Northern Ireland Civil Rights Association: Difference between revisions

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Browse history interactively
← Previous editNext edit →
Content deleted Content added
VisualWikitext
→‎Origins: Slight reword, add ref
revert: please do not revert editors' work wholesale without explanation
Line 1: Line 1:
[[Image:Civil_Rights_Mural_SMC_May_2007.jpg|thumb|right|upright|"The Civil Rights Mural - The Beginning".<ref>[http://www.cain.ulst.ac.uk/bogsideartists/mural9/ The wall murals] http://www.cain.ulst.ac.uk. Retrieved [[2007-07-15]].</ref>]]
[[Image:Civil_Rights_Mural_SMC_May_2007.jpg|thumb|right|upright|"The Civil Rights Mural - The Beginning".<ref>[http://www.cain.ulst.ac.uk/bogsideartists/mural9/ The wall murals] http://www.cain.ulst.ac.uk. Retrieved [[2007-07-15]].</ref>]]
The '''Northern Ireland Civil Rights Association''' ([[Irish language|Irish]]: '''Cumann Chearta Sibhialta Thuaisceart Éireann''') was an organisation which campaigned for [[civil rights]] of the Roman Catholic minority in [[Northern Ireland]] during the late 1960s and early 1970s. It dissolved shortly after its tenth anniversary.<ref>"[http://www.communistpartyofireland.ie/s-davidson.html Madge Davidson]", [[Communist Party of Ireland]]</ref>
The '''Northern Ireland Civil Rights Association''' ([[Irish language|Irish]]: '''Cumann Chearta Sibhialta Thuaisceart Éireann''') was an organisation which campaigned for [[civil rights]] [[Northern Ireland]] during the late 1960s and early 1970s. It dissolved shortly after its tenth anniversary.<ref>"[http://www.communistpartyofireland.ie/s-davidson.html Madge Davidson]", [[Communist Party of Ireland]]</ref>


==Origins==
==Origins==
The NICRA was founded at a meeting in Belfast's International Hotel on [[29 January]] [[1967]].<ref name=NICRA>[http://cain.ulst.ac.uk/events/crights/nicra/nicra78.htm#contents We Shall Overcome ... The History of the Struggle for Civil Rights in Northern Ireland 1968 - 1978 by NICRA (1978)]</ref> A thirteen-member elected committee drew up a constitution for the new organisation.<ref name=NICRA/> This committee contained representatives from the [[Republican Clubs]], [[Northern Ireland Labour Party]], the [[Ulster Liberal Party]], the Committee for Social Justice, the [[Communist Party of Ireland]], and the [[Irish Congress of Trade Unions]]. Notably, the [[Nationalist Party (Northern Ireland)|Nationalist Party]] was not represented.<ref name=NICRA/>
The NICRA was founded at a meeting in Belfast's International Hotel on [[29 January]] [[1967]].<ref name=NICRA>[http://cain.ulst.ac.uk/events/crights/nicra/nicra78.htm#contents We Shall Overcome ... The History of the Struggle for Civil Rights in Northern Ireland 1968 - 1978 by NICRA (1978)]</ref> A thirteen-member elected committee drew up a constitution for the new organisation.<ref name=NICRA/> This committee contained representatives from the [[Republican Clubs]], [[Northern Ireland Labour Party]], the [[Ulster Liberal Party]], the Committee for Social Justice, the [[Communist Party of Ireland]], and the [[Irish Congress of Trade Unions]]. Notably, the [[Nationalist Party (Northern Ireland)|Nationalist Party]] was not represented.<ref name=NICRA/>


Since Northern Ireland's creation as a state, the Roman Catholic community had suffered from widespread discrimination under the entirely Protestant Unionist government. NICRA had a number of demands, these included:<ref name=bew>{{cite book |last=Bew |first=Paul |authorlink=Paul Bew, Baron Bew |coauthors=Gordon Gillespie |title=Northern Ireland : A Chronology of the Troubles, 1968-1993 |origyear=1993 |publisher= Gill & MacMillan |location= Dublin |isbn= 0-7171-2081-3 |pages=pp. 1 |chapter=1967 }}</ref><ref>[http://www.bloodysundaytrust.org/edubackground.htm] Background to Bloody Sunday</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Tonge |first=Jonathan |authorlink=|coauthors=|title=Northern Ireland: Conflict and Change |origyear=2002 |publisher= Longman |location= |isbn= 978-0582424005 |pages=pp. 37-38}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Various |first=|authorlink=|coauthors=|title=Politics UK |origyear=2006 |publisher= Longman |location= |isbn= 978-1405824118 |pages=pp. 37-38}}</ref>
NICRA had a number of demands, these included:<ref name=bew>{{cite book |last=Bew |first=Paul |authorlink=Paul Bew, Baron Bew |coauthors=Gordon Gillespie |title=Northern Ireland : A Chronology of the Troubles, 1968-1993 |origyear=1993 |publisher= Gill & MacMillan |location= Dublin |isbn= 0-7171-2081-3 |pages=pp. 1 |chapter=1967 }}</ref>
<!-- NOTE: do not change this list - this is what is cited from the reference above -->

:* universal franchise for local government elections in place of rate-payer based system and the ending of the company vote
:* one man, one vote
:* redrawing of electoral boundaries
:* an end to state [[gerrymandering]] of council boundaries, which effectively limited Catholic influence even when in places where Catholics were the majority
:* the elimination of discrimination in government
:* laws to provide for the elimination of discrimination in local government employment
:* an end to discrimination in housing.
:* a compulsory points system for public housing
:* repeal of the [[List of Acts of the Northern Ireland Parliament|Civil Authorities (Special Powers) Acts]] of 1922, 1933 and 1943 and the disbandment of the [[Ulster Special Constabulary]]
:* the disbandment of the [[B Specials]], an entirely Protestant police reserve, which was percieved by nationalists as sectarian.<ref name="tch">{{cite book | last = Ellison, Graham & Smyth, Jim | title = The Crowned Harp: policing Northern Ireland | publisher = [[Pluto Press]] | date = 2000 | pages = p. 30| isbn = 0745313930}}</ref>


The thirteen man steering committee later elected the following officers:
The thirteen man steering committee later elected the following officers:
Line 40: Line 40:
NICRA held its next meeting to ratify the constitution on [[9 April]] [[1967]]. It was on this date that NICRA officially came into existence. There were some changes in the executive council with Ken Banks [DATA], Kevin Agnew [Republican] and Terence A. O'Brien [Derry, no affiliation] replacing Andrews, McMillen and McGettigan.<ref name=NICRA/>
NICRA held its next meeting to ratify the constitution on [[9 April]] [[1967]]. It was on this date that NICRA officially came into existence. There were some changes in the executive council with Ken Banks [DATA], Kevin Agnew [Republican] and Terence A. O'Brien [Derry, no affiliation] replacing Andrews, McMillen and McGettigan.<ref name=NICRA/>


In a conscious imitation of tactics used by the [[American Civil Rights Movement (1955-1968)|American Civil Rights Movement]],<ref>{{cite book |last=Weiss |first=Ruth |authorlink=Ruth Weiss| title=Peace in Their Time: War and Peace in Ireland and Southern Africa |pages=pp. 34 }}</ref> the new organisation held marches, pickets, sit-ins and protests to pressure the [[Executive Committee of the Privy Council of Northern Ireland|Government of Northern Ireland]] to grant these demands. Some people were suspicious of the motives of NICRA. Many claimed it was a cover for Irish republicanism, or perhaps the [[Irish Republican Army|IRA]]. The first civil rights march in Northern Ireland was held on the [[24 August]] [[1968]] between [[Coalisland]] and [[Dungannon]].<ref>P. Bew and G. Gillespie, ''Northern Ireland: A chronology of the troubles, 1968-1993'', (Dublin, 1993), p. 3.</ref>
In a conscious imitation of tactics used by the [[American Civil Rights Movement (1955-1968)|American Civil Rights Movement]],<ref>{{cite book |last=Weiss |first=Ruth |authorlink=Ruth Weiss| title=Peace in Their Time: War and Peace in Ireland and Southern Africa |pages=pp. 34 }}</ref> the new organisation held marches, pickets, sit-ins and protests to pressure the [[Executive Committee of the Privy Council of Northern Ireland|Government of Northern Ireland]] to grant these demands. Some people were suspicious of the motives of NICRA, which appeared to be confirmed by the fact that there had been links between several prominent Republican members and the [[Irish Republican Army|IRA]].<ref name=bew/> Many claimed it was a cover for Irish republicanism, or perhaps the [[Irish Republican Army|IRA]]. The first civil rights march in Northern Ireland was held on the [[24 August]] [[1968]] between [[Coalisland]] and [[Dungannon]].<ref>P. Bew and G. Gillespie, ''Northern Ireland: A chronology of the troubles, 1968-1993'', (Dublin, 1993), p. 3.</ref>


According to Scotland Yard, the Association was not itself linked to paramilitary groups. However "members [of the IRA] are encouraged to join and take an active role as individuals," and a member of the IRA council was on the Executive of the Civil Rights Association.<ref>[http://www.philipjohnston.com/quotations/ni_civil.htm Quotations relating to the NICRA], including a quote from a "confidential Scotland Yard" memo relating to the involvement of IRA members in the NICRA.</ref>
According to Scotland Yard, the Association was not itself linked to paramilitary groups. However "members [of the IRA] are encouraged to join and take an active role as individuals," and a member of the IRA council was on the Executive of the Civil Rights Association.<ref>[http://www.philipjohnston.com/quotations/ni_civil.htm Quotations relating to the NICRA], including a quote from a "confidential Scotland Yard" memo relating to the involvement of IRA members in the NICRA.</ref>
Line 51: Line 51:
On [[22 November]] [[1968]], [[Prime Minister of Northern Ireland]] [[Terence O'Neill]] announced a series of reforms:<ref name=bew1>{{cite book |last=Bew |first=Paul |authorlink=Paul Bew, Baron Bew |coauthors=Gordon Gillespie |title=Northern Ireland : A Chronology of the Troubles, 1968-1993 |origyear=1993 |publisher= Gill & MacMillan |location= Dublin |isbn= 0-7171-2081-3 |pages=pp. 7 |chapter=1968 }}</ref>
On [[22 November]] [[1968]], [[Prime Minister of Northern Ireland]] [[Terence O'Neill]] announced a series of reforms:<ref name=bew1>{{cite book |last=Bew |first=Paul |authorlink=Paul Bew, Baron Bew |coauthors=Gordon Gillespie |title=Northern Ireland : A Chronology of the Troubles, 1968-1993 |origyear=1993 |publisher= Gill & MacMillan |location= Dublin |isbn= 0-7171-2081-3 |pages=pp. 7 |chapter=1968 }}</ref>


* a new system for the allocation of housing
:* a new system for the allocation of housing
* the establishment of an [[ombudsman]] to investigate complaints
:* the establishment of an [[ombudsman]] to investigate complaints
* a Development Commission to replace the [[Londonderry Corporation]]
:* a Development Commission to replace the [[Londonderry Corporation]]
* the abolition of the Special Powers Acts when it was considered safe to do so
:* the abolition of the Special Powers Acts when it was considered safe to do so
* an end to the company vote
:* an end to the company vote


O'Neill made his 'Ulster at the crossroads' speech on television on [[9 December]], appealing for calm. As a result of the announced reforms, the more moderate civil rights associations declared halt to marches until [[11 January]] [[1969]]. The People's Democracy arranged a march within the month-long suspension however. This decision was renounced by Nationalists and Civil Rights leaders.<ref name=bew2>{{cite book |last=Bew |first=Paul |authorlink=Paul Bew, Baron Bew |coauthors=Gordon Gillespie |title=Northern Ireland : A Chronology of the Troubles, 1968-1993 |origyear=1993 |publisher= Gill & MacMillan |location= Dublin |isbn= 0-7171-2081-3 |pages=pp. 10 |chapter=1968 }}</ref>
O'Neill made his 'Ulster at the crossroads' speech on television on [[9 December]], appealing for calm. As a result of the announced reforms, the more moderate civil rights associations declared halt to marches until [[11 January]] [[1969]]. The People's Democracy arranged a march within the month-long suspension however. This decision was renounced by Nationalists and Civil Rights leaders.<ref name=bew2>{{cite book |last=Bew |first=Paul |authorlink=Paul Bew, Baron Bew |coauthors=Gordon Gillespie |title=Northern Ireland : A Chronology of the Troubles, 1968-1993 |origyear=1993 |publisher= Gill & MacMillan |location= Dublin |isbn= 0-7171-2081-3 |pages=pp. 10 |chapter=1968 }}</ref>


==Burntollet==
==Burntollet==
The People's Democracy rejected the government's commands. In imitation of [[Martin Luther King]]'s [[Selma to Montgomery marches]], about forty members held a march between Belfast and Derry starting on [[1 January]] [[1969]]. The march was repeatedly attacked by Protestant [[loyalist]] extremists (including off-duty members of the [[Ulster Special Constabulary]])<ref>Bew and Gillespie, ''Northern Ireland'', p. 11.</ref> along its route. The most violent incident occurred at [[Burntollet]] bridge where the marchers were attacked by about two hundred loyalists armed with iron bars, bottles and stones<ref>Bew and Gillespie, ibid</ref> while police did little to protect them.
The People's Democracy rejected the government's commands. In imitation of [[Martin Luther King]]'s [[Selma to Montgomery marches]], about forty members held a march between Belfast and Derry starting on [[1 January]] [[1969]]. The march was repeatedly attacked by [[loyalist]]s (including off-duty members of the [[Ulster Special Constabulary]])<ref>Bew and Gillespie, ''Northern Ireland'', p. 11.</ref> along its route. The most violent incident occurred at [[Burntollet]] bridge where the marchers were attacked by about two hundred loyalists armed with iron bars, bottles and stones<ref>Bew and Gillespie, ibid</ref> while police did little to protect them.


Rioting and civil disorder continued in Northern Ireland's towns and cities, culminating in the [[Battle of the Bogside]] in Derry and the [[Northern Ireland riots of August 1969]]. Some claim at this point that NICRA was responsible for rallying support of the Catholic Bogsiders during the Battle of the Bogside. Pleas for equal rights were going unanswered, and the Catholic nationalist community was suffering under Protestant mobs and the RUC. Some increasingly looked to the [[Irish Republican Army (1922-1969)|Irish Republican Army]] to protect their areas from loyalist attacks.{{Fact|date=January 2008}} The [[Marxist]]-influenced IRA leadership attempted to defend some areas but had few arms and little capacity to fight back against rioters who were often also members of the police.{{Fact|date=January 2008}}. The Provisional Irish Republican Army soon emerged, a breakaway from the Official IRA, in an attempt to act as defenders of the Catholic community
Rioting and civil disorder continued in Northern Ireland's towns and cities, culminating in the [[Battle of the Bogside]] in Derry and the [[Northern Ireland riots of August 1969]]. Some claim at this point that NICRA was responsible for rallying support of the Catholic Bogsiders during the Battle of the Bogside.{{cn}} Some amongst the Catholic and nationalist communities increasingly looked to the [[Irish Republican Army (1922-1969)|Irish Republican Army]] to protect their areas from loyalist attacks.{{Fact|date=January 2008}} The [[Marxist]]-influenced IRA leadership attempted to defend some areas but had few arms and little capacity to fight. The [[Provisional Irish Republican Army|Provisional IRA]] soon emerged, a breakaway from the [[Official IRA]], in an attempt to act as defenders of the Catholic community.{{pov-statement}}


==Bloody Sunday==
==Bloody Sunday==
Line 68: Line 68:
{{main|Bloody Sunday (1972)}}
{{main|Bloody Sunday (1972)}}


The NICRA campaigned against [[Operation Demetrius|internment]] following its introduction on [[9 August]] [[1971]]. The British government was interning thousands of men and women without trial. The vast majority were Roman Catholic Nationalists, many were civil rights activists and innocent. At a NICRA anti-internment march in [[Derry]] on [[30 January]] [[1972]], thirteen unarmed demonstrators were shot dead by British troops, in what became known as [[Bloody Sunday (1972)|Bloody Sunday]]. The army claimed it had come under fire, however no guns were uncovered. Most of the victims were shot in the back, indicating they were running away. The government report by Lord Widgery was dismissed by Catholic Nationalists as a whitewash - he defended the troops' actions.
NICRA campaigned against [[Operation Demetrius|internment]] following its introduction on [[9 August]] [[1971]]. The British government was interning thousands of men and women without trial. The vast majority were Roman Catholics Nationalists, many were civil rights activists and innocent. At a NICRA anti-internment march in [[Derry]] on [[30 January]] [[1972]], thirteen unarmed demonstrators were shot dead by British troops, in what became known as [[Bloody Sunday (1972)|Bloody Sunday]]. The army claimed it had come under fire, however no guns were uncovered. Most of the victims were shot in the back, indicating they were running away at the time they were shot. The government report by [[Lord Widgery]], which found the soldiers to be "reckless" but nevertheless concluded that the soldiers were acting out their duty, was dismissed by Catholic Nationalists as a whitewash. Since then, the government of the [[Republic of Ireland]] has presented the British government with an assessment which called into question the competency of the Widgery Report, and a [[Bloody Sunday Inquiry|fresh inquiry]] has been ongoing since 1998.


==References==
==References==

Revision as of 21:54, 30 March 2008

File:Civil Rights Mural SMC May 2007.jpg
"The Civil Rights Mural - The Beginning".[1]

The Northern Ireland Civil Rights Association (Irish: Cumann Chearta Sibhialta Thuaisceart Éireann) was an organisation which campaigned for civil rights Northern Ireland during the late 1960s and early 1970s. It dissolved shortly after its tenth anniversary.[2]

Origins

The NICRA was founded at a meeting in Belfast's International Hotel on 29 January 1967.[3] A thirteen-member elected committee drew up a constitution for the new organisation.[3] This committee contained representatives from the Republican Clubs, Northern Ireland Labour Party, the Ulster Liberal Party, the Committee for Social Justice, the Communist Party of Ireland, and the Irish Congress of Trade Unions. Notably, the Nationalist Party was not represented.[3]

NICRA had a number of demands, these included:[4]

  • universal franchise for local government elections in place of rate-payer based system and the ending of the company vote
  • redrawing of electoral boundaries
  • laws to provide for the elimination of discrimination in local government employment
  • a compulsory points system for public housing
  • repeal of the Civil Authorities (Special Powers) Acts of 1922, 1933 and 1943 and the disbandment of the Ulster Special Constabulary

The thirteen man steering committee later elected the following officers:

Other members of the committee were:

A five point outline of broad objectives was issued to the press after the inaugural meeting. These were:[5]

  • To defend the basic freedoms of all citizens
  • To protect the rights of the individual
  • To highlight all possible abuses of power
  • To demand guarantees for freedom of speech, assembly and association
  • To inform the public of their lawful rights.

NICRA held its next meeting to ratify the constitution on 9 April 1967. It was on this date that NICRA officially came into existence. There were some changes in the executive council with Ken Banks [DATA], Kevin Agnew [Republican] and Terence A. O'Brien [Derry, no affiliation] replacing Andrews, McMillen and McGettigan.[3]

In a conscious imitation of tactics used by the American Civil Rights Movement,[6] the new organisation held marches, pickets, sit-ins and protests to pressure the Government of Northern Ireland to grant these demands. Some people were suspicious of the motives of NICRA, which appeared to be confirmed by the fact that there had been links between several prominent Republican members and the IRA.[4] Many claimed it was a cover for Irish republicanism, or perhaps the IRA. The first civil rights march in Northern Ireland was held on the 24 August 1968 between Coalisland and Dungannon.[7]

According to Scotland Yard, the Association was not itself linked to paramilitary groups. However "members [of the IRA] are encouraged to join and take an active role as individuals," and a member of the IRA council was on the Executive of the Civil Rights Association.[8]

Derry march

In September 1968, NICRA and the Derry Housing Action Committee organised a march to be held in Derry on 5 October 1968. On 1 October, the Protestant fraternal organisation, the Apprentice Boys of Derry, announced their intention to march the same route on the same day and time.[9] William Craig, the Northern Ireland Home Affairs Minister, banned the civil rights march from the city centre.[9]

When the demonstrators defied the ban, they were baton-charged by the Royal Ulster Constabulary who injured many marchers, including West Belfast MP Gerry Fitt. Television pictures of the march taken by RTÉ cameraman, Gay O'Brien, shocked viewers across the world. Two days of rioting in nationalist areas of Derry followed. Students such as Bernadette Devlin at Queen's University, Belfast were radicalised by these events and formed a more radical civil rights organisation People's Democracy.[10]

On 22 November 1968, Prime Minister of Northern Ireland Terence O'Neill announced a series of reforms:[11]

  • a new system for the allocation of housing
  • the establishment of an ombudsman to investigate complaints
  • a Development Commission to replace the Londonderry Corporation
  • the abolition of the Special Powers Acts when it was considered safe to do so
  • an end to the company vote

O'Neill made his 'Ulster at the crossroads' speech on television on 9 December, appealing for calm. As a result of the announced reforms, the more moderate civil rights associations declared halt to marches until 11 January 1969. The People's Democracy arranged a march within the month-long suspension however. This decision was renounced by Nationalists and Civil Rights leaders.[12]

Burntollet

The People's Democracy rejected the government's commands. In imitation of Martin Luther King's Selma to Montgomery marches, about forty members held a march between Belfast and Derry starting on 1 January 1969. The march was repeatedly attacked by loyalists (including off-duty members of the Ulster Special Constabulary)[13] along its route. The most violent incident occurred at Burntollet bridge where the marchers were attacked by about two hundred loyalists armed with iron bars, bottles and stones[14] while police did little to protect them.

Rioting and civil disorder continued in Northern Ireland's towns and cities, culminating in the Battle of the Bogside in Derry and the Northern Ireland riots of August 1969. Some claim at this point that NICRA was responsible for rallying support of the Catholic Bogsiders during the Battle of the Bogside.[citation needed] Some amongst the Catholic and nationalist communities increasingly looked to the Irish Republican Army to protect their areas from loyalist attacks.[citation needed] The Marxist-influenced IRA leadership attempted to defend some areas but had few arms and little capacity to fight. The Provisional IRA soon emerged, a breakaway from the Official IRA, in an attempt to act as defenders of the Catholic community.[neutrality is disputed]

Bloody Sunday

File:Bloody Sunday Mural Bogside 2004 SMC.jpg
Bloodstained civil rights banner after the Bloody Sunday shootings of 1972, depicted in a mural in the Bogside in Derry.
Main article: Bloody Sunday (1972)

NICRA campaigned against internment following its introduction on 9 August 1971. The British government was interning thousands of men and women without trial. The vast majority were Roman Catholics Nationalists, many were civil rights activists and innocent. At a NICRA anti-internment march in Derry on 30 January 1972, thirteen unarmed demonstrators were shot dead by British troops, in what became known as Bloody Sunday. The army claimed it had come under fire, however no guns were uncovered. Most of the victims were shot in the back, indicating they were running away at the time they were shot. The government report by Lord Widgery, which found the soldiers to be "reckless" but nevertheless concluded that the soldiers were acting out their duty, was dismissed by Catholic Nationalists as a whitewash. Since then, the government of the Republic of Ireland has presented the British government with an assessment which called into question the competency of the Widgery Report, and a fresh inquiry has been ongoing since 1998.

References

  1. ^ The wall murals http://www.cain.ulst.ac.uk. Retrieved 2007-07-15.
  2. ^ "Madge Davidson", Communist Party of Ireland
  3. ^ a b c d We Shall Overcome ... The History of the Struggle for Civil Rights in Northern Ireland 1968 - 1978 by NICRA (1978)
  4. ^ a b Bew, Paul. "1967". Northern Ireland : A Chronology of the Troubles, 1968-1993. Dublin: Gill & MacMillan. pp. pp. 1. ISBN 0-7171-2081-3. {{cite book}}: |pages= has extra text (help); Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
  5. ^ B. Purdie, Politics in the streets: the origins of the civil rights movement in Northern Ireland, (Belfast, 1990), p. 133.
  6. ^ Weiss, Ruth. Peace in Their Time: War and Peace in Ireland and Southern Africa. pp. pp. 34. {{cite book}}: |pages= has extra text (help)
  7. ^ P. Bew and G. Gillespie, Northern Ireland: A chronology of the troubles, 1968-1993, (Dublin, 1993), p. 3.
  8. ^ Quotations relating to the NICRA, including a quote from a "confidential Scotland Yard" memo relating to the involvement of IRA members in the NICRA.
  9. ^ a b Martin Melaugh. "The Derry March - Chronology of Events Surrounding the March". CAIN. Retrieved 2008-02-16.
  10. ^ 1968: Londonderry march ends in violence — BBC On This Day article
  11. ^ Bew, Paul. "1968". Northern Ireland : A Chronology of the Troubles, 1968-1993. Dublin: Gill & MacMillan. pp. pp. 7. ISBN 0-7171-2081-3. {{cite book}}: |pages= has extra text (help); Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
  12. ^ Bew, Paul. "1968". Northern Ireland : A Chronology of the Troubles, 1968-1993. Dublin: Gill & MacMillan. pp. pp. 10. ISBN 0-7171-2081-3. {{cite book}}: |pages= has extra text (help); Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
  13. ^ Bew and Gillespie, Northern Ireland, p. 11.
  14. ^ Bew and Gillespie, ibid

External links

Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Northern_Ireland_Civil_Rights_Association&oldid=202150940"