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{{POV|date=September 2010}}
{{POV|date=August 2010}}
{{POV-title|date=September 2010}}
{{Inappropriate tone|date=August 2010}}
'''Racism and ethnic discrimination in Israel''' includes instances of racism, discrimination and bias against ethnic groups in Israeli society. Israel government officials and others have denied some instances of racism and discrimination. The Israeli government and many groups within Israel have undertaken efforts to combat discrimination.
'''Racism and ethnic discrimination in Israel''' includes instances of racism, discrimination and bias against ethnic groups in Israeli society. Israel government officials and others have denied some instances of racism and discrimination. The Israeli government and many groups within Israel have undertaken efforts to combat discrimination.


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A leader of the Islamist movement in Israel was criticized for saying that it was "a disgrace" that a black Israeli soldier could ask for the identity document of an Arab Muslim.<ref name="rubin"/>
A leader of the Islamist movement in Israel was criticized for saying that it was "a disgrace" that a black Israeli soldier could ask for the identity document of an Arab Muslim.<ref name="rubin"/>


==Differences Between Jewish groups==
==Between Jewish groups==
{{POV|date=September 2010}}


⚫
Jewish Israelis of European or German ancestry ([[Ashkenazi]]) are described as viewing themselves as superior to Jewish Israelis of other ancestries, and of maintaining an elite position in Israel society,<ref>Torstrick, Rebecca L., ''The limits of coexistence: identity politics in Israel'', University of Michigan Press, 2000, p 32</ref><ref>Madmoni-Gerber, Shoshana, ''Israeli media and the framing of internal conflict: the Yemenite babies affair'', Macmillan, 2009, p 54-56</ref> and some describe the attitudes of Ashkenazi as racist or racism.<ref>Ruttenberg, Danya, ''Yentl's revenge: the next wave of Jewish feminism'', p 178</ref>
Mizrahi Jews or 'Edot Hamizrah' -communities of the east- are of diffrent customs and tradition than those of Ashkenazi.<ref name=faq>http://www.faqs.org/faqs/judaism/FAQ/07-Jews-As-Nation/section-12.html</ref> <ref name=jewishbooks>http://jewishbookdistributors.com/products.asp?cat=106</ref>


⚫
However, Some academic sources identify discrimination aimed at Jewish groups as class-based, not race-based. For example, the differences between (Mizrahi) Sephardic Jews (N. Africans, Middle Easterners, Yemenites, etc.) are referred to as ''Adatiyut'' <ref>http://www.allbookstores.com/Jews_Oriental_p4sd.html</ref><ref>http://soc.haifa.ac.il/~s.smooha/download/Mass_Immigrations_to_Israel.pdf</ref><ref>http://my.mli.org.il/Mli_Pdf/Graduate/SephardicMizrahiArab-JewsReflections.pdf</ref><ref>http://books.google.com/books?id=jpoKj4IH5qQC&pg=PA250</ref> community-differences (resulting also in some traditional customary gaps).<ref>[http://www.myjewishlearning.com/israel/Contemporary_Life/Society_and_Religious_Issues/Ashkenazic-Sephardic_Ethnic_Division.shtml]</ref>
⚫
Some Jewish Israelis of European or German ancestry ([[Ashkenazi]]) are described as viewing themselves as ''superior'' to Sefardim, and of maintaining an elite position in Israel society,<ref>Torstrick, Rebecca L., ''The limits of coexistence: identity politics in Israel'', University of Michigan Press, 2000, p 32</ref><ref>Madmoni-Gerber, Shoshana, ''Israeli media and the framing of internal conflict: the Yemenite babies affair'', Macmillan, 2009, p 54-56</ref> and some describe the attitudes of Ashkenazi as racist or racism.<ref>Ruttenberg, Danya, ''Yentl's revenge: the next wave of Jewish feminism'', p 178</ref> Though Mizrahi and Shkenazi are defined seperately in community-wise not by ''race'' by.<ref name=jewishbooks />

⚫
The common reference in Israel and academic sources identify discrimination aimed at Jewish groups as class-based, not race-based. For example, the differences between (Mizrahi) Sephardic Jews (N. Africans, Middle Easterners, Yemenites, etc.) are referred to as ''Adatiyut'' <ref>http://www.allbookstores.com/Jews_Oriental_p4sd.html</ref><ref>http://soc.haifa.ac.il/~s.smooha/download/Mass_Immigrations_to_Israel.pdf</ref><ref>http://my.mli.org.il/Mli_Pdf/Graduate/SephardicMizrahiArab-JewsReflections.pdf</ref><ref>http://books.google.com/books?id=jpoKj4IH5qQC&pg=PA250</ref> community-differences (resulting also in some traditional customary gaps).<ref>[http://www.myjewishlearning.com/israel/Contemporary_Life/Society_and_Religious_Issues/Ashkenazic-Sephardic_Ethnic_Division.shtml]</ref>


Some sources claim that reports of inter-Jewish discrimination in Israel arise from propaganda published by Arab sources which ignores the normality and harmony between the communities.<ref>''Jewish spectator'' School of the Jewish Woman, New York, N.Y., 1981, p. 24</ref><ref>''American Jewish Congress'' 1986, Congress monthly, Volumes 53-54, p. 34</ref>
Some sources claim that reports of inter-Jewish discrimination in Israel arise from propaganda published by Arab sources which ignores the normality and harmony between the communities.<ref>''Jewish spectator'' School of the Jewish Woman, New York, N.Y., 1981, p. 24</ref><ref>''American Jewish Congress'' 1986, Congress monthly, Volumes 53-54, p. 34</ref>
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Some claim that the education system discriminates against Jewish minorities from North Africa and the Middle East, and one source suggests that "ethnic prejudice against Mizrahi Jews is a relatively general phenomenon, not limited to the schooling process".<ref>Yuchtman-Yaar, Ephraim, "Ethnic Inequality in Israeli Schools and Sports: An Expectation-States Approach", in ''The American Journal of Sociology'', Vol. 85, No. 3 (Nov., 1979), pp. 576-590, http://www.jstor.org/stable/2778584</ref>
Some claim that the education system discriminates against Jewish minorities from North Africa and the Middle East, and one source suggests that "ethnic prejudice against Mizrahi Jews is a relatively general phenomenon, not limited to the schooling process".<ref>Yuchtman-Yaar, Ephraim, "Ethnic Inequality in Israeli Schools and Sports: An Expectation-States Approach", in ''The American Journal of Sociology'', Vol. 85, No. 3 (Nov., 1979), pp. 576-590, http://www.jstor.org/stable/2778584</ref>


There was a case in 2010, when a [[Haredi]] school system, where Sephardi and Mizrahi students were sometimes excluded or segregated.<ref>[http://www.alfassa.com/haredi_discrimination.html Ashkenazi Against Sephardi Racism Lives, by Shelomo Alfassa] "The haredim were found guilty by the Israeli High Court of Justice of racism. Evidence of their crime can easily be seen by the fact that schools were constructed with separate entrances and separate classrooms for Ashkenazi and Sephardi Jews. The Ashkenazi parents say they need to keep the classrooms segregated because the families of the Sephardi girls "aren't religious enough."</ref><ref>[http://www.huffingtonpost.com/david-shasha/sephardim-ashkenazim-and_b_615692.html Sephardim, Ashkenazim, and Ultra-Orthodox Racism in Israel, by David Shasha]</ref> In 2010, the Israeli supreme court sent a strong message against discrimination in a case involving the [[Slonim (Hasidic dynasty)|Slonim]] Hassidic sect of the Ashkenazi, ruling that segregation between Ashkenazi and Sephardi students in a school is illegal.<ref>[http://www.time.com/time/world/article/0,8599,1997685,00.html]</ref>*
There was a case in 2010, when a [[Haredi]] school system, where Sephardi and Mizrahi students were sometimes excluded or segregated.<ref>[http://www.alfassa.com/haredi_discrimination.html Ashkenazi Against Sephardi Racism Lives, by Shelomo Alfassa] "The haredim were found guilty by the Israeli High Court of Justice of racism. Evidence of their crime can easily be seen by the fact that schools were constructed with separate entrances and separate classrooms for Ashkenazi and Sephardi Jews. The Ashkenazi parents say they need to keep the classrooms segregated because the families of the Sephardi girls "aren't religious enough."</ref><ref>[http://www.huffingtonpost.com/david-shasha/sephardim-ashkenazim-and_b_615692.html Sephardim, Ashkenazim, and Ultra-Orthodox Racism in Israel, by David Shasha]</ref> In 2010, the Israeli supreme court sent a strong message against discrimination in a case involving the [[Slonim (Hasidic dynasty)|Slonim]] Hassidic sect of the Ashkenazi, ruling that segregation between Ashkenazi and Sephardi students in a school is illegal.<ref>[http://www.time.com/time/world/article/0,8599,1997685,00.html]</ref>* [http://www.ynetnews.com/articles/0,7340,L-3444634,00.html Haredi school rejects 'Sephardi' child - Talmud Torah school rejects four-year-old due to Sephardi grandfather. Principal says child has ‘stain’ in genealogy] Slonim leaders said that the school system segregation was based on religious differences and not racism.
They argue that they seek "to maintain an equal level of religiosity, not from racism." <ref>http://www.ynetnews.com/articles/0,7340,L-3926221,00.html</ref> Respondng to the chrages by secularists, the [[Haredim]] invited Sephardi girls to school, and addded in a statement: “All along, we said it's not about race, but the High Court went out against our rabbis, and therefore we went to prison."<ref>http://www.jpost.com/Israel/Article.aspx?id=182335</ref> It is also about the hotly secular ''Liba curriculum'' which Israeli government tries to dictate upon [[Haredim]].<ref>http://www.hamodia.com/inthepaper.cfm?ArticleID=625</ref>
They argue that they seek "to maintain an equal level of religiosity, not from racism." <ref>http://www.ynetnews.com/articles/0,7340,L-3926221,00.html</ref> Respondng to the chrages by secularists, the [[Haredim]] invited Sephardi girls to school, and addded in a statement: “All along, we said it's not about race, but the High Court went out against our rabbis, and therefore we went to prison."<ref>http://www.jpost.com/Israel/Article.aspx?id=182335</ref> It is also about the hotly secular ''Liba curriculum'' which Israeli government tries to dictate upon [[Haredim]].<ref>http://www.hamodia.com/inthepaper.cfm?ArticleID=625</ref>


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The [[ADL]] affirms that it's Not Racism. "Whatever Israel's mistakes towards its Ethiopian Jewish community, the cause is not racism. Support for the African immigrants, as measured by public." It explains that "what causes the distress is bureaucratic ineptitude and a cultural gap between a traditional community and a modern, technologically-advanced, highly-competitive nation."<ref>http://www.adl.org/presrele/IslME_62/2659_62.asp</ref>
The [[ADL]] affirms that it's Not Racism. "Whatever Israel's mistakes towards its Ethiopian Jewish community, the cause is not racism. Support for the African immigrants, as measured by public." It explains that "what causes the distress is bureaucratic ineptitude and a cultural gap between a traditional community and a modern, technologically-advanced, highly-competitive nation."<ref>http://www.adl.org/presrele/IslME_62/2659_62.asp</ref>


==Black Hebrew Israelite immigration==
[[Black Hebrew Israelites]] are groups of people mostly of [[Black people|Black African]] ancestry who believe they are descendants of the ancient [[Israelite]]s. They are generally not accepted as [[Jew]]s by the greater Jewish community. Many choose to self-identify as Hebrew Israelites or Black Hebrews rather than as Jews.<ref>Ben-Jochannan, p. 306.</ref><ref name="JVL">{{cite web |url=http://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/jsource/Judaism/blackjews.html |title=The Black Jewish or Hebrew Israelite Community |accessdate=2007-12-15 |last=Ben Levy |first=Sholomo |publisher=[[Jewish Virtual Library]] }}</ref><ref>{{cite encyclopedia |editor=Johannes P. Schade |encyclopedia=Encyclopedia of World Religions |title=Black Hebrews |year=2006 |publisher=Foreign Media Group |location=Franklin Park, N.J. |isbn=1601360002 }}</ref><ref name="NYT">{{cite news |first=Tara |last=Bahrampour |title=They're Jewish, With a Gospel Accent |url=http://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res=9D07E3DD1230F935A15755C0A9669C8B63 |work=[[The New York Times]] |date=June 26, 2000 |accessdate=2008-01-19 |archiveurl = http://web.archive.org/web/20080403082701/http://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res=9D07E3DD1230F935A15755C0A9669C8B63 |archivedate = April 3, 2008|deadurl=yes}}</ref>

When the first [[Black Hebrews]] arrived in Israel in 1969, they claimed citizenship under the [[Law of Return]], which gives eligible Jews immediate citizenship.<ref>Michaeli, pp. 73–74.</ref> The Israeli government ruled in 1973 that the group did not qualify for automatic citizenship, and the Black Hebrews were denied [[work permit]]s and state benefits. The group responded by accusing the Israeli government of [[Racism|racist discrimination]].<ref name=Michaeli74>Michaeli, p. 74.</ref> In 1981, a group of American civil rights activist led by [[Bayard Rustin]] investigated and concluded that racism was not the cause of Black Hebrews' situation.<ref name=Shipler>{{cite news |last=Shipler |first=David K. |title=Israelis Urged To Act Over Black Hebrew Cult |url=http://select.nytimes.com/search/restricted/article?res=F4071FFA395F0C738FDDA80894D9484D81 |work=[[The New York Times]] |date=January 30, 1981 |accessdate=2008-05-28 }}</ref> In 1990, Illinois legislators helped negotiate an agreement that resolved the Black Hebrews' legal status in Israel. Members of the group are permitted to work and have access to housing and social services. In 2003 the agreement was revised, and the Black Hebrews were granted [[Permanent residency|permanent resident]] status.<ref name=MFA>{{cite web |url=http://www.mfa.gov.il/mfa/facts%20about%20israel/people/the%20black%20hebrews |title=The Hebrew Israelite Community |accessdate=2008-05-26 |date=September 29, 2006 |publisher=Israel Ministry of Foreign Affairs }}</ref><ref name=Kaufman>{{cite news |last=Kaufman |first=David |title=Quest for a Homeland Gains a World Stage |url=http://www.nytimes.com/2006/04/16/fashion/sundaystyles/16BUTLER.html |work=[[The New York Times]] |date=April 16, 2006 |accessdate=2008-05-28 }}</ref><ref>In 2009, Elyakim Ben-Israel became the first Black Hebrew to receive Israeli citizenship. The Israeli government said that more Black Hebrews may be granted citizenship. {{cite news |last=Alush |first=Zvi |title=First Black Hebrew Gets Israeli Citizenship |url=http://www.ynetnews.com/articles/0,7340,L-3665976,00.html |work=[[Ynetnews]] |date=February 2, 2009 |accessdate=2009-02-02 }}</ref>

In his 1992 essay "Blacks and Jews: The Uncivil War", historian [[Taylor Branch]] asserts the Jews have been "perpetrators of racial hate", citing the example where three thousand members of a sect of Black Jews from Chicago were denied citizenship under the Israeli law of return because of anti-Black sentiment among Israeli Jews.<ref>Forman, Seth, ''Blacks in the Jewish Mind: A Crisis of Liberalism'', p. 14-15</ref><ref>Branch, Taylor "Blacks and Jews: The Uncivil War", in ''Bridges and Boundaries: African Americans and American Jews'' (Salzman, Ed), 1992</ref> However the claims that the Black Hebrew Israelites were denied citizenship because they were black seem baseless, particularly in light of Israel's airlift of thousands of black Ethiopian Jews in the early 1990s.<ref name="Forman">Blacks in the Jewish mind: a crisis of liberalism, Seth Forman, NYU Press, 1998: p. 15</ref>


==Efforts against racism and discrimination==
==Efforts against racism and discrimination==

Revision as of 00:28, 16 September 2010

Racism and ethnic discrimination in Israel includes instances of racism, discrimination and bias against ethnic groups in Israeli society. Israel government officials and others have denied some instances of racism and discrimination. The Israeli government and many groups within Israel have undertaken efforts to combat discrimination.

Israel has one of the broadest anti-discrimination laws of any country. The law prohibits discrimination on the basis of sex, marital status, or sexual orientation. The law also prohibits discrimination by both government and nongovernment entities on the basis of race, religion, political beliefs, and age,[1] and prohibits incitement to racism.[2]

Nevertheless, organizations such as Amnesty International, the Association for Civil Rights in Israel (ACRI), and the United States Department of State[3] have published reports that document racism and discrimination directed towards racial and ethnic groups in Israel.

The absorption of the Ethiopian Jews into Israeli society has been cited as a unique attempt to incorporate a nonwhite group as equal citizens with full rights as part of a Western predominantly white country,[4] and represents an ambitious attempt to deny the significance of race.[4]

Many, including Canadian MP Irwin Cotler and author Raphael Israeli, have observed a recent trend to brand Israel as a racist country as part of a campaign to defame and ostracize Israel.[5] The singling out of Israel for racism has itself been criticized,[6] and protested at the UN by Western nations[7][8] as a form of racism in itself.[9]

Directed at Arabs

See also anti-Arabism in Israel

Racism against Arabs on the part of the Israeli state and Israeli Jews has been identified by critics in personal attitudes, the media, education, immigration rights, housing segregation, and social life. Nearly all such characterizations are disputed.

Israel's Declaration of Independence called for the establishment of a Jewish state with equality of social and political rights, irrespective of religion, race, or sex.[10] The rights of citizens are guaranteed by a set of basic laws (Israel does not have a written constitution).[11] Although this set of laws does not explicitly include the term "right to equality", the Israeli Supreme Court has consistently interpreted "Basic Law: Human Dignity and Liberty"[12] and "Basic Law: Freedom of Occupation (1994)"[13] as guaranteeing equal rights for all Israeli citizens.[14]

The Israeli Ministry of Foreign Affairs states that "Arab Israelis are citizens of Israel with equal rights" and states that "The only legal distinction between Arab and Jewish citizens is not one of rights, but rather of civic duty. Since Israel's establishment, Arab citizens have been exempted from compulsory service in the Israel Defense Forces (IDF)."[15]

According to the 2004 U.S. State Department Country Reports on Human Rights Practices for Israel and the Occupied Territories, the Israeli government had done "little to reduce institutional, legal, and societal discrimination against the country's Arab citizens."[3] The 2005 US Department of State report on Israel wrote: "[T]he government generally respected the human rights of its citizens; however, there were problems in some areas, including... institutional, legal, and societal discrimination against the country’s Arab citizens."[16] Former Likud MK and Minister of Defense Moshe Arens has criticized the treatment of minorities in Israel, saying that they did not bear the full obligation of Israeli citizenship, nor were they extended the full privileges of citizenship.[17] In recent polling (2003–2009) between 42% and 56% of Israelis agreed that "Israeli Arabs suffer from discrimination as opposed to Jewish citizens;" 80% of Israeli Arabs agreed with that statement in 2009.[18]

Polls

The Association for Civil Rights in Israel (ACRI) published reports documenting racism in Israel, and the 2007 report suggested that anti-Arab racism in the country was increasing. Israeli minister charged the poll as biased and not credible.[19] The Israeli government spokesman responded that the Israeli government was "committed to fighting racism whenever it raises it ugly head and is committed to full equality to all Israeli citizens, irrespective of ethnicity, creed or background, as defined by our declaration of independence"[19]. One analysis of the report summarized it thus: "Over two-thirds Israeli teens believe Arabs to be less intelligent, uncultured and violent. Over a third of Israeli teens fear Arabs all together....The report becomes even grimmer, citing the ACRI's racism poll, taken in March of 2007, in which 50% of Israelis taking part said they would not live in the same building as Arabs, will not befriend, or let their children befriend Arabs and would not let Arabs into their homes."[20] The 2008 report from ACRI says the trend of increasing racism is continuing.[21], However, Isi Leibler of the Jerusalem Center for Public affairs argues that Israeli Jews are troubled by "increasingly hostile, even treasonable outbursts by Israeli Arabs against the state" while it is at war with neighboring countries[22], and are genuinely worried, not racists.[23]

In the media

Some authors, such as David Hirsi and Ayala Emmet, have criticized the Israeli media for portraying Arabs negatively.[24][25] The Israeli media has been described as "racist" in its portrayals of Arabs and Palestinians by Israeli Arab Nabilia Espanioly [26]

Barry Rubin, editor of the Middle East Review of International Affairs (MERIA) Journal, argued that Israeli media never used racial stereotypes or epithets, while Arab and Palestinian media have had numerous racist remarks and cartoons about such American leaders as Colin Powell, Condoleezza Rice, and Barack Obama.[27]

Education system

See also: Education in Israel

Israel's education system has been sometimes been described as biased or prejudiced against Arabs.[28][29]

In 2001, Human Rights Watch issued a report that stated: "Government-run Arab schools are a world apart from government-run Jewish schools. In virtually every respect, Palestinian Arab children get an education inferior to that of Jewish children, and their relatively poor performance in school reflects this."[30][31][32]

Funding for schooling has been reported as discriminatory against Arab students: a 2009 study from the Hebrew University's School of Education demonstrated that the Israeli Education Ministry's budget for assistance to poor students "severely" discriminated against Arabs. It also showed that the average per-student allocation at Arab junior high schools was one-fifth the average at Jewish ones.[33]

The Follow-Up Committee for Arab Education notes that the Israeli government spends an average of $192 per year on each Arab student compared to $1,100 per Jewish student. The drop-out rate for Arab citizens of Israel is twice as high as that of their Jewish counterparts (12 percent versus 6 percent). The same group also notes that there is a 5,000-classroom shortage in the Arab sector.[34]

Zionism

See also Zionism as racist

Some critics of Israel equate Zionism with racism, or describe Zionism itself as racist or discriminatory.[35] In 1975 the United Nations General Assembly passed Resolution 3379, stating in its conclusion that "Zionism is a form of racism and racial discrimination".[36][37] The resolution was revoked by Resolution 46/86 on December 16, 1991. Speaking to the General Assembly, George H. W. Bush said "...to equate Zionism with the intolerable sin of racism is to twist history and forget the terrible plight of Jews in World War II and indeed throughout history." Supporters of Zionism argue that the movement is non-discrimanatory and contains no racist aspects.

Law of return controversy

See also: Law of return § Controversy

Some critics of Israel have described the Law of return as racist because it discriminates against Arabs.[38] Palestinians and advocates for Palestinian refugee rights criticize the Law of Return, which they compare to the Palestinian claim to a right of return.[39] These critics consider the Law, as contrasted against the denial of the right of Palestinian refugees to return, as offensive and as institutionalized ethnic discrimination.[40]

Defenders of the Law argue that the right granted to Jews along with their relatives under the Law does not discriminate against non-Jews, but is a form of "positive" discrimination. Israel has residency and citizenship laws for non-Jews that are equivalent to those in other liberal democracies. It is argued that these kinds of laws are common and consistent with international law, including the Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination Article I(3) which allows for preferential immigration treatment of some groups, provided there is no discrimination against a specific group.[41] The Law of Return is not the only one way of acquiring citizenship. For example, non-Jews can become citizens by naturalization, residence, or marrying an Israeli citizen. Naturalization, for instance, is available under certain circumstances for the non-Jewish parents of a citizen who has completed his or her army service[42]. The Law of Return was intended to deal with historic homelessness and persecution of Jews around the world.[43][44]

In addition, proponents of the law point out that in addition to Israel, several other countries provide immigration privileges to individuals with ethnic ties to these countries. Examples include Germany[45], Serbia, Greece, Japan, Turkey, Ireland, Russia, Italy, Spain, Chile, Poland and Finland.[citation needed] (See Right of return and Repatriation laws.)

Marriage

Israel's Citizenship and Entry into Israel Law bars immigration by family reunification to couples of an Israeli citizen and a resident of the Israeli-occupied territories. Amnesty International says this mostly affects Arabs.[46][47] The law has been condemned by Amnesty International as "racial discrimination".[48] The government says the law say it is aimed at preventing terrorist attacks. Some leaders of the Kadima party support the law on the basis of preserving Israel's "democratic" and "Jewish nature".[49]

Incidents

The Mossawa Advocacy Center for Arab Citizens in Israel reported a tenfold increase in racist incidents against Arabs in 2008. Jerusalem reported the highest number of incidents. The report blames Israeli leaders for the violence, saying "These attacks are not the hand of fate, but a direct result of incitement against the Arab citizens of this country by religious, public, and elected officials."[50]

During the Arab riots in October 2000 events, hundreds of Arab residents of Jaffa burned tires, threw rocks, and beat reporters.[51] Thousands of Jewish Israelis counter-rioted in Nazareth and Tel Aviv, throwing stones at Arabs, destroying Arab property, and chanting "death to Arabs".[52] Haaretz editorialized that that year's "Yom Kippur will be infamous for the violent, racist outburst by Jews against Arabs within Israel". Sam Lehman-Wilzig, Political Communications Professor at Bar-Ilan University, said that rioting is rare and alien to Jewish political society. "The numbers (of riots) are so low because of our Jewish political culture which encourages protesting, but seriously discourages violent protest," he said. He argues that the riots were caused since Israelis felt threated by the "pressure cooker syndrome" of fighting not just the Palestinians and Lebanon's Hezbollah guerrillas, but also the Israeli Arab population.[53]

The Bedouin claim they face discrimination and have submitted a counter-report to the United Nations that disputes the Israeli Government's official state report. They claim they are not treated as equal citizens in Israel and that Bedouin towns are not provided the same level of services or land that Jewish towns of the same size are and they are not given fair access to water. The city of Be'er Sheva refused to recognize a Bedouin holy site, despite a High Court recommendation.[54]

Often Israeli-Arab soccer players face chants from the crowd when they play such as "no Arabs, no terrorism".[55]

Abbas Zakour, an Arab Member of the Knesset, was stabbed by an immigrant gang speaking Russian-accented Hebrew who shouted anti-Arab chants. The attack was part of a "stabbing rampage" and was described as a "hate crime".[56]

Opposing views

Dr. Tashbih Sayyed, a Shi'ite Pakistani-American scholar, journalist, and author, denied that Muslim Arab citizen of Israel do not have equal rights, and said that Arabs are protected by Israel's democratic principles, and afforded all the rights and privileges of Israeli citizenship. He noted that Israel is one of the few countries in the Middle East where Arab women can vote. In contrast to the non-Israeli Arab world, Arab women in Israel enjoy the same status as men. Muslim women have the right to vote and to be elected to public office. Muslim women, according to Sayyed, are in fact are more liberated in Israel than in any Muslim country. Israeli law prohibits polygamy, child marriage, and female sexual mutilation.[57]

While groups are not separated by official policy, Israel has a number of different sectors within the society are somewhat segregated and maintain their strong cultural, religious, ideological, and/or ethnic identity. The Israeli Foreign Ministry maintains that in spite of the existing social cleavages and economic disparities, the political systems and the courts represent strict legal and civic equality. The Israeli Foreign Ministry describes the country as "Not a meltingpot society, but rather more of a mosaic made up of different population groups coexisting in the framework of a democratic state"[58]

The Committee for Accuracy in Middle East Reporting in America (CAMERA), a pro-Israel media monitoring and research organization, argues that since they are not required to serve in military, yet still have all the rights accorded Jews in Israel, Arabs in Israel are at an advantage. As evidence they cite various cases in which Israeli courts have found in favor of Arab citizens.[59]

Racism by Israeli-Arabs

Towards Jews

Polls

A 2009 PEW poll, which included 527 Israeli Arab respondents, showed that 35 percent of Israeli Arabs said their opinion of Jews was unfavorable, while 56% said their opinion was favorable (the figures amongst Israeli Jews were 94% favorable; 6% unfavorable). Regarding attitudes towards Christians, 73% of Israeli Arab respondents stated that they view Christians favourably whilst 20% responded that they view Christians unfavourably. The Israeli Jewish respondents were divided between 49% expressing dislike towards Christians and an equal number expressing favourable views towards Christians.[60][61]

A 2007 poll found that 40.5% of the Arab citizens of Israel denied the Holocaust [62] In 2009, a University of Haifa's poll showed that Holocaust denial was widespread among Israeli Arabs and showed it on the rise from 2007.[63]

Attacks

Among the brazen attacks (amid a worrisome involvement of Israeli Arabs in terrorist attacks directed against Israeli Jews[clarification needed] [22][64]) are the 2008 bulldozer attacks [65], described by a writer:"He took the bulldozer, with which he fed his own wife and family, and used it to crush other families to death, simply for being Israeli Jews."[66] On July 7, 2008 a writer in Israel's lefty paper Haaretz asks: "If justifying the murder of innocents because they belong to a certain hated group is not abject racism, I'd like to know what is."[67]

One important Arab anti-Jewish riots was in Oct 2008, on Yom Kippur, when an Arab driver drove dangerously in Jewish neighbourhoods causing clashes, incited by calls from the mosque [68], Arabs ran riot through Jewish areas of the city. "Calling "Death to the Jews" and Allah hu akbar ("Allah is great"), the rioters vandalized hundreds of Jewish-owned shops and vehicles, and threw rocks at people on their way to or from Yom Kippur prayers."[69][70]

During the course of monitoring elections in 2009, a Member of the Knesset (MK) replaced another Jewish election monitor at the Israeli-Arab town of Umm El-Fahm, who was prevented by police from entering the city because of threats by local Arabs on his life. as soon as the MK began to perform his duties, an Israeli-Arab mob rioted outside attacking the guards and shouts of “Death to the Jews!” could be heard.[71]

In 2010, walls of synagogues and Jewish residence in the mixed Jewish-Arab Ajami neighborhood of Jaffa were sprayed with swastikas.[72]

Leadership

Journalist Ben-Meir wrote: "What's racist is denying the Jewish people a state of their own. Certain Arab Knesset members talk incessantly about the Palestinian people's rights, including their own state. But in the same breath they refuse to acknowledge Israel as the state of the Jewish people and deny the very existence of a Jewish people as a nation with national rights." he goes on to say that those deserving racist epithet are such Arab Member of Knesset (MK), who attended the conference of hate in Geneva and called themselves "victims of Israel's racist apartheid" while serving as a member of the Israeli parliament.[73] Ariel Natan Pasko, a policy analyst,suggested that prominent Arab leaders such as Arab member of Knesset A. Tibi is racist because he "turned away from integration" and "wants to build an Arab university in Nazareth, as well as an Arab hospital in the Galilee."[74]

The head of the Islamic movement in Israel's Northern Branch, was charged with incitement to racism and to violence. During legal proceedings, the prosecution said that Sheikh Raed Salah made his inflammatory remarks "with the objective of inciting racism."[75][76] he also accused Jews of using children's blood to bake bread.[77] He said, ""We have never allowed ourselves to knead [the dough for] the bread that breaks the fast in the holy month of Ramadan with children's blood," he said. "Whoever wants a more thorough explanation, let him ask what used to happen to some children in Europe, whose blood was mixed in with the dough of the [Jewish] holy bread."

In Umm el-Fahm – the heartland of the Islamic Movement’s Northern Branch, Salah is a hero, “Salah is our leader, not just here, but for all the Arabs in Israel.” explained an Arab resident. His movement is a faction of the regional Muslim Brotherhood.[78]

Towards Blacks

Arabs have been accused of racism towards blacks. An Arab Bus driver was charged with racism as he said to an Ethiopian: "Drink milk and you'll be white."[79] In August 2010, an Israeli-Arab, Elias Abuelazam has been accused of racist attacks against blacks - African-Americans.[80]

A leader of the Islamist movement in Israel was criticized for saying that it was "a disgrace" that a black Israeli soldier could ask for the identity document of an Arab Muslim.[27]

Between Jewish groups

Jewish Israelis of European or German ancestry (Ashkenazi) are described as viewing themselves as superior to Jewish Israelis of other ancestries, and of maintaining an elite position in Israel society,[81][82] and some describe the attitudes of Ashkenazi as racist or racism.[83]

However, Some academic sources identify discrimination aimed at Jewish groups as class-based, not race-based. For example, the differences between (Mizrahi) Sephardic Jews (N. Africans, Middle Easterners, Yemenites, etc.) are referred to as Adatiyut [84][85][86][87] community-differences (resulting also in some traditional customary gaps).[88]

Some sources claim that reports of inter-Jewish discrimination in Israel arise from propaganda published by Arab sources which ignores the normality and harmony between the communities.[89][90]

Sephardi and Mizrahi (Middle Eastern)

File:Shas.JPG
Poster for Shas, a political party formed to represent the interests of religiously observant Sephardic (Middle Eastern) Jews[91], featuring Eli Yishai.
See also: Mizrahi Jews

Israeli society in general - and Ashkenazi Jews in particular - have been described as holding discriminatory attitudes towards Jews of Middle Eastern and North African descent, knows as Mizrahi Jews, Sephardic Jews, and Oriental Jews.[92]

The cultural differences between Mizrahi and Ashkenazi Jews impacted the degree and rate of assimilation into Israeli society, and sometimes the divide between Eastern European and Middle Eastern Jews was quite sharp. Segregation, especially in the area of housing, limited integration possibilities over the years.[93] Intermarriage between Ashkenazim and Mizrahim is increasingly common in Israel and by the late 1990s 28% of all Israeli children had multi-ethnic parents (up from 14% in the 1950s).[94] It has been claimed that intermarriage does not tend to decrease ethnic differences in socio-economic status[95], however that does not apply to the children of inter-ethnic marriages.[96]

Although social integration is constantly improving, disparities persist. A study conducted by the Israeli Central Bureau of Statistics (ICBS), Mizrahi Jews are less likely to pursue academic studies than Ashkenazi Jews. Israeli-born Ashkenazi are up to twice more likely to study in a university than Israeli-born Mizrahim.[97] Furthermore, the percentage of Mizrahim who seek a university education remains low compared to second-generation immigrant groups of Ashkenazi origin, such as Russians.[98] According to a survey by the Adva Center,[99] the average income of Ashkenazim was 36 percent higher than that of Mizrahim in 2004.[100]

Some claim that the education system discriminates against Jewish minorities from North Africa and the Middle East, and one source suggests that "ethnic prejudice against Mizrahi Jews is a relatively general phenomenon, not limited to the schooling process".[101]

There was a case in 2010, when a Haredi school system, where Sephardi and Mizrahi students were sometimes excluded or segregated.[102][103] In 2010, the Israeli supreme court sent a strong message against discrimination in a case involving the Slonim Hassidic sect of the Ashkenazi, ruling that segregation between Ashkenazi and Sephardi students in a school is illegal.[104]* Haredi school rejects 'Sephardi' child - Talmud Torah school rejects four-year-old due to Sephardi grandfather. Principal says child has ‘stain’ in genealogy Slonim leaders said that the school system segregation was based on religious differences and not racism. They argue that they seek "to maintain an equal level of religiosity, not from racism." [105] Respondng to the chrages by secularists, the Haredim invited Sephardi girls to school, and addded in a statement: “All along, we said it's not about race, but the High Court went out against our rabbis, and therefore we went to prison."[106] It is also about the hotly secular Liba curriculum which Israeli government tries to dictate upon Haredim.[107]

According to Barry Rubin, professor at the Interdisciplinary Center (IDC), as of 2010, Intermarriage rates between Jews whose ancestors came from Europe and those who came from the Middle East are approaching half, blurring the division between Ashkenazi and Mizrahi jews. He claims that "there is far far more racism in Europe or in the Arabic-speaking world than in Israel" and that "Israelis are far less interested than other countries about people’s ancestral travels".[27]

Accusations of kidnapping Yemenite children

See also: Yemenite Jews

In 1950s, 1,033[108] children of Yemenite immigrant families disappeared. In most instances, the parents claim that they were told their children were ill and required hospitalization. Upon later visiting the hospital, it is claimed that the parents were told that their children had died though no bodies were presented or graves which have later proven to be empty in many cases were shown to the parents. Those who believe the theory contend that the Israeli government as well as other organizations in Israel kidnapped the children and gave them for adoption. Some went further to accuse the Israeli authorities of conspiring to kidnap the Yemeni children due to "racist" motives.[109]

In 2001 a seven-year public inquiry commission concluded that the accusations that Yemenite children were kidnapped are not true. The commission has unequivocally rejected claims of a plot to take children away from Yemenite immigrants. The report determined that documentation exists for 972 of the 1,033 missing children. Five additional missing babies were found to be alive. The commission was unable to discover what happened in another 56 cases. With regard to these unresolved 56 cases, the commission deemed it "possible" that the children were handed over for adoption following decisions made by individual local social workers, but not as part of an official policy.[108]

Bene Israel (Indian)

In 1962, authorities in Israel have been accused by articles in the Indian press of racism in relation to Jews of Indian ancestry (called Bene Israel).[110][111] In the case that caused the controversy, the Chief Rabbi of Israel ruled that before registering a marriage between Indian Jews and Jews not belonging to that community, the registering rabbi should investigate the lineage of the Indian applicant for possible non-Jewish descent, and in case of doubt, require the applicant to perform conversion or immersion.[110][111] The alleged discrimination may actually be related to the fact that some religious authorities believe that the Bene Israel are not fully Jewish because of inter-marriage during their long separation.[112]

In 1964 the government of Israel led by Levi Eshkol declared that it regards Bene Israel of India as Jews without exception, who are equal to other Jews in respect of all matters.[110]

Beta Israel (Ethiopian)

Ethiopian Israeli soldier
Main article: Ethiopian Jews

Nearly all of the Ethiopian Beta Israel community, a community of Black Jews, resides in Israel. The Israeli government has mounted rescue operations, most notably during Operation Moses (1984) and Operation Solomon (1991), for their migration when civil war and famine threatened populations within Ethiopia. Today 81,000 Israelis were born in Ethiopia, while 38,500 or 32% of the community are native born Israelis.[113]

The absorption of the Ethiopians into Israeli society marks a unique attempt to incorporate a nonwhite group as equal citizens with full rights as part of a Western predominantly white country.[4] As such it represents an ambitious attempt to deny the significance of race[4] Israeli authorities, aware of the situation of most African diaspora communities in other Western countries, hosted programs to avoid setting in patterns of discrimination.[4] Nevertheless racism was commonly cited as explanation for policies and programs who failed to meet expectations. Racism was alleged regarding delays in admitting black Ethiopian Jews to Israel under the Law of return.[4] The delays in in admitting Ethiopians may be attributed to religious motivations rather than racism, since there was debate whether or not Falasha Jews' (Beta Israel) were Jewish[114][115].

Racism was also alleged in 2009, in a case where school children of Ethiopian ancestry were denied admission into three semi-private religious schools in the town of Petah Tikva. An Israeli government official criticised the Petah Tikva Municipality and the semi-private Haredi schools, saying "This concerns not only the three schools that have, for a long time, been deceiving the entire educational system. For years, racism has developed here undeterred". Shas spiritual leader Ovadia Yosef threatened to fire any school principal from Shas's school system who refused to receive Ethiopian students. The Israeli Education Ministry decided to pull the funding from the Lamerhav, Da'at Mevinim and Darkei Noam schools, the three semi-private institutions that refused to accept the students. Israeli Prime Minister Benjamin Netanyahu spoke out against the rejection of Ethiopian children, calling it "a moral terror attack."[116]

Barry Rubin, editor of the Middle East Review of International Affairs (MERIA) Journal, said that while there have been some incidents in reaction to the arrival of Jews from Ethiopia, these have been few and universally rejected.[27]

The ADL affirms that it's Not Racism. "Whatever Israel's mistakes towards its Ethiopian Jewish community, the cause is not racism. Support for the African immigrants, as measured by public." It explains that "what causes the distress is bureaucratic ineptitude and a cultural gap between a traditional community and a modern, technologically-advanced, highly-competitive nation."[117]

Black Hebrew Israelite immigration

Black Hebrew Israelites are groups of people mostly of Black African ancestry who believe they are descendants of the ancient Israelites. They are generally not accepted as Jews by the greater Jewish community. Many choose to self-identify as Hebrew Israelites or Black Hebrews rather than as Jews.[118][119][120][121]

When the first Black Hebrews arrived in Israel in 1969, they claimed citizenship under the Law of Return, which gives eligible Jews immediate citizenship.[122] The Israeli government ruled in 1973 that the group did not qualify for automatic citizenship, and the Black Hebrews were denied work permits and state benefits. The group responded by accusing the Israeli government of racist discrimination.[123] In 1981, a group of American civil rights activist led by Bayard Rustin investigated and concluded that racism was not the cause of Black Hebrews' situation.[124] In 1990, Illinois legislators helped negotiate an agreement that resolved the Black Hebrews' legal status in Israel. Members of the group are permitted to work and have access to housing and social services. In 2003 the agreement was revised, and the Black Hebrews were granted permanent resident status.[125][126][127]

In his 1992 essay "Blacks and Jews: The Uncivil War", historian Taylor Branch asserts the Jews have been "perpetrators of racial hate", citing the example where three thousand members of a sect of Black Jews from Chicago were denied citizenship under the Israeli law of return because of anti-Black sentiment among Israeli Jews.[128][129] However the claims that the Black Hebrew Israelites were denied citizenship because they were black seem baseless, particularly in light of Israel's airlift of thousands of black Ethiopian Jews in the early 1990s.[130]

Efforts against racism and discrimination

Israel has a law that prohibits incitment to racism.[2]

According to the State Department, "Israel has one of the broadest anti-discrimination laws of any country. "The law prohibits discrimination on the basis of sex, marital status, or sexual orientation. The law also prohibits discrimination by both government and nongovernment entities on the basis of race, religion, political beliefs, and age."[1]

Israel is a signatory of the International Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination treaty since 1966, and has ratified the treaty in 1979.[131] The treaty forbids any distinction, exclusion, restriction or preference based on race, colour, descent, or national or ethnic origin which has the purpose or effect of nullifying or impairing the recognition, enjoyment or exercise, on an equal footing, of human rights and fundamental freedoms in the political, economic, social, cultural or any other field of public life.

The Anti Defamation League states: "There is no Israeli ideology, policy or plan to segregate, persecute or mistreat its Israeli Arab citizens, nor Palestinian Arabs," it goes on in saying that Israel is a democracy which encourages vibrant debate, which has a flourishing free press and which shares with other liberal democracies a core value: the equality of all its citizens before the law.[132]

Affirmative Action

In response to inequality between the Jewish and Arab populations, the Israeli government established a committee to consider, among other issues, policies of affirmative action for housing Arab citizens.[133] According to Israel advocacy group, Stand With Us, the city of Jerusalem gives Arab residents free professional advice to assist with the housing permit process and structural regulations, advice which is not available to Jewish residents on the same terms.[134][135][136]

See also

Notes

  1. ^ a b http://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/jsource/History/Human_Rights/human_rts_in_Israel.html
  2. ^ a b Navot, Suzi, Constitutional law of Israel, p 240
  3. ^ a b "Israel and the occupied territories". State.gov. 2005-02-28. Retrieved 2010-07-22.
  4. ^ a b c d e f Rebhun, Uzi, Jews in Israel: contemporary social and cultural patterns, UPNE, 2004, p. 139-140
  5. ^ Muslim anti-Semitism in Christian Europe: elemental and residual anti-semitism By Raphael Israeli, p. 151
  6. ^ http://www.cjpac.ca/news/read/50
  7. ^ http://www.timesonline.co.uk/tol/news/world/middle_east/article6136165.ece
  8. ^ http://www.forbes.com/2009/02/22/obama-israel-holocaust-durban-opinions-contributors_united_nations.html
  9. ^ http://points.stand4facts.org/bin/index.cgi?ChapterID=2
  10. ^ "Declaration of Israel's Independence 1948". The Knesset, Israel's parliamentry body. Retrieved 2007-06-29.
  11. ^ Basic Laws - Introduction
  12. ^ Basic Law: Human Dignity and Liberty
  13. ^ Basic Law: Freedom of Occupation (1994)
  14. ^ The Arab Citizens of Israel
  15. ^ Arab Israelis
  16. ^ Bureau of Democracy, Human Rights, and Labor (March 8, 2006). "Israel and the occupied territories". Country Reports on Human Rights Practices - 2005. U.S. Department of State. Retrieved 2006-08-01.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  17. ^ Quoted in Rebhun, Uzi (2004). Jews in Israel: contemporary social and cultural patterns. UPNE. p. 472. ISBN 9781584653271. {{cite book}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
  18. ^ Arian Asher, Michael Philippov, and Anna Knafelman, Auditing Israeli Democracy 2009, Israeli Democracy Institute, 2009, p. 66-67.
  19. ^ a b "Israeli anti-Arab racism 'rises'", BBC, 10 Dec 2007, http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/middle_east/7136068.stm
  20. ^ Synopsis of the report, from "Racism in Israel on the rise", Aviram Zino, Ynet News, 12 Aug 2007, http://www.ynetnews.com/articles/0,7340,L-3480345,00.html
  21. ^ "Reflections on October 2000 - Eight years later, discrimination and racism against Israel's Arab citizens have only increased" - news release from ACRI, http://www.acri.org.il/eng/story.aspx?id=556
  22. ^ a b http://www.mfa.gov.il/MFA/MFAArchive/2000_2009/2004/1/2003%20Terrorism%20Review
  23. ^ http://www.jpost.com/Home/Article.aspx?id=49178
  24. ^ Hirst, David, The gun and the olive branch: the roots of violence in the Middle East, Nation Books, 2003, p. 91
  25. ^ Emmet, Ayala H., Our sisters' promised land: women, politics, and Israeli-Palestinian coexistence, University of Michigan Press, 2003, p 68
  26. ^ Espanioly, Nabilia, "Nightmare", in Women and the politics of military confrontation: Palestinian and Israeli gendered narratives of dislocation, Nahla Abdo-Zubi, Ronit Lenṭin (Eds), Berghahn Books, 2002, p. 5
  27. ^ a b c d Barry Rubin, An All-Purpose Paradigm: The West’s Absurd Claims of Israeli Racism, August 5, 2010
  28. ^ Human Rights Watch, 'Second class: Discrimination against against palestinian arab children in Israel's schools, pp 13-16
  29. ^ Bar-Tal, Daniel, "The Arab Image in Hebrew School Textbooks", in Islamophobia and anti-Semitism, Hillel Schenker, Abu Zayyad Ziad, Ziad Abu Zayyad (Eds), Markus Wiener Publishers, 2006, pp 135-152
  30. ^ Israeli Schools Separate, Not Equal (Human Rights Watch, 5-12-2001)
  31. ^ Human Rights Watch: Second Class: Discrimination Against Palestinian Arab Children in Israel's Schools - Summary
  32. ^ Second Class - Discrimination Against Palestinian Arab Children in Israel's Schools, Human Rights Watch.
  33. ^ http://www.haaretz.com/hasen/spages/1106955.html Haaretz. Israel aids its needy Jewish students more than Arab counterparts by Or Kashti. Last accessed: 12 August 2009.
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    • Zionism, imperialism, and race, Abdul Wahhab Kayyali, ʻAbd al-Wahhāb Kayyālī (Eds), Croom Helm, 1979
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    • Hadawi, Sami, Bitter harvest: a modern history of Palestine, Interlink Books, 1991, p 183
    • Beker, Avi, Chosen: the history of an idea, the anatomy of an obsession, Macmillan, 2008, p 131, 139, 151
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    • Israel Yearbook on Human Rights 1987, Volume 17; Volume 1987 (Yoram Dinstein) p 249
    • Medding, Peter, Sephardic Jewry and Mizrahi Jews, p 128-129
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  102. ^ Ashkenazi Against Sephardi Racism Lives, by Shelomo Alfassa "The haredim were found guilty by the Israeli High Court of Justice of racism. Evidence of their crime can easily be seen by the fact that schools were constructed with separate entrances and separate classrooms for Ashkenazi and Sephardi Jews. The Ashkenazi parents say they need to keep the classrooms segregated because the families of the Sephardi girls "aren't religious enough."
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  109. ^
    • Blue-Ribbon Babies and Labors of Love: Race, Class, and Gender in U.S. Adoption Practice, Christine Ward Gailey University of Texas Press, 2010
    "In Israel, ethno-racial divides have created a widespread belief, upheld by some birth mother-adult child reunions, that hundreds of Yemeni infancts had been kidnapped for adoption by Israeli couples. Many Yemeni refugee children had been declared dead or disappeared in the refugee camps after the migration of some 50,000 Yemeni Jews to Israel in 1948-1949. It appears from a national inquiry in the late 1990s that a network of doctors and clinics were involved in the adoptions." (page 154)
    • Grenberg, Joel, The Babies from Yemen: An Enduring Mystery", New York Times, Sept 2, 1997.
    "Those who believe the theory contend that hundreds, perhaps thousands, of Yemenite babies who were reported to have died or to have disappeared after their parents came to Israel were actually kidnapped and given or sold for adoption to European-born Israelis and American Jews. The controversy over the Israeli establishment's treatment of the 50,000 Yemenite Jewish immigrants, most of whom were airlifted to Israel in 1949 and 1950, has festered for years. It has stoked deep-seated feelings of resentment among the country's Sephardic Jews of Middle Eastern and North African origin. ... Other Yemenite Jewish advocates put the numbers at between 1,000 and more than 2,000. They assert that the European-born Ashkenazic Israeli establishment looked down at the new immigrants and their traditional ways and felt free to take their children for adoption by childless European Jewish couples... Mr. Levitan agreed that there was a patronizing attitude toward the immgrants. In some cases the Yemenites' religious studies were restricted and their traditional side-curls were cut to remake them into modern, secular Israelis. ... The concept was absorption through modernization, by inculcating the values of Western society, Mr. Levitan said. The parents were treated like primitive people who didn't know what was good for them, who aren't capable of taking care of their own kids. There was disregard for the parents, an unwillingness to make the effort to investigate, but not a conspiracy."
    • Shoha, Ella, Taboo memories, diasporic voices, Duke University Press, 2006,
    "..Yemenis .. fell prey to doctors, nurses, and social workers, most of them on the state payroll. ... The act of kidnapping was not simply a result of financial interests ot increase the state's revenues, it was also a result of a deeply ingrained belief in the inferiority of Jews from Arab and Muslim countries, seen as careless breeders with little sense of responsibility... In this intersection of race, gender, and class, the displaced Jews from Muslim countries became victims of the logic of progress.." page 349.
    • Madmoni-Gerber, Shoshana, Israeli media and the framing of internal conflict: the Yemenite babies affair, Macmillan, 2009 -
    This book is about racism against Yemenite and Mizrahi jews in Israel, focusing on the kidnappings.
    • Gordon, Linda, The great Arizona orphan abduction, Harvard University Press, 1999, p 310:
    "In Israel, Ashkenazi (European) Jewish women, with the help of doctors, stole babies born to Sephardic Yemeni Jewish mothers from the hospitals; the mothers were told that the babies had died. Here is a phenomenon that is racist yet lacks even the kind of racial justification evident in [the kidnappings in] 1904 Arizona." (page 310)
    • Yuval-Davis, Nira, Gender & nation, SAGE, 1997,
    "Public investigations are taking place in Israel at the moment concerning accusations that hundreds of Yemeni Jewish babies were abducted from their mothers who were told they were dead and they were given for adoption to Ashkenzi middle class families. Breaking up communites and families and separating children from their parents would often be central to practices of forced assimilationism. Such policies disempower the minorities and can reinforce their locaiton in subjugated positionings." (p 54)
    • Kanaaneh, Rhoda Ann, Birthing the nation: strategies of Palestinian women in Israel, University of California Press, 2002,
    "[regarding the] disappearance of Yemenite Jewish babies in the 1950s, whom many Yemenites believe were kidnaped and given to childless European Jewish parents to adopt, the author suggests that something similar may have happened to Palestinian children who went missing during the 1948 war. Here Palestinians and Yemenite Jews are united in their subjugation to the Ashkenazi Jewish establishment through their lost children". (page 164).
  110. ^ a b c Abramov, S. Zalman, Perpetual dilemma: Jewish religion in the Jewish State, Fairleigh Dickinson Univ Press, 1976, p. 277-278
  111. ^ a b Smooha, Sammy, Israel: pluralism and conflict, University of California Press, 1978, p. 400-401
  112. ^ http://www.jcpa.org/dje/articles2/conversion.htm
  113. ^ [6] Ha'aretz.
  114. ^ http://www.jstor.org/stable/2784774
  115. ^ Kemp, Adriana, Israelis in conflict: hegemonies, identities and challenges, Sussex Academic Press, 2004, p 155
  116. ^ "Deal reached on Petah Tikva Ethiopian olim", Jerusalem Post, 31 Aug 2009. http://www.jpost.com/Home/Article.aspx?id=153392
  117. ^ http://www.adl.org/presrele/IslME_62/2659_62.asp
  118. ^ Ben-Jochannan, p. 306.
  119. ^ Ben Levy, Sholomo. "The Black Jewish or Hebrew Israelite Community". Jewish Virtual Library. Retrieved 2007-12-15.
  120. ^ Johannes P. Schade, ed. (2006). "Black Hebrews". Encyclopedia of World Religions. Franklin Park, N.J.: Foreign Media Group. ISBN 1601360002.
  121. ^ Bahrampour, Tara (June 26, 2000). "They're Jewish, With a Gospel Accent". The New York Times. Archived from the original on April 3, 2008. Retrieved 2008-01-19. {{cite news}}: Unknown parameter |deadurl= ignored (|url-status= suggested) (help)
  122. ^ Michaeli, pp. 73–74.
  123. ^ Michaeli, p. 74.
  124. ^ Shipler, David K. (January 30, 1981). "Israelis Urged To Act Over Black Hebrew Cult". The New York Times. Retrieved 2008-05-28.
  125. ^ "The Hebrew Israelite Community". Israel Ministry of Foreign Affairs. September 29, 2006. Retrieved 2008-05-26.
  126. ^ Kaufman, David (April 16, 2006). "Quest for a Homeland Gains a World Stage". The New York Times. Retrieved 2008-05-28.
  127. ^ In 2009, Elyakim Ben-Israel became the first Black Hebrew to receive Israeli citizenship. The Israeli government said that more Black Hebrews may be granted citizenship. Alush, Zvi (February 2, 2009). "First Black Hebrew Gets Israeli Citizenship". Ynetnews. Retrieved 2009-02-02.
  128. ^ Forman, Seth, Blacks in the Jewish Mind: A Crisis of Liberalism, p. 14-15
  129. ^ Branch, Taylor "Blacks and Jews: The Uncivil War", in Bridges and Boundaries: African Americans and American Jews (Salzman, Ed), 1992
  130. ^ Blacks in the Jewish mind: a crisis of liberalism, Seth Forman, NYU Press, 1998: p. 15
  131. ^ International Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination, New York, 7 March 1966
  132. ^ http://www.adl.org/main_Israel/Divestment_02_17_05.htm
  133. ^ Israel Ministry of Foreign Affairs (2000-02-23). "Israel Government Action in the Arab Sector – February 2000". www.mfa.gov.il. Retrieved 2008-06-13. The Director Generals' Committee was assigned the responsibility of devising a program of action for the development and advancement of the Arab sector, and drawing up a cooperation framework involving the various government ministries. This program will include the raising of resources and promotion of investment, while applying an affirmative action policy in the areas of housing, employment, industry, transport, infrastructures, agriculture, and education in the non-Jewish sector. {{cite web}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help)
  134. ^ Jerusalem Houses
  135. ^ "Israel Government Action in the Arab Sector – Febr". Mfa.gov.il. Retrieved 2010-05-16.
  136. ^ "Report of the Government Ministries- Activities in". Mfa.gov.il. 1998-01-02. Retrieved 2010-05-16.
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