Ancient Greek grammar

Ancient Greek grammar (here mainly referring to that of the Attic dialect) is morphologically complex and preserves several features of Proto-Indo-European morphology. Nouns, adjectives, pronouns, articles, numerals and especially verbs are all highly inflected. This article is an introduction to this morphological complexity.

Accents

Main article: Greek diacritics

The Classical Greek script did not use accents. Accents were devised in the Hellenistic era by scholars who wanted to make it easier for foreigners to learn Greek. The general use of these accents began during the Byzantine Empire. Modern Greek has used only two diacritics since 1982, namely the diaeresis and the acute.

The Ancient Greek script has seven diacritics (two breathings, three accents, a trema, and the hypogegrammene):

• Rough breathing (Greek: δασεῖα, Latin: spiritus asper) (῾), written over a vowel letter, denotes the sound /h/ at the beginning of a word, preceding the vowel. The smooth breathing (Greek: ψιλή, Latin: spiritus lenis) (᾿) denotes the absence of the /h/ sound. The vowel υ always has the spiritus asper, while other vowels can occur with either of the two. The spiritus asper is also conventionally written over a word-initial ρ.
• Acute accent (Greek: ὀξεῖα) (΄) is used on long or short vowels or at the third syllable from the end. If there is a long vowel before a long vowel it will accept an acute accent. e.g.: κώμη (kṓmē hair), ἄνθρωπος (ánthrōpos human).
• Grave accent (Greek: βαρεῖα) (`) is used on long or short vowels and replaces the acute accent but only on the last syllable. However it is not used when the next word causes an inclination of the accent and also when a punctuation mark follows. e.g.: ὁ καλὸς ποιμὴν (ho kalòs poimḕn) but ἔλαφός τις (élaphós tis a deer)—the word τις is behaving as being one word with the ἔλαφος, ἐλθὲ Ἰωάννη (elthè Iōánnē come John) but ἐλθέ, Ἰωάννη (elthé, Iōánnē come, John).
• Circumflex (Greek: περισπωμένη) (῀) is used on long vowels. It is placed when usually a contraction has taken place and on long syllables which are before short syllables. Also, when the last syllable of a noun at the genitive and the dative case is accented, it accepts a circumflex. e.g.: τιμᾶν [from τιμάεν, timân to honour (infinitive)], κῆπος (kêpos garden), nom.: αὐγή (augḗ dawn) gen.: αὐγῆς (augês), αὐγῶν (augôn), dat.: αὐγῇ (augêi), αὐγαῖς (augaîs).

Nouns

Main article: Ancient Greek nouns

In Ancient Greek, all nouns, including proper nouns, are classified according to grammatical gender as masculine, feminine or neuter and present forms in five distinct morphological cases (nominative, genitive, dative, accusative and vocative). Furthermore, common nouns present distinct forms in the singular, dual and plural number. The set of forms that any particular noun will present for each case and number is determined by the declension that it follows. The form of the declension is additionally determined by the final letter or letters in the stem.

The definite articles

Attic Greek has a definite article, but no indefinite article. The definite article agrees with its associated noun in number, gender and case. Proper names usually take a definite article, as do abstract nouns. Adjectives are either placed between the article and noun or after the noun, in which case the article is repeated before the adjective. Dependent genitive noun phrases are positioned in exactly the same way, even though this frequently results in splitting the article and noun by a long dependent phrase. For example, τὸ τοῦ ἀνθρώπου ἔργον 'tò toû anthrṓpou érgon', literally "the (of the man) deed", or "The deed of the man." In earlier Greek, for instance Homeric Greek, there was no definite article as such, the corresponding forms still having their original use as demonstrative pronouns.

The definite article is declined thus:

	Masculine			Feminine			Neuter
	Singular	Dual	Plural	Singular	Dual	Plural	Singular	Dual	Plural
Nominative	ὁ (ho)	τώ (tṓ)	οἱ (hoi)	ἡ (hē)	τά (tā́)	αἱ (hai)	τό (tó)	τώ (tṓ)	τά (tá)
Accusative	τόν (tón)	τώ (tṓ)	τούς (toús)	τήν (tḗn)	τά (tā́)	τάς (tás)	τό (tó)	τώ (tṓ)	τά (tá)
Genitive	τοῦ (toû)	τοῖν (toîn)	τῶν (tôn)	τῆς (tês)	ταῖν (taîn)	τῶν (tôn)	τοῦ (toû)	τοῖν (toîn)	τῶν (tôn)
Dative	τῷ (tôi)	τοῖν (toîn)	τοῖς (toîs)	τῇ (têi)	ταῖν (taîn)	ταῖς (taîs)	τῷ (tôi)	τοῖν (toîn)	τοῖς (toîs)

Verbs

Main article: Ancient Greek verbs

The Ancient Greek verbal system preserves nearly all the complexities of Proto-Indo-European.

In Ancient Greek, verbs have four moods (indicative, imperative, subjunctive and optative), three voices (active, middle and passive), as well as three persons (first, second and third). Verbs are conjugated in four main tenses (present, future, imperfect and aorist), with a full complement of moods for each main tense, although there is no future subjunctive or imperative. In addition, for each main tense, with the exception of the imperfect, there exist, in each voice, an infinitive and participles. Indicative forms of the perfect, pluperfect and the future perfect also exist, but are rather rare. The distinction of the "tenses" in moods other than the indicative is predominantly one of aspect rather than time.

A distinction is traditionally made between the so called athematic verbs, with endings affixed directly to the root (also called mi-verbs) and the thematic class of verbs which present a "thematic" vowel /o/ or /e/ before the ending. All athematic roots end in a vowel except for /es-/ "be". The endings are classified into primary (those used in the present, future, perfect and rare future perfect of the indicative, as well as in the subjunctive) and secondary (used in the aorist, imperfect, and pluperfect of the indicative, as well as in the optative). Ancient Greek also preserves the PIE middle voice and adds a passive voice, with separate forms only in the future and aorist (elsewhere, the middle forms are used).

Dependence of moods and tenses

Infinitive

Ancient Greek has both the articulate infinitive and the inarticulate infinitive. The latter is divided into two categories: the final infinitive and the specific infinitive. When the subject of the infinitive is the same as the subject of the main verb, then the subject of the infinitive is in the nominative case. When the subjects are different, the subject of the infinitive is in the accusative case. When the subject of the infinitive is in the nominative case, it is usually omitted. (This means that the subject of the infinitive is only present when it differs from that of the subject of the main verb.)

• The articulate infinitive uses the neuter article of the singular and replaces the corresponding noun of the verb. (This involves using a preposition phrase as the direct object in English.)

κακόν ἐστι τὸ παρανομεῖν.

It is bad to break the law(s).

• The inarticulate infinitive is separated into two categories.

• The specific infinitive is applied in every tense and is often translated in English as a dependent clause, optionally introduced by "that...", though sometimes it may be translated directly as an infinitive.

λέγουσιν τὸν Σωκράτη σοφὸν εἶναι.

They say that Socrates is wise.

but

νομίζουσιν τὸν Σωκράτη σοφὸν εἶναι.

They consider Socrates to be wise.

[ὑμεῖς] νομίζετε τοὺς πολεμίους [ὑμεῖς] νικῆσαι.

You think that you beat the enemy.

• The final infinitive is not applied in the future tense and is translated into English as an infinitive.

βούλομαί σε εἰς τὰς Ἀθήνας ἰέναι.

I want you to go to Athens.

ἀνάγκη ἐστὶ μάχεσθαι.

It is necessary to fight.

Participle

The participle is a verbal adjective and has many functions in Ancient Greek. The participle can be active, middle or passive and can be found in present, aorist, future and perfect tense. It is divided into three categories: adjectival participle (ἐπιθετική), attributive (κατηγορηματικὴ) and adverbial (ἐπιρρηματική).

• The adjectival participle is often articulate and rarely inarticulate. It functions as an adjective and it can be used with every tense.. The adjectival participle is translated as a relative clause ("who...", "which...", "whom...").

οὗτός ἐστι ὁ κλέψας τὸν χιτῶνα.

That is the one who stole the chiton.

ἔχων τις ὄνον ἔπώλησεν αὐτόν.

Someone who had a donkey sold it.

• The attributive participle is always inarticulate and is used with every tense. The attributive participle sides with the following:

• εἰμί, γίγνομαι, ὑπάρχω

προσεοικότες γίγνονται τοῖς γονεῦσιν οἱ παῖδες.

The children take after their parents.

• δῆλός εἰμι, διαβιῶ, διαμένω, διάγω, διαγίγνομαι, οὐ διαλείπω, διατελῶ, λανθάνω, οἴχομαι, τυγχάνω, φαίνομαι/φανερός εἰμι, φθάνω

δῆλος ἦν ἐπιθυμῶν προσελθεῖν.

It was evident that he wanted to come (He was evident that he wanted to come).

• Verbs which mean commencement, termination, patience, tolerance, fatigue.

ἄρξομαι διδάσκων περὶ τοῦ θείου.

I will start teaching about god.

οὐκ ἀνέχομαί σε ὑβρίζοντα.

I don't tolerate you insulting me.

• Verbs which mean sense, knowledge, learning, memory and their contrary verbs.

αἰσθάνομαί τινας παραβαίνοντας τοὺς νόμους.

I understand that some people break the laws.

• Verbs which mean announcing, showing, proving.

ἀπέδειξε Λύσανδρον κτείναντα Φιλοκλέα.

He proved that Lysander killed Philocles.

• Verbs which mean passions of the soul, such as ἀγανακτῶ (I am vexed), αἰσχύνομαι (I am ashamed), ἥδομαι (I am pleased), χαίρω (I am happy), λυποῦμαι (I am sorry), ὀργίζομαι (I get angry) etc.

χαίρω ὁρῶν σε ὑγιῆ.

I am happy to see you healthy.

ἀγανακτεῖ ὑπομένων τὰς ὕβρεις.

He is vexed to tolerate the insults.

• εὖ/καλῶς/δίκαια/κακῶς ποιῶ, χαρίζομαι, ἀδικῶ, νικῶ, περιγίγνομαι, κρατῶ, ἡττῶμαι, λείπομαι.

καλῶς ποιεῖτε τοὺς γέροντας ἐπιμελοῦντες.

You are doing well by taking care of the old men.

• The adverbial participle is inarticulate, is used with every tense and functions as a adverbial definition. This participle expresses time, cause, purpose, supposition, opposition, concession and matter.

• The temporal participle is used with every tense and especially aorist. It expresses a simultaneous or an anterior action and rarely a posterior one. It is usually found with temporal adverbs such as ἅμα (while, immediately), ἐνταῦθα (then), ἔπειτα (after), εὐθύς (immediately), ἤδη (already), μεταξύ (meanwhile).

ἀποπλεύσας εἰς Λάμψακον τὰς ναῦς ἐπεσκεύαζεν.

After having sailed to Lampsacus he repaired the ships.

ἐπαιάνιζον ἅμα πλέοντες.

They were singing the paean while they were sailing.

• The causal participle is used with every tense and rarely future. It is usually translated as a causal clause or nominative absolute.

ὁρῶν αὐτοὺς λυπουμένους ὑπεσχόμην γράψειν τὴν ἐπιστολήν.

As I see them sad I promised to write the letter.

εἰδώς σε ἱκανὸν ὄντα οὐ φοβοῦμαι.

As I know that you are competent, I am not afraid.

• The final (telic) participle (expresses purpose) is used with the future tense. It forms the negation with μή. If the participle is preceded by a verb which expresses a movement then it stands alone. If the verb does not express a movement then the participle is often found with the ὡς.

ἀνεχώρησεν ἀπαγγελῶν τὰ γεγονότα

He left in order to announce the events.

ψεύδεται ὡς κρύψων τὴν ἀλήθειαν.

He lies in order to hide the truth.

ἔπεμψεν Ἀριστοτέλη ἀγγελοῦντα τὰς σπονδάς.

He sent Aristotle in order for him to announce the agreements (Aristotle will announce).

Gerundive

The gerundive is a passive verbal adjective which indicates the necessity for the action of the verb to be performed. It takes the nominative endings -τέος, -τέᾰ, -τέον, declining like a normal first/second declension adjective. Its stem is normally of the same form as the aorist passive, but with φ changed to π and χ to κ. e.g.

παύω -> παυστέος (to be stopped)

λαμβάνω -> ληπτέος (to be taken)

Gerundives may be used as straightforward adjectives, with the agent, if any, in the dative:

βοῦς θυστέος ἐστίν

An ox must be sacrificed

They may also be used to express impersonal necessity

ποιητέον (ἐστί) ...

It is necessary to do...

Time and aspect

One of the most notable features that Ancient Greek has inherited from Proto-Indo-European is its use of verb tense to express both the time (present, past, or future) and the aspect of the action (as ongoing, finished, or simply taking place). The aspect relation is expressed by the tenses in all the moods, while the time relation is only expressed in the indicative and to a more limited extent in the other moods (also called the dependent moods).

With regard to the time relation that they express in the indicative, the seven tenses are divided into two categories:

• Primary tenses: denoting present or future time. These are the present tense (in its ordinary use), perfect tense, future tense and the rare future perfect tense.
• Secondary (also called historical) tenses, denoting past time. The secondary tenses are the imperfect tense , pluperfect tense, and the aorist tense (in its ordinary uses)

This classification, which properly applies only to tenses of the indicative, is also extended to the dependent moods in the cases where they express the same time relation as the indicative. The time relation expressed by a verb's tense may be present, past or future with reference to the time of the utterance or with reference to the time of another verb with which the verb in question is connected. Compare for instance ἀληθὲς ἐστίν, it's true with εἶπον ὅτι ἀληθὲς ἐστίν/εἴη, I said that it was true (= I said "it's true").

With regard to the aspect relation, the verb's tense also expresses one of three possible aspects, irrespective of the mood it may be in:

• Imperfective aspect: indicating a present, ongoing, continuous, or recurrent action. The present and the imperfect tense convey this aspect.
• Perfective aspect (traditionally also called Aorist aspect in Greek grammar): indicating that the action is started and concluded at the same time or that the action is focused on a single point in time, or that the action simply occurs without reference to its duration or completion. The aorist tense conveys this aspect in all moods.
• Perfect aspect (traditionally also often called Perfective, but not to be confused with the above): indicating that the action is completed at the time it is considered. The perfect tense (in all moods) as well as the pluperfect and future perfect tense carry this aspect.

Tenses in Koine Greek refer to a kind of action rather than a time of action.

Mood of the dependent verb

The rules on mood sequence (Consecutio modorum) determine the mood of verbs in subordinate clauses in a way analogous to but more flexible than the Latin rules on time sequence (Consecutio temporum) which determine their tense.

Putting aside special cases and exceptions, these rules can be formulated as follows:

• In dependent sentences, where the construction allows both the subjunctive and the optative, the subjunctive is used if the leading verb is primary, and the optative if it is secondary. E.g. πράττουσιν ἃ ἂν βούλωνται, they do whatever they want; but ἐπραττον ἃ βούλοιντο, they did whatever they wanted.

• Similarly, where the construction allows both the indicative and the optative, the indicative follows primary, and the optative follows secondary tenses. E.g. λέγουσιν ὅτι τοῦτο βούλονται, they say they want this; εἶπον ὅτι τοῦτο βούλοιντο, they said they wanted this.

See also

• Modern Greek grammar

External links

• Application of Modern Linguistics to Ancient Greek