diseases Acts, legislation that attempted to control the spread of venereal diseases—particularly in the British Army and Royal Navy—through the forced medical examination of prostitutes, a process Butler described as surgical or steel rape. The campaign achieved its final success in 1896 with the repeal of the Acts. Butler also formed the International Abolitionist Federation, a Europe-wide organisation to combat similar systems on the continent.

While investigating the effect of the Acts, Butler had been appalled that some of the prostitutes were as young as 12, and that there was a slave trade of young women and children from England to the continent for the purpose of prostitution. A campaign to combat the trafficking led to the removal from office of the head of the Belgian Police des Mœurs, and the trial and imprisonment of his deputy and 12 brothel owners, who were all involved in the trade. Butler's fought child prostitution with help from the campaigning editor of the Pall Mall Gazette, William Thomas Stead, who purchased a 13-year-old girl from her mother for £5. The subsequent outcry led to the Criminal Law Amendment Act 1885 which raised age of consent from 13 to 16 years of age and brought in measures to stop children becoming prostitutes. Butler's final campaign was against the Contagious Diseases Acts implemented in the British Raj.

Butler's Christian feminism is celebrated by the Church of England with a Lesser Festival, and by representations of her in the stained glass windows of Liverpool's Anglican Cathedral and St Olave's Church in the City of London. Her name appears on the Reformers Memorial in Kensal Green Cemetery, London and Durham University named one of their colleges after her. Her campaign strategies changed the way feminist and suffragists would conduct future struggles, and her work brought groups of people permanently into the political milieu that had never been active before. After Butler's death in 1906 the feminist intellectual Millicent Fawcett hailed her as "the most distinguished Englishwoman of the nineteenth century".

Biography

Early life; 1828–50

John Grey, Butler's father

Butler was born Josephine Grey on 13 April 1828 at Milfield, Northumberland. She was the fourth daughter and seventh child of Hannah (née Annett) and John Grey, a land agent and agricultural expert. In 1833 John was appointed as the manager of the Greenwich Hospital Estates in Dilston, near Corbridge, Northumberland, and the family moved to the area. John was a cousin of Lord Grey, the reforming British Prime Minister, and acted as his chief political agent in Northumberland. In this role John promoted his cousin's political opinions locally, including in the matters of Catholic emancipation, the abolition of slavery, the repeal of the Corn Laws and reform of the poor laws. Butler was taught at home before completing her schooling attended a boarding school in Newcastle upon Tyne for two years.

John ensured that all his children were treated equally within the home, and would discuss politics and social issues with all of them; he also ensured that his children met the politically important visitors to his house. Her father's political work and ideology had a strong influence on Butler, as did the religious teaching she received from her mother, and the "intellectual, political and social milieu ... helped to form her strong religious convictions and social conscience."

At about the age of 17 Butler went through a religious crisis, which probably stemmed from an incident in which she discovered the body of a suicide while out riding. She became disenchanted at her weekly church attendance, describing the local vicar as "an honest man in the pulpit ... [who] taught us loyally all that he probably himself knew about God, but whose words did not even touch the fringe of my soul's deep discontent". Following her crisis, Butler did not identify with any single strand of Christianity, and remained critical of the Anglican church. She later wrote that she "imbibed from childhood the widest ideas of vital Christianity, only it was Christianity. I have not much sympathy with the Church. She began a practice of speaking directly to God in her prayers:

I spoke to Him in solitude, as a person who could answer. ... Do not imagine that on these occasions I worked myself up into any excitement; there was much pain in such an effort, and dogged determination required. Nor was it a devotional sentiment that urged me on. It was a desire to know God and my relation to Him.

In the summer of 1847 Butler visited her brother in County Laois, Ireland. It was at the height of the Great Famine and the first time she had come into contact with widespread suffering among the poor; she was deeply affected by her experiences and later recalled that "A young girl, I had no conception of the full meaning of the misery I saw around me, yet it printed itself upon my brain and memory."

Early married life; 1850–64

George, Butler's husband

By 1850 Butler was in a relationship with George Butler, a Fellow of Exeter College, Oxford, by which time the couple had been present at several of the local balls that she enjoyed attending. By October that year George was sending her poems he had written for her; the couple were engaged in January 1851 and married in January 1852. The Butlers settled in a home at 124, High Street, Oxford. George was a scholar and cleric and shared with his wife a commitment to liberal reforms and a love of Italian culture. The couple also shared a strong Christian belief and Butler later wrote of her husband that they often "prayed together that a holy revolution might come about and that the Kingdom of God might be established on the earth".

In November 1852 the Butlers had a son, George Grey Butler and a second, Arthur Stanley—known as Stanley—in May 1854. Butler's later memories of Oxford were of a closeted and misogynist community lacking in family life; she was often the only female at social gatherings and would listen in anger to what her biographer Judith Walkowitz describes as "the open acceptance of the double standard by the gentlemen of the university". Butler was offended by a discussion regarding the publication in 1853 of Elizabeth Gaskell's novel Ruth in which the heroine is seduced by a man of means and subsequently abandoned. Butler saw that the male conversationalists considered it natural that a "moral lapse in a woman was spoken of as an immensely worse thing than in a man"; she decided to not to voice her feelings on the point but "to speak little with men, but much with God". As a more practical measure she—and George—began to help many of the fallen woman of Oxford and invited some to live in their house. One case in which they were involved concerned a young woman serving a prison sentence at Newgate. She had been seduced by a don who had subsequently abandoned her; the woman had murdered her baby in despair. The Butlers contacted the governor of Newgate to arrange for her to stay in their house at the end of her sentence.

Bust of Butler in 1865, aged 36, by Alexander Munro

In 1856 Butler's health began to suffer from Oxford's damp atmosphere, which exacerbated a long-standing lesion on her lung; her doctor informed her that to remain in Oxford could be fatal. As an immediate step George purchased a house in Clifton, near Bristol, where their third son, Charles, was born in 1857. The same year, as a longer-term measure, George took the position of vice-principal at Cheltenham College and the couple moved to a local house. The couple continued their support for liberal causes, including for the Italian nationalist Giuseppe Garibaldi, although their sympathy for the Union cause in the American Civil War led to social ostracism; Butler considered that the resultant feeling of social isolation "was often painful ... but the discipline was useful".

In May 1859 Butler gave birth to her final child, a daughter, Evangeline Mary, known as Eva. In August 1864 Eva fell 40 feet (12 m) from the top-floor bannister onto the stone floor of the hallway; she died three hours later. Butler was distraught by the loss and had disturbed sleep for several years; she was unable to write about the circumstances until over 30 years later. The subsequent inquest gave a verdict of accidental death.

In October that year Stanley contracted diphtheria. At the time Butler was still grieving for the loss of Eva, was suffering from an associated period of depression and was in poor health. After the worst of Stanley's ailment passed, Butler decided to take him to Naples for them both to rest and recuperate. The ship in which they travelled down the west coast of Italy faced rough weather and Butler had a physical breakdown on board, from which she nearly died.

Liverpool and the start of reform work; 1866–69

In January 1866 George was appointed as headmaster of Liverpool College, and the family moved to premises in the Dingle area of the city. Despite the move to a new city, Butler continued to mourn for the loss of Eva. She focused her feelings on helping others; she later wrote that she "became possessed with an irresistible urge to go forth and find some pain keener than my own, to meet with people more unhappy than myself. ... It was not difficult to find misery in Liverpool." She made regular visits to the workhouse at Brownlow Hill, an institution that could hold 5,000 individuals. She would sit with the women in the cellars—many of whom were prisoners—and pick oakum with them, during which she would discuss the Bible or pray with them.

Butler's hostel for women, Liverpool; pictured in a derelict condition in 2009, prior to its demolition

Just as they had done in Cheltenham, the Butlers began providing shelter in their own home for some of the women—often prostitutes in the terminal stages of venereal disease. It soon became clear that there were more women in need than they could provide for, so Butler set up a hostel for women, with funds from local men of means. By Easter 1867 she had set up larger home for women, which included the provision of work more appropriate than oakum picking, including sewing and the manufacture of envelopes; the "Industrial Home", as she called it, was funded by the workhouse committee and local merchants.

Butler increasingly began to campaign for women's rights, including obtaining the vote and the right to better education. In 1866 she was one of the signatories of a petition to amend the Reform Bill to widen the franchise to include women. The petition, supported by the MP and philosopher John Stuart Mill, did not pass when the bill passed into law.

Butler saw the two Liverpool hostels as stop-gaps only, as women would continue to struggle to find employment unless they had been educated. In 1867, with the suffragist Anne Clough, she established the North of England Council for Promoting the Higher Education of Women, which aimed to raise the status of governesses and female teachers to that of a profession; Butler served as the president of the organisation until 1873. A series of lectures, initially in towns in the north of England began under James Stuart, a Fellow of Trinity College, Cambridge. Although it was thought only thirty students a week would attend, three hundred joined. In 1868 Butler published "The Education and Employment of Women", her first pamphlet, in which she argued for the access to higher education for women, and more equal access to a wider range of jobs. That May she petitioned the Senate of the University of Cambridge to provide examinations for women; the Cambridge Higher Examination for women was introduced the following year. Jordan notes that "most of the credit for this should go to Anne Clough, but ... Butler played a very influential part ... in the campaign."

At the time British law relating to marriage was based on the legal doctrine of coverture, in which a woman's legal rights and obligations were subsumed by those of her husband upon their matrimony. By law, therefore, a woman had no separate legal existence, and all her property became her husband's; divorce initiated by a woman was a difficult and complicated task. In April 1868 Butler and fellow suffragist Elizabeth Wolstenholme set up and became joint secretaries of the Married Women's Property Committee to pressure parliament into changing the law. Butler remained on the committee until the campaign was successful, with the passing into law of the Married Women's Property Act 1882.

First attempt to repeal of the Contagious Diseases Acts; 1869–74

Elizabeth Wolstenholme, who persuaded Butler to join the Married Women's Property Committee and the Ladies National Association for the Repeal of the Contagious Diseases Acts

In 1869 Butler became aware of the Contagious Diseases Acts. The Acts had been introduced in 1864, 1866 and 1869 as a form of state regulation of prostitution in an attempt to control the spread of venereal diseases, particularly in the British Army and Royal Navy. The Acts authorised a police officer to detain any woman in a specific area who he thought may be a prostitute—for which no evidence was needed, other than his word. If a local magistrate agreed with the policeman, the woman would be given a genital examination. If she was suffering from a sexually transmitted disease, she would be held in a lock hospital until the condition was cured. If she refused to be examined or hospitalised, she could be imprisoned, often with hard labour.

Units of plainclothes policemen were set up to specialise in the work of arresting suspected prostitutes; according to Jordan, the officers were "hated for their surveillance and harassment of prostitutes and working-class women ... who they treated with little regard for their legal rights". Women who were subjected to the examination found their names and reputations affected and, according to the historian Hilary Cashman, "as a result ... the Acts had the effect of turning them to prostitution by barring respectable ways of life to them".

In September 1869 Wolstenholme and Butler met in Bristol to discuss what could be done about the Acts. Although the National Association for the Repeal of the Contagious Diseases Acts was founded that October, it excluded women from becoming members. In response, Wolstenholme and Butler formed the Ladies National Association for the Repeal of the Contagious Diseases Acts (LNA) before the end of the year. The organisation published a Ladies Manifesto of their concerns, which stated the Acts were discrimination on grounds of both sex and class, which

not only deprived poor women of their constitutional rights and forced them to submit to a degrading internal examination, but they officially sanctioned a double standard of sexual morality, which justified male sexual access to a class of 'fallen' women and penalised women for engaging in the same vice as men.

On 31 December 1869 the association published a statement in The Daily News that stated it had "been formed for the purposes of obtaining the repeal of these obnoxious Acts". Among the 124 signatories, alongside Butler and Wolstenholme, were the social theorist Harriet Martineau and the social reformer Florence Nightingale.

In 1870 Butler began to tour the country and travelled 3,700 miles to attend 99 meetings during the course of the year. She focussed her attention on working class family men, the majority of whom were outraged at the description Butler gave of the examination women were forced to undergo; she called the process as surgical or steel rape. Although she persuaded many of those in her audiences, she faced significant opposition, which often put her in danger. At one meeting pimps through cow dung at her, at another, the windows of her hotel were smashed; at a third, threats were made to burn the building down.

The Home Secretary, Henry Bruce, who set up a Royal Commission in 1871 to examine the Contagious Diseases Acts

At the 1870 Colchester by-election the LNA fielded their own candidate against the Liberal Party candidate Sir Henry Storks, a supporter of the Acts, who had implemented a similar regime when he commanded the British army in Malta. Butler held several local meetings during the campaign; during one she was chased by a group of brothel owners. The presence of the LNA candidate split the Liberal vote and allowed the Conservative Party candidate to win the seat; Butler considered that "it proved to be somewhat of a turning-point in the history of our crusade". Because of Stork's loss at the by-election the Home Secretary, Henry Bruce, announced a Royal Commission to examine the situation. One MP told Butler that

Your manifesto has shaken us very badly in the House of Commons; a leading man in the House remarked to me, "We know how to manage any other opposition in the House or in the country, but this is very awkward for us—this revolt of the women. It is quite a new thing; what are we to do with such an opposition as this?"

The commission began work in early January 1871 and took six months to listen to the evidence. After Butler gave her testimony to the commission on 18 March, one of the members of the committee, the Liberal MP Peter Rylands, stated that, "I am not accustomed to religious phraseology, but I cannot give you an idea of the effect produced except by saying that the spirit of God was there". The commission's report defended the one-sided nature of the legislation, saying "... there is no comparison to be made between prostitutes and the men who consort with them. With the one sex the offence as a matter of gain; with the other it is an irregular indulgence of a natural impulse." The report also accepted the findings that the sexual health of men in the 18 areas covered by the Acts had improved. In relation to the compulsory examinations, the commission was swayed by the descriptions of "steel rape", and suggested that it should be voluntary not compulsory. The commission had heard significant evidence that many of the prostitutes were as young as 12, and they recommended that the age of consent should be raised from 12 to 14. Bruce took no action on any of the recommendations for six months.

In February 1872 Bruce proposed a bill that took some of the commission's recommendations, but widened to geographical scope from the 18 military centres to the whole of the UK. Although the LNA's initial stance was to accept some of the clauses of the bill and try and change others, Butler rejected it in its entirety and published The New Era, a 56-page pamphlet attacking the legislation; the pamphlet was published in serial form in The Shield. It was the first split in the repeal movement and she lost many of her personal supporters because of her stance. The bill faced too much opposition from the parliamentary supporters of the Contagious Diseases Acts, and it was withdrawn.

Handbill issued prior to a talk during the Pontefract by-election, 1872

Two months after the withdrawal of Bruce's bill, a ministerial by-election in Pontefract in 1872 gave the LNA an opportunity for further action. Although they did not field a candidate, Butler attended meetings in the town. At one meeting, the floor of the room had been liberally sprinkled with cayenne pepper by her opponents, making speaking difficult. After that was cleared away, her opponents set bales of straw alight in a storeroom below, which led to smoke rising through the floorboards; two members of the Metropolitan police looked on but took no action. Although the incumbent Liberal candidate, Hugh Childers, was returned, there were heavy abstentions, and his vote was reduced by 150 (from a constituency of 2,000). In December that year Butler met the prime minister, William Gladstone, when he visited Liverpool College. Although he supported the aims of the LNA, he was politically unable to publically back the LNA and had supported Bruce's bill.

European pressure and the white slave trade; 1874–80

James Stansfeld, the first general secretary of the International Abolitionist Federation

The fall of the Liberal government in 1874, and its replacement with Benjamin Disraeli's Conservative Party meant the repeal campaign stalled politically; Butler called 1874 a "year of discouragement" where there was "deep depression in the work". Although the LNA kept up the pressure during the Conservative government, progress in persuading Liberal MPs to oppose the Contagious Diseases Acts was slow, and the government was implacable in its support of the measures.

At a meeting of regional LNA branches in May, one speech focussed on the legislation in Europe; the meeting accepted a resolution to begin correspondence with their sister organisations on the continent. At the start of December 1874 Butler left for Paris at the start of a tour that covered France, Italy and Switzerland, where she met with local pressure groups and civic authorities; she encountered strong support from feminist groups, but hostility from the authorities. She returned from her travels at the end of February 1875.

As a result of her experiences, in March 1875 Butler formed the British and Continental Federation for the Abolition of Prostitution (later renamed the International Abolitionist Federation), an organisation to protect the civil rights of prostitutes, and to campaign against state regulation of prostitution. The Liberal MP James Stansfeld—a supporter of the repeal of the Contagious Diseases Acts—became the federation's first general secretary; Butler and her friend, the Liberal MP Henry Wilson, became joint secretaries.

In 1878 Butler wrote a biography of Catherine of Siena, which Glen Petrie—Butler's biographer—thought was probably her best work; Walkowitz considers the work provided Butler with a "historical justification for her own political activism". Another biographer, Helen Mathers, believes that "in emphasising that she and Catherine were born to be leaders, of both men and women, ... [Butler] made a profound contribution to feminism."

In 1879 Butler became aware of the slave trade of young women and children from England to the continent. The young girls from England were considered as "fair game", according to Mathers, as the law allowed them to become prostitutes at the age of 13. After playing a minor role in starting an investigation into an accusation of trafficking, Butler became active in the campaign in May 1880, and write to The Shield to inform readers that "the official houses of prostitution in Brussels are crowded with English minor girls", and that in one house "there are immured little children, English girls of from twelve to fifteen years of age ... stolen, kidnapped, betrayed, got from English country villages by every artifice and sold to these human shambles." Butler visited Brussels where she met the local mayor and local councillors; she made specific allegations against the head of the Belgian Police des Mœurs and his deputy for their involvement in the trade. After the meeting she was contacted by a Belgian detective who confirmed that the senior members of the Police des Mœurs were guilty of collusion with the brothel keepers. She returned home and filed a deposition containing a copy of the statement from the Belgian detective and sent them to the Belgian Procureur du Roi (Chief Prosecutor) and the British Home Secretary. Following a Belgian investigation, the head of the Belgian Police des Mœurs was removed from office, and his deputy was put on trial alongside 12 brothel owners; all were imprisoned for their roles in the trade.

Second attempt to repeal of the Contagious Diseases Acts; 1880–85

William Gladstone, a friend of the Butlers, and a tacit supporter of Butler's work

The 1880 general election had removed Disraeli's Conservative party from office; they were replaced by Gladstone's second ministry, which contained a high proportion of MPs who wanted to repeal the Contagious Diseases Acts. As Prime Minister, Gladstone had the power to nominate candidates to vacant positions within the Church and, in June 1882, he offered George the position of canon of Winchester Cathedral. George had been considering retirement, but he and Butler were concerned about their finances, as much of their income had been spent on the LNA and other causes Butler supported; the couple moved into a grace and favour home near the cathedral. Butler set up a new hostel for women near their home.

Political pressure from the Liberal backbenchers, particularly Joseph Chamberlain and Charles Hopwood, led to increasing opposition to the Acts. In February 1883 Hopwood tabled a resolution in parliament: "That this House disapproves of the compulsory examination of women under the Contagious Diseases Acts", which was debated in April. MPs voted by a majority of 72 to suspend the inspections; three years later the Acts were formally repealed.

Child prostitution and Eliza Armstrong; 1885–87

Two of Butler's allies in the campaign against child prostitution

Florence Soper Booth

William Thomas Stead

In 1885 Butler met Florence Soper Booth, the daughter-in-law of William Booth, the founder of The Salvation Army. The meeting led to Butler's involvement in the campaign to expose child prostitution in Britain and its associated trade. Butler, Booth and several supporters from the LNA persuaded the campaigning editor of the Pall Mall Gazette, William Thomas Stead to help their cause.

Although Butler was swayed by the evidence he had been shown—and which he added to with his own investigation—he considered the best way to prove that the purchase of young girls for prostitution took place in London, was to buy a girl himself. Butler introduced him to a former prostitute and brothel owner who was staying in her hostel. Stead purchased a 13-year-old girl from her mother for £5. In July 1885 Stead began the publication of a series of articles entitled "The Maiden Tribute of Modern Babylon", which exposing the extent of child prostitution in London. In the first article—which covered six pages of the Gazette—Stead recounted an interview he had with Howard Vincent, the head of the Criminal Investigation Department:

"But", I continued, "are these maids willing or unwilling parties to the transaction–that is, are they really maiden, not merely in being each a virgo intacta in the physical sense, but as being chaste girls who are not consenting parties to their seduction?" He looked surprised at my question, and then replied emphatically: "Of course they are rarely willing, and as a rule they do not know what they are coming for." "But", I said in amazement, "then do you mean to tell me that in very truth actual rapes, in the legal sense of the word, are constantly being perpetrated in London on unwilling virgins, purveyed and procured to rich men at so much a head by keepers of brothels?" "Certainly", said he, "there is not a doubt of it." "Why", I exclaimed, "the very thought is enough to raise hell." "It is true", he said; "and although it ought to raise hell, it does not even raise the neighbours."

Ten days after the article was published, Butler gave a speech at a meeting at Exeter Hall, London, in which she called for an increase in protection for the young, including raising the age of consent. The following day she and George left for a holiday in Switzerland and France. While they were away, a parliamentary bill dealing with the age of consent, which had been moribund soon after its introduction in 1883, was re-debated by MPs; the Criminal Law Amendment Act 1885 was passed on 14 August 1885. The age of consent was raised from 13 to 16 years of age; the procurement girls for prostitution by administering drugs, intimidation or fraud was made it a criminal offence, as was the abduction of a girl under 18 for purposes of carnal knowledge. The police investigated Stead's purchase, and Butler was forced to cut her holiday short to return for questioning. Although she avoided all charges, Stead was imprisoned for three months.

The passing of the Criminal Law Amendment Act led to the formation of several purity societies, such as the White Cross Army, whose aims were to force the closure of brothels through prosecution. The societies also widened their remit to include supress what they considered indecent literature—including information on birth control—and the entertainment provided by the music halls. Butler warned against the purity societies because of their "fatuous belief that you can oblige human beings to be moral by force, and in so doing that you may in some way promote social purity." Butler's warnings were unheeded by other suffragists, and some, such as Millicent Fawcett—who was later Butler's biographer—continued to combine her activities in the feminist movement with the work for the purity societies.

India, Empire and the final years; 1897–1906

Butler in old age, by George Frederic Watts, 1894

Although the Contagious Diseases Acts had been repealed in the UK, the same legislation was active in the British Raj in India, where prostitutes near the British cantonments were ordered to be subjected to regular forced examinations. The relevant legislation was the Special Cantonments Acts. The legislation had been put on to a practical footing by Major-General Edward Chapman who issued standing orders both for the inspection of prostitutes, and a provision "to have a sufficient number of women, to take care that they are sufficiently attractive, to provide them with proper houses."

Butler began a new campaign to have the legislation repealed, comparing the girls to slaves. After the campaign put increasing pressure on MPs, the widespread publication of Chapman's orders led to what Mathers describes as "outrage across Britain". In June 1888 the House of Commons passed a unanimous resolution repealing the legislation, and the Indian government was ordered to cancel the acts. To circumvent the ban, the India Office advised new legislation that ensured that prostitutes suspected of carrying contagious diseases had to undergo an examination or face expulsion from the cantonment.

Towards the end of the late 1890s George's health began to decline, and Josephine spent increasing time looking after him. The couple holidayed in Naples in 1889, but George contracted influenza in the 1889–90 pandemic. The couple returned the Britain, and George died on 14 March 1890; Butler suspended her campaigning in the aftermath of his death. Soon after, she left Winchester, and moved to a house in Wimbledon, London, which she shared with her eldest son and his wife.

Butler was too old to travel to India, but two American supporters of the cause visited on her behalf and spent four months building a dossier showing that the lock hospitals, compulsory examination and use of underage prostitutes—some as young as 11—were all continuing to operate. The campaign in Britain pushed again for further changes, and Butler spoke at meetings, published pamphlets on the matter and writing to missionaries in India.

Although many of Butler's friends and supporters of shared causes spoke out against British Imperial Policy, Butler did not. She wrote that because of the work Britain had undertaken in making slavery illegal, "[w]ith all her faults, looked at from God's point of view, England is the best, and the least guilty of the nations". During the Second Boer War (1899–1902), Butler published Native Races and the War (1900), in which she supported British action and its imperialist policy. In the book she also took a strong line against the casual racism inherent in her countrymen's dealings with foreigners, writing:

Great Britain will in future be judged, condemned or justified, according to her treatment of those innumerable, coloured races, heathen or partly Christianized, over whom her rule extends ... Race prejudice is a poison which will have to be cast out if the world is ever to be Christianized, and if Great Britain is to maintain the high and responsible place among the nations which has been given to her.

From 1901 Butler began to withdraw from public life, resigning her positions in the campaign organisations and spending increasing time with her family. In 1903 she moved to Wooler, Northumberland, to live near her eldest son. On 30 December 1906 she died at home; she was buried in the nearby village of Kirknewton.

Approach, analysis and legacy

Two memorials to Butler

Butler's name on the lower section of the Reformers memorial, Kensal Green Cemetery

The blue plaque erected in 2001 by English Heritage at Butler's former residence in Wimbledon

In 1907 Butler's name was added onto the south side of the Reformers Memorial in Kensal Green Cemetery, London. The memorial was erected for those "who had defied custom and interest for the sake of conscience and public good". She is celebrated in the Church of England with a Lesser Festival on 30 May, and is represented in the stained glass windows of Liverpool's Anglican Cathedral, and St Olave's Church in the City of London.

Her connections to Liverpool were also once memorialised in a more secular fashion. One of the buildings of the Faculty of Business and Law at Liverpool John Moores University was named "Josephine Butler House". The building (previously the first Radium Institute in the UK), at the centre of the Cultural Quarter, Hope Street, Liverpool, and which dated back to 1867, was demolished in 2013 for the site to become a car park and subsequently student housing which opened in 2015.

In 2005 Durham University named Josephine Butler College after her, reflecting her and George's connection to the area and the university. The Women's Library, housed at the London School of Economics, holds a number of collections related to Butler. These include the Records of the Association for Moral and Social Hygiene, renamed the Josephine Butler Society in honour of its founder; over 2,500 letters in the Josephine Butler Letter Collection; and the Josephine Butler Society Library consisting of books and pamphlets collected by the Society. In 2001 English Heritage placed a blue plaque on Butler's former residence in Wimbledon; her former house in Cheltenham was demolished in the 1970s, but in 2002 the Cheltenham Civic Society placed a plaque on the building which now occupies the site.

Butler was not only a staunch feminist but a passionate Christian, whose favourite phrase was "God and one woman make a majority". Although staunchly liberal, she felt constant tensions between her liberal and feminist philosophies. According to the feminist historian Barbara Caine, "Liberalism provided the framework for Butler's whole social and political approach. It was an integral part of her feminism", although this was in conflict with the liberal approach to sexuality and desire. Butler resolved the conflict through her religion.

According to Walkowitz, "Butler pushed liberal feminism in new directions, developing theories and methods of political agitation that would directly affect future campaigns for the emancipation of women." She developed new approaches to campaigning and moved the debate beyond discussions in middle-class houses to the public forum, bringing women into the political debate who had never been involved before. Butler's campaigning "not only reshaped gender, class, and sexual subjectivities in late Victorian Britain but also informed national political history and state-building", according to Walkowitz.

Walkowitz reports that numerous historians consider the success of the campaign to repeal the Contagious Diseases Acts to be a milestone in the history of female emancipation; according to the political historian Margaret Hamilton, the campaign showed that "attitudes toward women were changing".

In 1915 the LNA merged with the International Abolitionist Federation to form the Association of Moral and Social Hygiene, which changed its name to the Josephine Butler Society in 1953. As at 2016 the society still operates; it campaigns for the protection of prostitutes and provides "protection for women and children who are criminally detained, violently abused or exploited by others who profit from their prostitution".

The feminist scholar Sheila Jeffreys says that Butler is "one of the bravest and most imaginative feminists in history", while Fawcett wrote that she was "convinced that ... [Butler] should take the rank of the most distinguished Englishwoman of the nineteenth century", while her unnamed obituarist in The Daily News considered that:

Butler's name will always rank amongst the noblest of the social reformers, the fruit of whose labours is the highest inheritance that we have. She fought with enormous courage and self-sacrifice in a battlefield where she was subjected to the fiercest antagonism ... She never faltered in her task, and it is to her in supreme that the English statute book owes the removal of one of the greatest blots that ever defaced it. Her victory marked one of the great stages of progress of woman to that equality of treatment which is the final test of a nation's civilization.

See also

• History of feminism
• Josephine Butler bibliography

Notes and references

Sources

• Beeson, Trevor (2011). The Church's Other Half: Women's Ministry. London: SCM Press. ISBN 978-0-334-04382-9. {{cite book}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)
• Boyd, Nancy (1982). Three Victorian Women Who Changed Their World: Josephine Butler, Octavia Hill, Florence Nightingale. Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-333-30057-2. {{cite book}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)
• Butler, Arthur (1954). Portrait of Josephine Butler. London: Faber & Faber. OCLC 4025069. {{cite book}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)
• Butler, Josephine (1887). Our Christianity Tested by the Irish Question (PDF). London: T Fisher Unwin. OCLC 908833972. {{cite book}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)
• Butler, Josephine (1892). Recollections of George Butler. Bristol: J W Arrowsmith. OCLC 315370873. {{cite book}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)
• Butler, Josephine (1900). Native Races and the War. London: Gay & Bird. OCLC 10402401. {{cite book}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)
• Butler, Josephine (1909). Johnson, George William; Johnson, Lucy A. Nutter (eds.). Josephine E. Butler: an autobiographical memoir. Bristol: J W Arrowsmith. OCLC 15558901. {{cite book}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)
• Butler, Josephine (1910) [1896]. Personal Reminiscences of a Great Crusade. London: H Marshall & Son. OCLC 26954275. {{cite book}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)
• Butler, Josephine (2003). Jordan, Jane; Sharp, Ingrid (eds.). Josephine Butler and the Prostitution Campaigns: Child prostitution and the age of consent. London: Routledge. ISBN 978-0-415-22688-2. {{cite book}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)
• Cashman, Hilary (January 1990). "Singular Iniquities: Josephine Butler and Marietta Higgs". New Blackfriars. 71 (834): 26–32. JSTOR 43248476. {{cite journal}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)
• Caine, Barbara (1993). Victorian Feminists. Oxford: Oxford University Press. doi:10.1093/acprof:oso/9780198204336.001.0001. ISBN 978-0-1982-0433-6. {{cite book}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)
• Crawford, Elizabeth (2003). The Women's Suffrage Movement: A Reference Guide 1866–1928. London: Routledge. ISBN 1-135-43402-6. {{cite book}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)
• Daggers, Jenny; Neal, Diana, eds. (2006). Sex, Gender, and Religion: Josephine Butler Revisited. New York: Peter Lang. ISBN 978-0-8204-8117-3. {{cite book}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)
• D'Itri, Patricia Ward (1999). Cross Currents in the International Women's Movement, 1848–1948. Bowling Green, OH: Bowling Green State University Popular Press. ISBN 978-0-87972-782-6. {{cite book}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)
• Farmer, Lindsay (2016). Making the Modern Criminal Law: Criminalization and Civil Order. Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-105859-2. {{cite book}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)
• Fawcett, Millicent; Turner, E M (1927). Josephine Butler: Her Work and Principles, and Their Meaning for the Twentieth Century. London: Association for Moral & Social Hygiene. OCLC 1252742. {{cite book}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)
• Garner, Rod (2009). Josephine Butler. London: Darton Longman & Todd. ISBN 978-0-2325-2747-6. {{cite book}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)
• Gordon, Peter; Doughan, David (2014). Dictionary of British Women's Organisations, 1825–1960. London: Routledge. ISBN 978-0-7130-4045-6. {{cite book}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)
• Hamilton, Margaret (Spring 1978). "Opposition to the Contagious Diseases Acts, 1864–1886". Albion. 10 (1): 14–27. JSTOR 4048453. {{cite journal}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)
• Harrington, Carol (2013). Politicization of Sexual Violence: From Abolitionism to Peacekeeping. Farnham, Surrey: Ashgate Publishing. ISBN 978-1-4094-9963-3. {{cite book}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)
• Jordan, Jane (2001). Josephine Butler. London: Hambledon Continuum. ISBN 978-1-8472-5045-2. {{cite book}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)
• Le Feuvre, Cathy (2015). The Armstrong Girl: A child for sale: the battle against the Victorian sex trade (Kindle ed.). Oxford: Lion Books. ISBN 978-0-7459-6821-6. {{cite book}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)
• Limoncelli, Stephanie (2010). The Politics of Trafficking: The First International Movement to Combat the Sexual Exploitation of Women. Standford, CA: Stanford University Press. ISBN 978-0-8047-6294-6. {{cite book}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)
• Mathers, Helen (2014). Patron Saint of Prostitutes: Josephine Butler and the Victorian Sex Scandal. Stroud, Glos: The History Press. ISBN 978-0-7524-9209-4. {{cite book}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)
• Matthew, H C G (2004). "Butler, George (1819–1890)". Oxford Dictionary of National Biography. Oxford University Press. doi:10.1093/ref:odnb/4184. Retrieved 8 July 2016.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: ref duplicates default (link) (subscription or UK public library membership required)
• Petrie, Glen (1971). Singular Iniquity: Campaigns of Josephine Butler. London: Macmillan. ISBN 978-0-3331-1662-3. {{cite book}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)
• Report of Royal Commission upon the Administration and Operation of the Contagious Diseases Acts. London: Her Majesty's Stationery Office. 1871. OCLC 23264353.
• Selfe, David W; Burke, Vincent (2012). Perspectives on Sex Crime & Society. Oxford: Routledge. ISBN 978-1-135-34063-6. {{cite book}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)
• Snell, K D M (1987). Annals of the Labouring Poor: Social Change and Agrarian England, 1660–1900. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-33558-4. {{cite book}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)
• Strachey, Ray (March 1928). "The Centenary of Josephine Butler: An Interview with Dame Millicent Garrett Fawcett". Social Service Review. 2 (1): 1–9. JSTOR 30009144. {{cite journal}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)
• Summers, Anne (Autumn 1999). "'The Constitution Violated': The Female Body and the Female Subject in the Campaigns of Josephine Butler". History Workshop Journal (48): 1–15. JSTOR 4289632. {{cite journal}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)
• Summers, Anne (Autumn 2006). "Which Women? What Europe? Josephine Butler and the International Abolitionist Federation". History Workshop Journal (62): 214–31. JSTOR 25472881. {{cite journal}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)
• Thompson, F M L (2004). "Grey, John (1785–1868)". Oxford Dictionary of National Biography. Oxford University Press. doi:10.1093/ref:odnb/11550. Retrieved 4 July 2016.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: ref duplicates default (link) (subscription or UK public library membership required)
• Walkowitz, Judith R (1982a). Prostitution and Victorian Society: Women, Class, and the State. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-27064-9. {{cite book}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)
• Walkowitz, Judith R (Spring 1982). "Male Vice and Feminist Virtue: Feminism and the Politics of Prostitution in Nineteenth-Century Britain". History Workshop (13): 79–93. JSTOR 4288404. {{cite journal}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)
• Walkowitz, Judith R (2004). "Butler, Josephine Elizabeth (1828–1906)". Oxford Dictionary of National Biography. Oxford University Press. doi:10.1093/ref:odnb/32214. Retrieved 2 June 2016.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: ref duplicates default (link) (subscription or UK public library membership required)
• Williams, Chris (2006). A Companion to 19th-Century Britain. Oxford: Blackwell Publishing. ISBN 978-1-4051-5679-0. {{cite book}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)
• Williamson, Joseph (1977). Josephine Butler: The Forgotten Saint. Leighton Buzzard: Faith Press. ISBN 978-0-7164-0485-9. {{cite book}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)

External links

• Josephine Butler Memorial Trust
• Works by Josephine Butler at Project Gutenberg
• Works by or about Josephine Butler at the Internet Archive
• Works by Josephine Butler at LibriVox (public domain audiobooks)