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In the field of medicine, the role of [[physician]] was traditionally seen as masculine, while the role of nurse was considered feminine. These associations are now considered outdated in much of the world, although certain specializations, such as [[surgery]] and [[emergency medicine]], are still dominated by a masculine culture.<ref>{{cite book|last=Boulis|first=Ann K.|title=The Changing Face of Medicine: Women Doctors and the Evolution of Health Care in America|year=2010|publisher=ILR|location=Ithaca, N.Y.|isbn=9780801476624|coauthors=Jacobs, Jerry A.|pages=94–98}}</ref>
In the field of medicine, the role of [[physician]] was traditionally seen as masculine, while the role of nurse was considered feminine. These associations are now considered outdated in much of the world, although certain specializations, such as [[surgery]] and [[emergency medicine]], are still dominated by a masculine culture.<ref>{{cite book|last=Boulis|first=Ann K.|title=The Changing Face of Medicine: Women Doctors and the Evolution of Health Care in America|year=2010|publisher=ILR|location=Ithaca, N.Y.|isbn=9780801476624|coauthors=Jacobs, Jerry A.|pages=94–98}}</ref>


It has been argued that primary sex characteristics of men and women, such as the ability to bear children, caused a sexual division of labor, and gender stereotypes evolved culturally to perpetuation this division.<ref name="Worell" /> According to the [[human capital]] theory, women as child-bearers tend to have less work continuity, and are thus less inclined to invest in higher education and work training. Richard Anker of the [[International Labour Office]] argues that the human capital theory does not explain the sexual division of labor, because many occupations tied to feminine roles such as administrative assistance require more knowledge, experience, and continuity of employment than many highly masculine occupations, such as [[truck driving]]. He also argues that feminization of certain occupations limits employment options for women.<ref name="Anker" />
It has been argued that primary sex characteristics of men and women, such as the ability to bear children, caused a sexual division of labor, and gender stereotypes evolved culturally to perpetuate this division.<ref name="Worell" /> According to the [[human capital]] theory, women as child-bearers tend to have less work continuity, and are thus less inclined to invest in higher education and work training. Richard Anker of the [[International Labour Office]] argues that the human capital theory does not explain the sexual division of labor, because many occupations tied to feminine roles such as administrative assistance require more knowledge, experience, and continuity of employment than many highly masculine occupations, such as [[truck driving]]. He also argues that feminization of certain occupations limits employment options for women.<ref name="Anker" />


Leadership is associated with masculinity in Western cultures, and women are perceived less favorably as potential leaders.<ref>Chin, Jean Lau, ''Women and leadership: transforming visions and diverse voices'' Wiley-Blackwell, 2007, ISBN 1405155825, 9781405155823 </ref> However, some people have argued that the "feminine"-style leadership, which is associated with leadership that focuses on help and cooperation, is advantageous over "masculine" leadership, which is associated with focusing on tasks and control.<ref name="Klenke">Klenke, Karin, ''Women and Leadership: A Contextual Perspective '', Springer Publishing Company, 2004 ISBN 0826192211, 9780826192219 </ref> Female leaders are more often described by Western media using characteristics associated with femininity, such as emotion.<ref name="Klenke" /> [[Role Congruity Theory]], which proposes that people tend to view deviations from expected gender roles negatively, is sometimes used to explain why people have a tendency to evaluate behavior that fulfills the prescriptions of a leader role less favorably when it is enacted by a woman.<ref> Eagly, Alice H., Steven J. Karau, ''Role Congruity Theory of Prejudice Toward Female Leaders'', Psychological Review 2002</ref>
Leadership is associated with masculinity in Western cultures, and women are perceived less favorably as potential leaders.<ref>Chin, Jean Lau, ''Women and leadership: transforming visions and diverse voices'' Wiley-Blackwell, 2007, ISBN 1405155825, 9781405155823 </ref> However, some people have argued that the "feminine"-style leadership, which is associated with leadership that focuses on help and cooperation, is advantageous over "masculine" leadership, which is associated with focusing on tasks and control.<ref name="Klenke">Klenke, Karin, ''Women and Leadership: A Contextual Perspective '', Springer Publishing Company, 2004 ISBN 0826192211, 9780826192219 </ref> Female leaders are more often described by Western media using characteristics associated with femininity, such as emotion.<ref name="Klenke" /> [[Role Congruity Theory]], which proposes that people tend to view deviations from expected gender roles negatively, is sometimes used to explain why people have a tendency to evaluate behavior that fulfills the prescriptions of a leader role less favorably when it is enacted by a woman.<ref> Eagly, Alice H., Steven J. Karau, ''Role Congruity Theory of Prejudice Toward Female Leaders'', Psychological Review 2002</ref>

Revision as of 18:55, 25 June 2011

Femininity is a set of roles, behaviours, activities, and attributes that a society generally associates with women and girls. Femininity is socially constructed and distinct from biological female sex.[1][2] What traits are associated with femininity depend on a variety of social and cultural factors, and often vary depending on location and context.[3] Women, men, and transgender people can all exhibit feminine traits.

The complement to femininity is masculinity.

History

Modern notions of femininity began during the English medieval period at the time of the bubonic plague in the 1300s. Women in the Middle Ages were referred to simply as maiden, wife, or widow. According to English Common Law, all property a wife held at the time of marriage transferred to her husband, and as late as 1537, according to the translated version of the Matthew Bible, it was perfectly acceptable for a husband to beat his wife into submission.[4] After the Black Death in England wiped out approximately half of the population, traditional gender roles of wife and mother changed and opportunities opened up for women in society. The concept of "woman" changed in a number of ways[5] and new language had to be created to describe these roles, with words like femininity and womanhood.[6]

Behavior and personality

See also: Sex and psychology

While the defining characteristics of femininity are not universally identical, some patterns exist. Gentleness, empathy, sensitivity, nurturance, deference, and succorance are behaviors traditionally considered feminine.[7][8] The feminine nature has often been considered more emotional and less logical than the masculine nature.[9][10][11] Often, this is considered to be a misogynistic insult. Many sources object to the logic/emotion gender distinction.[citation needed]

Femininity can be asserted to be linked with sex and sexual appeal.[12][13] Sexual passiveness, or sexual reception, is sometimes considered feminine while sexual assertiveness and sexual desire is sometime considered masculine behaviors. [13] This is an example of stereotyping.

An ongoing debate with regards to sex and psychology is the extent to which gender identity and gender-specific behavior is due to socialization versus in-born factors. The mainstream view is that both factors play a role, but the relative importance of each is contentious. For example, some studies suggest that women tend to perform better on empathy tests than men,[14][15] though others have found no sex differences in empathy.[16][17] Some related studies suggest that empathy performance may be related to the subject's perceived gender identity and gender expectations.[18][19] Some researchers argue that because differences in empathy disappear on tests where it is not clear that empathy is being studied, men and women do not differ in ability, but instead in how empathetic they would like to appear to themselves and others.[20] Simon Baron-Cohen argues that there is a high capacity for empathy in women caused by biological factors,[21] though his studies have been criticized by Cordelia Fine, who argues that there is no evidence for biological behavioral differences.[19] Other researchers, such as Diane F. Halpern, argue that small innate differences are exaggerated socially and culturally to create gender.[22]

Mary Vetterling-Braggin argues that all characteristics associated with femininity arose from early human sexual encounters which were mainly male-forced and female-unwilling, because of male and female anatomical differences.[7] Others, such as Carole Pateman, Ria Kloppenborg, and Wouter J. Hanegraaff, argue that the definition of femininity is the result of how females must behave in order to maintain a patriarchal social system.[12][23]

Occupational roles

Teacher in a classroom in Madagascar. Teaching is often considered a feminine occupation.
Main article: Gender roles

Several stereotypes about women have influenced what occupations are associated with femininity. These stereotypes include that women have a caring nature, have skill at household-related work, have greater manual dexterity than men, are more honest than men, and have a more attractive physical appearance. Occupational roles associated with these stereotypes include: midwife, teacher, accountant, data entry clerk, cashier, salesperson, receptionist, housekeeper, cook, maid, social worker, and nurse.[24]

Early computer programmers were women. This has reversed in recent decades, however, with programming being perceived as a masculine occupation.[25]

In the field of medicine, the role of physician was traditionally seen as masculine, while the role of nurse was considered feminine. These associations are now considered outdated in much of the world, although certain specializations, such as surgery and emergency medicine, are still dominated by a masculine culture.[26]

It has been argued that primary sex characteristics of men and women, such as the ability to bear children, caused a sexual division of labor, and gender stereotypes evolved culturally to perpetuate this division.[8] According to the human capital theory, women as child-bearers tend to have less work continuity, and are thus less inclined to invest in higher education and work training. Richard Anker of the International Labour Office argues that the human capital theory does not explain the sexual division of labor, because many occupations tied to feminine roles such as administrative assistance require more knowledge, experience, and continuity of employment than many highly masculine occupations, such as truck driving. He also argues that feminization of certain occupations limits employment options for women.[24]

Leadership is associated with masculinity in Western cultures, and women are perceived less favorably as potential leaders.[27] However, some people have argued that the "feminine"-style leadership, which is associated with leadership that focuses on help and cooperation, is advantageous over "masculine" leadership, which is associated with focusing on tasks and control.[28] Female leaders are more often described by Western media using characteristics associated with femininity, such as emotion.[28] Role Congruity Theory, which proposes that people tend to view deviations from expected gender roles negatively, is sometimes used to explain why people have a tendency to evaluate behavior that fulfills the prescriptions of a leader role less favorably when it is enacted by a woman.[29]

Religion

Yin and yang

In Taoism, the concept of yin represents the primary force of the female half of yin and yang. The yin is also present, to a smaller proportion, in the male half. The yin can be characterized as slow, soft, yielding, diffuse, cold, wet, and passive.[30] In Hindu traditions, Shakti is the divine feminine creative power, the sacred force that moves through the entire universe.[31] She is the female counterpart without whom the male aspect, which represents consciousness or discrimination, remains impotent and void. In Hinduism, the universal creative force Yoni is feminine, with inspiration being the life force of creation.

In Hebrew language, the divine presence of God, the Holy Spirit, the Shekhinah is feminine. In Kabbalah, Binah is the great mother, the feminine receiver of energy and giver of form.

Feminine athleticism

Main article: Women's_sports

Clothing and appearance

Main article: Stereotype
In some cultures, cosmetics are associated with femininity

Cultural standards vary a great deal on what is considered feminine. For example, in 16th Century France, high heels were considered a masculine type of shoe, though they are currently considered feminine.[32]

In Ancient Egypt, sheath and beaded net dresses were considered female clothing, while wraparound dresses, perfumes, cosmetics, and elaborate jewelry were worn by both men and women. In Ancient Persia, clothing was generally unisex, though women wore veils and headscarves. Women in Ancient Greece wore himations; and in Ancient Rome women wore the palla, a rectangular mantle, and the maphorion.[33]

The typical feminine outfit of aristrocratic women of the Renaissance was an undershirt with a gown and a high-waisted overgown, and a plucked forehead and beehive or turban-style hairdo.[33]

Body alteration

Main article: Body alteration

Body alteration is the deliberate altering of the human body for aesthetic or non-medical purpose.[34] One such purpose has been to induce perceived feminine characteristics in women.

For centuries in Imperial China, smaller feet were considered to be a more aristocratic characteristic in women. The practice of foot binding was intended to enhance this characteristic, though it often made walking difficult and painful.[35][36]

In a few parts of Africa and Asia, neck rings are worn in order to elongate the neck. In these cultures, a long neck is characterizes feminine beauty. The rings stretch the vertebrae until a person's neck can no longer support her head. This ironically disabling aspect is particularly troubling to humanitarian aid workers.[37]

  • In China until 1911, tiny, bound feet for women were considered aristocratic and feminine
    In China until 1911, tiny, bound feet for women were considered aristocratic and feminine
  • The Kayan people of Burma (Myanmar) associate the wearing of neck rings with feminine beauty.
    The Kayan people of Burma (Myanmar) associate the wearing of neck rings with feminine beauty.

Feminist views

See also: Feminism

Feminist philosophers such as Judith Butler contend that femininity and masculinity are created through repeated performances of gender; these performances reproduce and define the traditional categories of sex and/or gender.[38]

Many second-wave feminists reject what they regard as constricting standards of female beauty, created for the subordination and objectifying of women and self-perpetuated by reproductive competition and women's own aesthetics.[39]

Others, such as third-wave feminists and lipstick feminists, argue that feminism shouldn't devalue feminine culture and identity, and that symbols of feminine identity such as make-up, suggestive clothing and having a sexual allure can be valid and empowering personal choices for both sexes.[40][41]

Jungian psychology

In Carl Jung's school of analytical psychology, the concept of anima represents the female half of anima and animus. In Jungian psychology, archetypes are unlearned tendencies and a part of the collective unconscious[42] The main feminine archetypes originally introduced by Carl Jung and often adopted in literature[43] are patterns of behavior that follow the biological life cycle[44] of the woman and fall into the following roles:

Femininity in men

Main article: Effeminacy
RuPaul, a famous drag queen.

Men who behave in ways associated with femininity may be called effeminate. Men who wear clothing associated with femininity are cross-dressers.[45] A drag queen is a man who wears women's clothing and behaves in an extremely feminine manner for entertainment purposes.

Femininity is not necessarily related to a man's sexuality, though male femininity is often associated with homosexuality in modern Western culture.[46][47]

The terms femiphobia, effeminophobia, and sissyphobia are sometimes[dubious – discuss] used to describe a generally negative attitude displayed in many societies towards feminine men. [48]

See also

References

  1. ^ Ferrante, Joan. Sociology: A Global Perspective (7th ed.). Belmont, CA: Thomson Wadsworth. pp. 269–272. ISBN 0840032048. Often we mistakenly attribute masculinity and femininity to biology, when in fact, they are socially created.
  2. ^ Gender, Women and Health: What do we mean by "sex" and "gender"?' The World Health Organization
  3. ^ Witt, edited by Charlotte (2010). Feminist Metaphysics: Explorations in the Ontology of Sex, Gender and Identity. Dordrecht: Springer. p. 77. ISBN 9048137829. {{cite book}}: |first= has generic name (help)
  4. ^ MacGregor, Geddes (1968). A Literary History of the Bible: From the Middle Ages to the Present Day. Nashville: Abingdon. p. 134.
  5. ^ Allen, Volume 2, The Early Humanist Reformation, Part 1, p. 6.
  6. ^ ‘Inventing Womanhood’: new book explores origins of femininity
  7. ^ a b Vetterling-Braggin, Mary "Femininity," "masculinity," and "androgyny": a modern philosophical discussion
  8. ^ a b Worell, Judith, Encyclopedia of women and gender: sex similarities and differences and the impact of society on gender, Volume 1 Elsevier, 2001, ISBN 0122272463, 9780122272462
  9. ^ Encyclopedia of contemporary American culture by Gary W. McDonogh, Robert Gregg, Cindy H. Wong
  10. ^ Eva Peron: The Myths of a Woman by Julie M. Taylor
  11. ^ Feminist visions of gender similarities and differences byy Meredith M. Kimball
  12. ^ a b Ria Kloppenborg, Wouter J. Hanegraaff, Female stereotypes in religious traditions, BRILL, 1995, ISBN 9004102906, 9789004102903
  13. ^ a b Ussher, Jane M. Fantasies of femininity: reframing the boundaries of sex
  14. ^ Hall Judith A (1978). "Gender effects in decoding nonverbal cues". Psychological bulletin 85 (4): 845–857. doi:10.1037/0033-2909.85.4.845
  15. ^ Judith A. Hall (1984): Nonverbal sex differences. Communication accuracy and expressive style. 207 pp. Johns Hopkins University Press.
  16. ^ Ickes, W. (1997). Empathic accuracy. New York: The Guilford Press.
  17. ^ Klein K. Hodges S. (2001). "Gender Differences, Motivation, and Empathic Accuracy: When it Pays to Understand". Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin 27 (6): 720–730.
  18. ^ DM Marx, DA Stapel - Distinguishing Stereotype Threat from Priming Effects: On the Role of the Social Self and Threat-Based Concerns Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 2006 - arno.uvt.nl
  19. ^ a b Fine, Cordelia Delusions of Gender: How Our Minds, Society, and Neurosexism Create Difference 2010
  20. ^ Schaffer, Amanda, The Sex Difference Evangelists, Slate, July 2, 2008 http://www.slate.com/id/2194486/entry/2194489
  21. ^ Baron-Cohen, Simon. "The Extreme-Male-Brain Theory of Autism"
  22. ^ Halpern, Diane F., Sex differences in cognitive abilities, Psychology Press, 2000, ISBN 0805827927, 9780805827927
  23. ^ Pateman, Carole (1988). The Sexual Contract, Stanford: Stanford University Press, p. 207.
  24. ^ a b Anker, Richard (2001). Gender and Jobs: Sex Segregation of Occupations in the World (2. impr. with modifications. ed.). Geneva: International Labour Office. pp. 23–30. ISBN 9789221095248.
  25. ^ Light, Jennifer S. "When Computers Were Women." Technology and Culture 40.3 (1999) 455-483
  26. ^ Boulis, Ann K. (2010). The Changing Face of Medicine: Women Doctors and the Evolution of Health Care in America. Ithaca, N.Y.: ILR. pp. 94–98. ISBN 9780801476624. {{cite book}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
  27. ^ Chin, Jean Lau, Women and leadership: transforming visions and diverse voices Wiley-Blackwell, 2007, ISBN 1405155825, 9781405155823
  28. ^ a b Klenke, Karin, Women and Leadership: A Contextual Perspective , Springer Publishing Company, 2004 ISBN 0826192211, 9780826192219
  29. ^ Eagly, Alice H., Steven J. Karau, Role Congruity Theory of Prejudice Toward Female Leaders, Psychological Review 2002
  30. ^ Osgood, Charles E. "From Yang and Yin to and or but." Language 49.2 (1973): 380–412 . JSTOR. 16 Nov. 2008 <http://www.jstor.org/search>.
  31. ^ Sacred Sanskrit words, p.111
  32. ^ Brown, William, Art of shoe making, Global Media, 2007, 8189940295, 9788189940294
  33. ^ a b Condra, Jill, The Greenwood encyclopedia of clothing through world history: Prehistory to 1500 CE, Greenwood Publishing Group, 2008, ISBN 0313336636, 9780313336638
  34. ^ What is body modification?
  35. ^ Binding: Bone Breaking Beauty, August, 2009
  36. ^ [1]
  37. ^ http://asiapacific.anu.edu.au/newmandala/2007/05/16/bound-by-tradition/
  38. ^ Butler, J. (1990). ‘’Gender trouble: Feminism and the subversion of identity.’’ New York; Routledge.
  39. ^ http://newhumanist.org.uk/1781
  40. ^ Scanlon, Jennifer, Bad girls go everywhere: the life of Helen Gurley Brown, Oxford University Press US, 2009, ISBN 0195342054, 9780195342055
  41. ^ Joanne Hollows; Rachel Moseley (17 February 2006). Feminism in popular culture. Berg Publishers. p. 84. ISBN 9781845202231. http://books.google.com/books?
  42. ^ http://webspace.ship.edu/cgboer/jung.html |Personality Theories
  43. ^ http://mrob.com/pub/std/archetypes.html |Archetypes in Literature
  44. ^ http://www.sandiegotherapists.com/threestages.html |The Three Stages Of A Woman's Life
  45. ^ cross-dress." The American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004.
  46. ^ Why do gays fall for straights? The Advocate, Feb 17, 1998, 72 pages, No. 753, ISSN 0001-8996, Published by Here Publishing
  47. ^ Pezzote, Angelo Straight Acting: Gay Men, Masculinity and Finding True Love, Kensington Publishing Corp., 2008, ISBN 0758219431, 9780758219435
  48. ^ Fellows, Will, A Passion to Preserve: Gay Men as Keepers of Culture, Univ of Wisconsin Press, 2005, ISBN 0299196844, 9780299196844
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