Battlement

A pattern of structure focused of structure of actions of defensive capability.

"Castellated" redirects here. For the hardware item, see castellated nut.

Battlements on the Great Wall of China

Drawing of battlements on a tower

A battlement in defensive architecture, such as that of city walls or castles, comprises a parapet (i.e. a defensive low wall between chest-height and head-height), in which rectangular gaps or indentations occur at intervals to allow for the discharge of arrows or other missiles from within the defences. These gaps are termed "crenels" (also known as carnels, embrasures, or wheelers), and the building operation of embattling a previously unbroken parapet is termed crenellation. Thus a defensive building might be designed and built with battlements, or a manor house might be fortified by adding battlements, where no parapet previously existed, or cutting crenellations into its existing parapet wall. The solid widths between the crenels are called merlons (also cops or kneelers). A wall with battlements is said to be crenelated or embattled. Battlements often have protected walkways (chemin de ronde) behind them.

Etymology

The term originated in about the 14th century from the Old French word batailler, "to fortify with batailles" (fixed or movable turrets of defence). The word crenel derives from the ancient French cren (modern French cran), meaning a notch, mortice or other gap cut out often to receive another element or fixing. The modern French word for crenel is creneau, also used to describe a gap of any kind, for example a parking space at the side of the road between two cars, interval between groups of marching troops or a timeslot in a broadcast.

Licence to crenellate

In mediaeval England a royal licence was required before an owner could fortify his house by the cutting-out of crenellations, or building up of battlements, known as a "licence to crenellate". Such licences were granted by the king, and by the rulers of the counties palatine within their jurisdictions, i.e. by the Bishops of Durham and the Earls of Chester and after 1351 by the Dukes of Lancaster. The original purpose of licencing was to restrict the number of fortifications which could be used against a royal army, and this view was traditionlly held by historians adhering to the theory of state-supremacy and the royal monopoly over defence. The modern view, proposed notably by Charles Coulson, is that in time battlements became an architectural status-symbol much sought after by the socially ambitious, in the words of Charles Coulson: "Licences to crenellate were mainly symbolic representations of lordly status: castellation was the architectural expression of noble rank". They indicated to the observer that the grantee had obtained "royal recognition, acknowledement and compliment". They did however always provide a basic deterrent against wandering bands of thieves prevalent in mediaeval England, and it is suggested that the function of battlements was comparable to the modern practice of householders fitting highly visible CC-TV and burglar alarms, often merely dummies. Surprisingly the crown made only a small administrative monetary charge for the granting of such licences, generally about half a mark. Pardons could be obtained for unlicenced constructions, termed "adulterine". One of the earliest licences granted was in 1141 by King Stephen to Geoffrey de Mandeville, 1st Earl of Essex, probably relating to South Mymms. The surviving records of such licences, generally issued by letters patent provide valuable evidence for the dating of ancient buildings. A list of all licences issued 12th.c to 16th.c was compiled by Turner & Parker and expanded and corrected by The Castle Studies Group.

Example of licence to crenellate

The following licence was granted on 3rd July 1482 by King Edward IV to Edmund Bedyngfeld, Esq., in respect of Oxburgh Hall in Norfolk:

"Licence to Fortify... Edward, by the grace of God, King of England and France, and Lord of Ireland, to all whom these presents shall come, greeting. Know ye that we, considering the good and gracious services which our dearly beloved subject, Edmund Bedingfeld, Esq., hath before these times rendered to us from day to day, and which he still continues inclinded to render, of our special favours have granted and given licence, and by these present do grant and give licence, for us and our heirs, as far as in us lyeth, to the said Edmund, that he, at his will and pleasure, build, make, and construct, with stone, lime, and sand, towers and walls in and about his manour of Oxburgh, in the county of Norfolk, and that manour with such towers and walls to inclose, and those towers and walls to embattle, kernel, and machecollate; and that manor so inclosed, and those walls and towers aforesaid so embattled, kernell'd, and machicollated, built and contructed, to hold for himself and his heirs for ever, without perturbation, impeachment, molestation, impediment, or hindrance from us or our heirs or others whomsoever. And beside, of our abundent grace, we pardon, remit, and release to the aforesaid Edmund, all transgressions, offences, misprisions, and contempts, by him the said Edmund before these times, however done or perpetrated, on account of his inclosiing such walls and towers, embattled, kernelled, machecollated, and built asaforesaid, in and upon his said manour. And further, of our more adundent grace, we have granted and give licence, for ourselves and our heirs aforesaid, to the aforesaid Edmund, that he and his said heirs for ever may have and hold one market in every week on Fridays, at his town of Oxburgh aforesaid, in the county aforesaid. To be held with a Pye Powder Court of the same place by the seneschall of the same Edmund and his heirs aforesaid, to be held during the said market, with all exits, profits, and merciaments to such market and court appertaining, and with all tolls, profits, and emoluments to the said market appertaining or in any way belonging; provided such market be not detrimental to the neighbouring markets. Wherefore we will and strictly ordain, for ourselves and our heirs aforesaid, that the said Edmund and his heirs aforesaid have and hold a market and court and other things as aforesaid, at his said town, in the form aforesaid; and with all liberties and franchises to such market and court belonging, so that such market be no detriment to the neighbouring markets, as has been said, for ever. So that express mention of the true annual value, or the certainty of the premises, or any of them, or of other gifts or grants by us before these times made to the said Edmund, before the making of these (these presents not being made) exists, or any statue, act, ordinance, provision, or restriction, to the contrary notwithstanding. In testimony of which we have caused these our letters patent to be made. Witness myself at Westminster, the 3rd day of July, in the 22nd year of our reign. By Writ of Privy Seale and of the date aforesaid by Authority of Parliament Granted at Westminster, by privy seal".

List of licences

The following is a list of all licences to crenellate, surviving in the records, issued 12th.c to 16th.c and was compiled by Turner & Parker and expanded and corrected by The Castle Studies Group.

• 1127 Jan, Archbishop WilliamRochester (Rochester Castle)
• 1135-40 Abbas Sancti Augustini (St Augustine's Abbey) (a forgery)
• 1141 July, Com Gaufredo Essexiae super Luiam (South Mymms Castle)
• 1141 July, Com Gaufredo Essexiae unum castellum ubicumque voluerit in terra sua (anywhere in his fief)
• 1142, William, Earl of Lincoln,Gainsborough (Thonock Castle Hills)
• 1143 Roger de Conyers, Bishopton Castle Hill (a supposedDurham licence)
• 1146 Rannulfum comitem Cestr., tower in Lincoln Castle
• 1153, Rodberto filio Hard(ingi) Betthone (Berkelai) (Robert FitzHarding, Berkeley Castle)
• 1166-1180, William de Mandeville, Pleshey Castle.
• 1194 Ricardo de Vernone, Heddon (Haddon Hall)Licence to build un-crenellated wall
• 1195, Hugh de Say, Bleddfa Castle
• 1199, Richard Malebisse, Queldric [Wheldrake] (Storwood); revoked
• 1200, William Briwerr, "in whichever Devon property he wishes" (?Axminster,?Buckland Brewer)
• 1200, William Briwerr, Esleg'sive (Gains Castle, Ashley)
• 1200, Bishop Geoffrey Muschamp, Eccleshall Castle
• 1200/1, Henry son of Hervey son of Acaris, Cudereston (Cotherstone Castle)
• 1200, William Briwerr, Stoke (Stokebridge), dubious
• 1201, Hugh de Morville,Kirkoswald Castle
• 1201, Alan de Hertiland, Hartland Castle
• 1201, William d'Estoteville, Bossal (Buttercrambe Castle)
• 1201, William d'Estoteville, Totingham (Baynard Castle, Cottingham)
• 1203, Belvoir Castle
• 1204 May 27, Thom. de Burgo, Leleshay (Lindsey; The Mounts)
• 1215, Burgesses, Stafford Town (Borough Char-ter)
• 1221, Fulk Fitz Warine, Whittington Castle
• 1227 Jan 30, New Sarum "Richard, bishop of the same place, to his successors, to the canons of this church, and to their men" (Salisbury City Defences)
• 1227 Feb 13, Burgesses, Mungumery (Montgomery Town Defences)
• 1227 Aug 17, Henrico de Aldithele, Radeclif (Redcastle)
• 1229 July 29, Mauritio de Gaunt, Beverestan (Beverstone); Pardon
• 1230/31, Will. de Cavereswelle, Cavereswelle (Caverswall Castle)
• 1230 Nov 28, Hen. de Burgo, comiti Kancie et Marga-rete uxori sue, Hatheleg; Hadleg (Hadleigh Castle)
• 1231 May 21, Roberto de Tatteshal
• 1235 Jan 19, William Earl de Ferrers, Leverepul (Liverpool Castle) (permission to strengthen his castle)
• 1252-3, Norwici (Norwich City Wall)
• 1252 Feb 21, Burgessess, Gannoc (Degannwy Town)
• 1253 July 5, Richard, Earl of Cornwall, on the hill above his manor of Mere (Mere Castle Hill)
• 1257 Dec 12, Adomar Winton, the king's brother, Insulam de Portand (Portland [Rufus Castle])
• 1258 Nov 4, Johannes Maunsell, Thesaurarius Ebor Seggewik (Sedgwick Castle)
• 1259 Feb 7, Richardus de Clare, Comes Gouc. et Hertford, Portlaund (Portland)
• 1259 Nov 7, Richard de Clare, Manhale (Manhale)
• 1259 Nov 7, Richard de Clare, Southwaude (Southwold Castle)
• 1259 Dec 19, Richard de Clare, Suwald (Southwold Town Defences)
• 1259 Dec 20, Richard (de Clare), Tonebrugg (Tonbridge Town Defences)
• 1260 Dec 18, Marmaducus, filius Galfri, Horden (Horden Hall)
• 1261 Aug 14, Robert de Sancto Johanne, Basing (Basing House)
• 1261 Sep 28, Burgesses Gernemuth (Great Yarmouth Town Wall)
• 1262 Feb 5, Roger de Sancto Johanne, Lageham in Walkested (Lagham Manor)
• 1262 Mar 15, Johannes Mannsell, Thesaurarius Ebor Seggewik [Seggewyk] (Sedgwick Castle)
• 1262 Aug 16, Robert de Twenge. His house at Bergh (Bergh Castle)

• 1440 Oct 13, Laurence Hammerton, Helefeld (Hellifield Peel)
• 1441 Feb 5, Roger Fenys, Hurst Monceux (Herstmonceux Castle)
• 1442 May 5, John de Cartyngton, Cartyngton (Cartington Castle)
• 1443 July 7, Andrew Ogard, knight, John Clyfton, knight, John Fastoff, knight and William Oldehall, knight, Robert Whityngham, esquire, and William Roys: Rye, otherwise called the Isle of Rye in Stanstead Abbots (Rye House, Stanstead Abbots)
• 1446 Nov 16, John Pury, Chambirehous (Chamberhouse)
• 1447 April 24, Thomas Daniell, king's squire, Ridon (Roydon Hall)
• 1447 May 26, Richard, Duke of York, Honesdon (Hunsdon House)
• 1447 Oct 28, Adam, Bishop of Chichester, Cakham (Cakeham Manor House)
• 1447 Oct 28, Adam, Bishop of Chichester, Alyngbourne (Aldingbourne)
• 1447 Oct 28, Adam, Bishop of Chichester, Amburley (Amberley Castle)
• 1447 Oct 28, Adam, Bishop of Chichester, Drungewyk (Drungewick Manor, Loxwood)
• 1447 Oct 28, Adam, Bishop of Chichester, Byxhill (Bexhill Manor House)
• 1447 Oct 28, Adam, Bishop of Chichester, Bruyll (Broyle Manor House)
• 1447 Oct 28, Adam, Bishop of Chichester, Ferrying (Ferring Manor House)
• 1447 Oct 28, Adam, Bishop of Chichester, Preston (Preston Manor House)
• 1447 Oct 28, Adam, Bishop of Chichester, Sellsey (Selsey Manor House)
• 1447 Oct 28, Adam, Bishop of Chichester, Tyryscherch (Turzes Manor House)
• 1447 Oct 28, Adam, bishop of Chichester, Sidlisham (Sidlesham Manor House)
• 1447 Oct 28, Adam, bishop of Chichester, Westwythtryng (West Wittering Manor House)
• 1448 Jan 20, John Norys, Yattingden, Wele and Firmsham (Yattendon Manor)
• 1448 Dec 10, Thomas Browne, king's squire, Tonford (Tonford Manor, Thanington Without)
• 1448 Dec 10, Thomas Browne, king's squire, Bettisworth (Betchworth Castle)
• 1448 Dec 10, Thomas Browne, king's squire, Egethorne (Eythorne, Kent)
• 1448 Dec 10, Thomas Browne, king's squire, Kyngesnoth (Kingsnorth, Kent)
• 1448 Dec 10, Thomas Browne, king's squire, Tonge (Tonge Castle, Kent)
• 1449 June 26, Robert Botyll, Prior of the Hospital of St. John of Jerusalem in England, Aycle (Eagle Preceptory)
• 1451 Mar 22, Thomas, Bishop of Bath and Wells, Wells (Wells Bishops Palace and Cathedral Close)
• 1457 Dec 7, John Wolf, Kentysbery (Kentisbury Barton)
• 1458 May 5, Ralph Botiller, knightt, lord of Sudeley, More (The More, Rickmansworth);Pardon
• 1458 May 5, Ralph Botiller, knt, lord of Sudeley, Sudeley (Sudeley);Pardon
• 1459 Dec 11, Thomas Fitz William, Malberthorpe (Mablethorpe)
• 1460 Sept 11, Richard Beauchamp, Estenore (Bronsil Castle)
• 1462, Alan [Adam] Morland, parson of the Church of Redmershulle, Redmershulle (Redmarshall Rectors Tower), Durham; Pardon
• 1462 Jan 20, Mayor and burgesses of Pole, Pole (Poole Town Wall);Confirmation
• 1462 July 1, Mayor, sheriffs and burgesses of the town of Kyngeston on Hull, (Kingston upon Hull Town Wall); Confirmation
• 1462 Sept 20, Thomas Gille, the younger, Esquire, Haicche Arundell (Hatch Manor House, Loddiswell)
• 1466 Oct 12, Thomas Cook, knight, Gydihall by Ramford (Gidea Hall)
• 1467 Jan 20, Henry Waver, knight, Thester Waver (Cesterover)
• 1469 May 2, Sir Thomas Pilkington, Bury (Bury Castle, Lancashire), Lancaster; licence
• 1469 July 3, Radulphus Wolseley, Wolseley (Wolseley Hall)
• 1470, Christopher Conyers, knight, Sokburn (Sockburn Castle); Durham licence
• 1473, William Verney, Fairfield House (Not enrolled)
• 1473 April 14, Richard Whetehille, esquire, Boughton (Boughton House)
• 1474 Feb 11, William Plompton, knight, Plompton (Plompton)
• 1474 April 17, William Hastynges, knight, lord of Hastynges, Assheby de la Zouche (Ashby De La Zouch Castle)
• 1474 April 17, William Hastynges, knight, lord of Hastynges Bagworth (Bagworth Manor), Bagworth and Thornton are probably the same place
• 1474 April 17, William Hastynges, knight, lord of Hastynges, Kerby (Kirby Muxloe Castle)
• 1474 April 17, William Hastynges, knight, lord of Hastynges, Slyngesby (Slingsby Castle)
• 1474 April 17, William Hastynges, knight, lord of Hastynges, Thorneton (Thornton, Leicestershire)As above
• 1474 May 28, Laurence, Bishop of Durham, Bryggecourt in the parish of Bateresey (Bridgecourt Manor, Battersea)
• 1477 March 5, John Holcot, esquire, Bradden (Bradden Manor)
• 1477 May 28, John Pylkington, knight, Turneham Hall (Thurnham Hall)
• 1477 May 28, John Pylkington, knight, Bradeley (Bradley Hall, Stainland)
• 1477 May 28, John Pylkington, knight, Elfletburgh (Elphaborough)
• 1477 May 28, John Pylkington, knight, Pylkyngton Hall (Pilkington in Wakefield)
• 1479 May 26, James Haryngton, knight, Farleton (Farleton Castle)
• 1479 May 26, James Haryngton, knight, Brereley (Brierley Hallsteads)
• 1479 Aug 15, Johannes Elrington, miles,(i.e. knight) Thesaurarius Hospitii Regis,(Treasurer of the Royal Hospital), Dixtherne (Great Dixter)
• 1479 Aug 15, Johannes Elrington, miles Thesaurarius Hospitii Regis, Udymere (Court Lodge, Udimore)
• 1480 July 14, William Gascoigne, knight, Gaukethorpe (Gawthorpe)
• 1482 July 3, Edmund Bedyngfeld, esquire, Oxburgh (Oxburgh Hall, Oxborough)
• 1483, Philippe de Carteret, St Ouen's Manor, Jersey, dubious
• 1484, John Kelyng, clerk, rector of the parish church of Houghton, Houghton le Spring Rectory; Durham Pardon
• 1487 Aug 10, Sir William Stanley, Hoton (Hooton Hall); Chester licence
• 1487 Oct 6, John Guldeford, knight, Brockle, parish of Crambroke (Brockley)
• 1487 Oct 6, John Guldeford, knight, Halden, parish of Rolvenden (Halden)
• 1487 Oct 6, John Guldeford, knight, Hertrigge, parish of Ebney (Hawridge)
• 1487 Oct 6, John Guldeford, knight, Tenterden, parish of Tenterden (Tenterden)
• 1487 Oct 6, Richard Guldeford, knight, Higham, alais Iham (Hiham)
• 1487 Oct 6, Richard Guldeford, knight, 'le Camber' (Camber), private coastal artillery fort
• 1490 Aug 2, Thomas Stanley, Earl of Derby, Green Hall in the parish of Garstang (Greenhalgh Castle);Lancaster licence
• 1491 Nov 8, Thomas, Earl of Ormonde, Newehall (New Hall, Boreham)
• 1495 Nov 5, Sir William Martyn, Adlampston in the parish of Pidelton (AthelhamptonHall)
• 1499 June 22, Richard Empson, Estneston (Easton Neston House)
• 1510 March 8, Robert Drury, Hausted Hall (Hawstead Hall)
• 1510 March 8, Robert Drury, Buknahams (Bokenhams, Bradenham)
• 1510 March 8, Robert Drury, Onhowshalle (Onehouse Hall)
• 1510 July 6, Edward, Duke of Buckingham, Thournebury (Thornbury Castle)
• 1512 Nov 8, John Spencer, Wormeleighton (Wormleighton Manor House)
• 1512 Nov 8, John Spencer, Olthorp (Althorp)
• 1515 June 30, Sir Peter Eggecombe, Estonehouse (Stonehouse Town Defences)
• 1523 June 20, James Denton the Dean, Lichfield Cathedral Close; Confirmation
• 1531 Jan 22, Sir William Paulet, Master of the King's Wards, Basyng (Basing House)
• 1533 Jan 30, Sir William FitzWilliam, Cowdray (Cowdray House)
• 1536 Sept 21, a fraternity of 22 named men upon a hill there adapted for signals (TynemouthSouthern Tower), a fortified light-house
• 1536 Sept 21, a fraternity of 22 named men on the north side of "le Shelys" at the entry of the port (Tynemouth Northern Tower), a fortified light-house
• 1542 Feb 18, Sir Thos. Wriothesley, one of the King's principal secretaries, Tychefeld (Titchfield); Pardon
• 1544 July 28, Sir Anthony Browne, K.G., Master of the Horse, within the site of the late mon. of Battle (Battle Abbey)
• 1546 Jan 31, Sir William Pagete, the King's Councillor, Burton (Burton Upon Trent Abbey)
• 1546 Jan 31, Sir William Pagete, the King's Councillor, Brysingote (Brizlincote Hall)
• 1547 Sept 20, William Paulett, K.G., Lrd Seynt John, Letley (Netley Castle); Pardon; (a private coastal artillery fort)
• 1551 Nov 20, William Petre, Ingat Stone alias Ging ad Petram (Ingatestone Hall); Pardon
• 1561 Nov 24, Christopher Heydon, knight, the queen's servant, Baconsthorpe (Baconsthorpe Castle)
• 1567 Oct 28, Lewis Grevell, Mylcote - Mountgrevell (Milcote Manor)
• 1589 June 5, Sir Moile Finche (Moyle Finch)Eastwell Manor
• 1622 March 10, Ferdinand Huddleston, Millom Castle, dubious

Machicolations

Battlements may be stepped-out to overhang the wall below, and may have openings at their bases between the supporting corbels, through which stones or burning objects could be dropped onto attackers or besiegers; these are known as machicolations.

History

9th cent. BC relief of an Assyrian attack on a walled town with zig-zag shaped battlements

Battlements have been used for thousands of years; the earliest known example is in the palace at Medinet-Abu at Thebes in Egypt, which allegedly derives from Syrian fortresses. Battlements were used in the walls surrounding Assyrian towns, as shown on bas reliefs from Nimrud and elsewhere. Traces of them remain at Mycenae in Greece, and some ancient Greek vases suggest the existence of battlements. The Great Wall of China has battlements.

Development

Cutaway diagram of a tower of Château de Pierrefonds showing its three levels of defensive architecture

In the European battlements of the Middle Ages the crenel comprised one-third of the width of the merlon: the latter, in addition, could be provided with arrow-loops of various shapes (from simply round to cruciform), depending on the weapon being utilized. Late merlons permitted fire from the first firearms. From the 13th century, the merlons could be connected with wooden shutters that provided added protection when closed. The shutters were designed to be opened to allow shooters to fire against the attackers, and closed during reloading.

Ancient Rome

The Romans used low wooden pinnacles for their first aggeres (terreplains). In the battlements of Pompeii, additional protection derived from small internal buttresses or spur walls, against which the defender might stand so as to gain complete protection on one side.

Italy

Gradara Castle, Italy, outer walls 13th.-14th.c., showing on the tower curved v-shaped notches in the merlons

Loop-holes were frequent in Italian battlements, where the merlon has much greater height and a distinctive cap. Italian military architects used the so-called Ghibelline or swallowtail battlement, with V-shaped notches in the tops of the merlon, giving a horn-like effect. This would allow the defender to be protected whilst shooting standing fully upright. The normal rectangular merlons were later nicknamed Guelph .

Arabia

In Muslim and African fortifications, the merlons often were rounded. The battlements of the Arabs had a more decorative and varied character, and were continued from the 13th century onwards not so much for defensive purposes as for a crowning feature to the walls. They serve a function similar to the cresting found in the Spanish Renaissance.

Decorative element

European architects persistently used battlements as a purely decorative feature throughout the Decorated and Perpendicular periods of Gothic architecture. They not only occur on parapets but on the transoms of windows and on the tie-beams of roofs and on screens, and even on Tudor chimney-pots. A further decorative treatment appears in the elaborate paneling of the merlons and that portion of the parapet walls rising above the cornice, by the introduction of quatrefoils and other conventional forms filled with foliage and shield.

See also

• Merlon
• Embrasure

Sources

• Balestracci, D. (1989). "I materiali da costruzione nel castello medievale". Archeologia Medievale (XVI): pp. 227–242. {{cite journal}}: |pages= has extra text (help)
• "Hierarchism in Conventual Crenellation". Medieval Archaeology. 26: pp. 69–100. 1982. {{cite journal}}: |first= missing |last= (help); |pages= has extra text (help); Unknown parameter |unused_data= ignored (help)
• Luisi, R. (1996). Scudi di pietra, I castelli e l’arte della guerra tra Medioevo e Rinascimento. Bari.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)

Further reading

• Licence to crenellate:
  • English Licences to Crenellate: 1199-1567, The Castle Studies Group Journal, no 20, 2006/7, pp.225-245, states Coulson to be best source.
  • Coulson, Charles, 1979, 'Structural Symbolism inMedieval Castle Architecture' Journal of theBritish Archaeological Association Vol. 132pp73-90
  • Coulson, C., 1982, 'Hierarchism in Conventual Crenellation' MedievalArchaeology Vol. 26 pp69-100
  • King, D.J.C., 1983, Castellarium Anglicanum (Kraus)
  • Coulson, C., 1994, 'Freedom to Crenellateby Licence - An Historiographical Revision' Nottingham Medieval Studies Vol. 38 pp.86-137
  • Coulson, C., 1995, 'Battlements and the Bourgeoisie: Municipal Status and the Apparatus of Urban Defence' in Church,Stephen (ed), Medieval Knighthood Vol. 5(Boydell) pp119-95
  • Coulson, C.,2003, Castles in Medieval Society, Oxford University Press.
  • Coulson, C., Castles in the Medieval Polity -Crenellation, Privilege, and Defence in England, Ireland and Wales.