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'''Time geography''' or '''time-space geography''' is an evolving [[transdisciplinary]] perspective on [[spatial]] and [[temporal]] processes and events such as [[social interaction]], [[ecological interaction]], social and environmental change, and [[biographies]] of individuals.<ref>{{Harvnb|Thrift|Pred|1981|p=277}}; {{Harvnb|Carlstein|1982|p=ii}}</ref> Time geography "is not a subject area per se,"<ref>{{Harvnb|Lenntorp|1999|p=155}}</ref> but rather an integrative [[ontological]] framework and [[visual language]] in which [[Philosophy of space and time|space and time]] are basic dimensions of analysis of dynamic processes. Time geography was originally developed by [[Human geography|human geographers]], but today it is applied in multiple fields related to [[transportation]], [[regional planning]], [[geography]], [[anthropology]], [[time use research]], [[ecology]], [[environmental science]], and [[public health]].<ref>{{Harvnb|Sui|2012}}</ref> "It is a basic approach, and every researcher can connect it to [[theoretical]] considerations in her or his own way."<ref>{{Harvnb|Lenntorp|1999|p=158}}</ref>
'''Time geography''' or '''time-space geography''' traces its roots back to the Swedish geographer [[Torsten Hägerstrand]] who stressed the temporal factor in spatial human activities. ''The time-space path'', devised by Hägerstrand, shows the movement of an individual in the spatial-temporal environment with the constraints placed on the individual by these two factors. Three categories of constraints were identified by Hägerstrand:<ref name=hägerstrand>Hägerstrand, Torsten (1953). Innovationsförloppet ur korologisk synpunkt, C.W.K Gleerup, Lund, Sweden. Translated as Innovation Diffusion As a Spatial Process, Chicago, University of Chicago Press, 1967</ref>


==Origins of time geography==
Time geography is that branch of human science which deals with the study of temporal factor on spatial human activities with constraints like authority, capability and coupling.
Swedish geographer [[Torsten Hägerstrand]] created time geography in the mid-1960s based on ideas he had developed during his earlier empirical research on [[human migration]] patterns in Sweden.<ref>{{Harvnb|Lenntorp|1999|p=157}}</ref> He sought "some way of finding out the workings of large socio-environmental mechanisms" using "a physical approach involving the study of how events occur in a time-space framework."<ref>{{Harvnb|Hägerstrand|1970|p=20–21}}</ref> Hägerstrand was inspired in part by conceptual advances in [[spacetime]] [[physics]] and by the philosophy of [[physicalism]].<ref>In {{Harvnb|Hägerstrand|1983}} and {{Harvnb|Kuklinski|1987}}, Hägerstrand cites the writings of [[Albert Einstein]] and [[Arthur Eddington]] on [[general relativity]] as inspirations. [[Physicalist]] philosopher and sociologist [[Otto Neurath]] is cited in {{Harvnb|Hägerstrand|1970}}. While these ideas are important sources for time-geographic [[ontology]], time geography should not be portrayed as exclusively [[physicalist]]. In {{Harvnb|Hägerstrand|1970}}, [[phenomenologist]] [[Martin Heidegger]] and [[conservationist]] [[Rachel Carson]] are also cited as major influences, along with numerous geographers. "Hägerstrand wanted to stress the importance of the material aspects of the real world as the basis of life, with an imperative for researchers to take basic constraints into consideration: that natural resources, time, and space are limited... Nevertheless, Torsten Hägerstrand was not a hardcore materialist. His materialism is embedded in a deep concern for the importance of human experiences, reflections, and reasoning for the development of geographical knowledge." ({{Harvnb|Ellegård|Svedin|2012|p=18}})</ref>


Hägerstrand's earliest formulation of time geography informally described its key [[ontological]] features: "In time-space the individual describes a ''path''" within a situational context; "life paths become captured within a net of constraints, some of which are imposed by physiological and physical necessities and some imposed by private and common decisions."<ref>{{Harvnb|Hägerstrand|1970|p=10–11}}</ref> "It would be impossible to offer a comprehensive taxonomy of constraints seen as time-space phenomena," Hägerstrand said, but he "tentatively described" three important classes of constraints:
#'''Authority''' - limits of accessibility to some places or domains placed on individuals by owners or authorities
#'''Capability''' - limitations on the movement of individuals, based on their nature. For example, movement is restricted by biological factors, such as the need for food, drink, and sleep
#'''Coupling''' - restraint of an individual, anchoring him or her to a location while interacting with other individuals to complete a task


*''capability constraints'' — limitations on the activity of individuals because of their biological structure and/or the tools they can command,
The methods associated with time geography have been criticized by a number of [[postmodern]] and [[feminist geography|feminist]] geographers.<ref name=rose>Rose, Gillian (1993) ''Feminism and Geography: The Limits of Geographical Knowledge'' Univ. of Minnesota Press</ref>
*''coupling constraints'' — limitations that "define where, when, and for how long, the individual has to join other individuals, tools, and materials in order to produce, consume, and transact" (closely related to [[critical path analysis]]), and
*''authority constraints'' — limitations on the domain or "time-space entity within which things and events are under the control of a given individual or a given group."<ref>{{Harvnb|Hägerstrand|1970|p=11–17}}</ref>

Hägerstrand illustrated these concepts with novel forms of graphical [[notation]] (inspired in part by [[musical notation]]),<ref>{{Harvnb|Kuklinski|1987|p=507}}; {{Harvnb|Buttimer|Mels|2006|p=119}}; {{Harvnb|Ellegård|Svedin|2012}}</ref> such as:

*the ''space-time aquarium'' (or ''space-time cube''), which displays individual paths in [[Axonometric projection|axonometric]] [[graphical projection]] of space and time coordinates;
*the ''space-time prism'', which shows individuals' possible behavior in time-space given their capability constraints and coupling constraints;
*''bundles'' of paths, which are the conjunction of individual paths due in part to their capability constraints and coupling constraints, and which help to create "pockets of local order";
*''concentric tubes or rings of accessibility'', which indicate certain capability constraints of a given individual, such as limited spatial size and limited manual, oral-auditive and visual range; and
*''nested hierarchies of domains'', which show the authority constraints for a given individual or a given group.<ref>{{Harvnb|Hägerstrand|1970|p=12–17}}; {{Harvnb|Carlstein|1982|p=40–50}}</ref>

While this innovative [[visual language]] is an essential feature of time geography, Hägerstrand's colleague Bo Lenntorp emphasized that it is the product of an underlying [[ontology]], and "not the other way around. The notation system is a very useful tool, but it is a rather poor reflection of a rich world-view. In many cases, the notational apparatus has been the hallmark of time geography. However, the underlying ontology is the most important feature."<ref>{{Harvnb|Lenntorp|1999|p=156}}</ref> Time geography is not only about time-geographic diagrams, just as music is not only about musical notation. Hägerstrand later explained: "What is briefly alluded to here is a [[Four-dimensional space|4-dimensional world]] of forms. This cannot be completely graphically depicted. On the other hand one ought to be able to imagine it with sufficient clarity for it to be of guidance in empirical and theoretical research."<ref>{{Harvnb|Hägerstrand|Carlstein|2004|p=323}}</ref>

By 1981, geographers [[Nigel Thrift]] and [[Allan Pred]] were already defending time geography against those who would see it "merely as a rigid descriptive model of spatial and temporal organization which lends itself to accessibility constraint analysis (and related exercises in social engineering)."<ref>{{Harvnb|Thrift|Pred|1981|p=277}}</ref> They argued that time geography is not just a model of constraints; it is a flexible and evolving way of thinking about reality that can complement a wide variety of theories and research methods. In the decades since then, Hägerstrand and others have made efforts to expand his original set of concepts.<ref>For a more extensive list of Hägerstrand's publications, see [[Torsten Hägerstrand]]</ref> By the end of his life, Hägerstrand had ceased using the phrase "time geography" to refer to this way of thinking and instead used words like ''topoecology''.<ref>{{Harvnb|Ellegård|Svedin|2012|p=18}}; {{Harvnb|Hägerstrand|Carlstein|2004|p=323}}</ref>

==Later developments in time geography==
Since the 1980s, time geography has been used by researchers in the social sciences,<ref>For example: {{Harvnb|Ellegård|de Pater|1999}}; {{Harvnb|Ellegård|Palm|2011}}; {{Harvnb|Fischer-Kowalski|Singh|Ringhofer|Grünbühel|2010}}; {{Harvnb|Kwan|2004}}; {{Harvnb|Latham|2003}}; {{Harvnb|Ringhofer|2009}}; {{Harvnb|Schwanen|Kwan|2009}}; {{Harvnb|Singh|Ringhofer|Haas|Krausmann|2010}}; {{Harvnb|Tani|Surma-aho|2012}}</ref> the biological sciences,<ref>For example: {{Harvnb|Baer|Butler|2000}}; {{Harvnb|Brasebin|Buard|2011}}; {{Harvnb|Downs|Horner|Tucker|2011}}; {{Harvnb|Huettmann|Cushman|2009}}</ref> and in interdisciplinary fields.

In 1993, British geographer [[Gillian Rose (geographer)|Gillian Rose]] noted that "time-geography shares the feminist interest in the quotidian paths traced by people, and again like feminism, links such paths, by thinking about constraints, to the larger structures of society."<ref>{{Harvnb|Rose|1993|p=18}}</ref> However, she noted that time geography had not been applied to issues important to feminists, and she called it a form of "social science masculinity."<ref>{{Harvnb|Rose|1993|p=40}}</ref> Over the following two decades, [[Feminist geography|feminist geographers]] have revisited time geography and have begun to use it as a tool to address feminist issues.<ref>For example: {{Harvnb|Kwan|2007}}; {{Harvnb|Kwan|Ding|2008}}; {{Harvnb|McQuoid|Dijst|2012}}; {{Harvnb|Scholten|Friberg|Sandén|2012}}</ref>

Time geography has also been used as a form of [[therapeutic assessment]] in [[mental health]].<ref>{{Harvnb|Lewchanin|Zubrod|2001}}; {{Harvnb|Sunnqvist|Persson|Lenntorp|Träskman-Bendz|2007}}; {{Harvnb|Sunnqvist|Persson|Westrin|Träskman-Bendz|2013}}</ref>

==See also==
* [[Agent based modeling]]
* [[Geographic information system#Adding the dimension of time]]
* [[Historical ecology]]
* [[Material flow analysis]]
* [[Philosophy of space and time]]
* [[Spacetime]]
* [[Time use research]]

==Footnotes==
{{Reflist|colwidth=30em}}


==References==
==References==
* {{cite journal |last1=Baer |first1=Leonard D |last2=Butler |first2=David R |title=Space–time modeling of grizzly bears |year=2000 |month=April |journal=Geographical Review |volume=90 |issue=2 |pages=206–221 |doi=10.1111/j.1931-0846.2000.tb00331.x |ref=harv}}
{{reflist}}
* {{cite book |last1=Brasebin |first1=Mickaël |last2=Buard |first2=Elodie |year=2011 |chapter=Visual exploration of large animal trajectories |title=Proceedings of the 25th International Cartographic Conference, Paris, 3–8 July 2011 |location=Paris |publisher=[[International Cartographic Association]] |isbn=9781907075056 |oclc=781048687 |url=http://icaci.org/documents/ICC_proceedings/ICC2011/Oral%20Presentations%20PDF/C1-Analysis%20and%20visualisation%20of%20data%20over%20time/CO-186.pdf |ref=harv}}
* {{cite book |last1=Buttimer |first1=Anne |last2=Mels |first2=Tom |year=2006 |title=By northern lights: on the making of geography in Sweden |others=Foreword by Torsten Hägerstrand |location=Aldershot, England; Burlington, VT |publisher=Ashgate |isbn=0754648141 |oclc=63187516 |ref=harv}}
* {{cite book |last=Carlstein |first=Tommy |year=1982 |title=Time resources, society, and ecology: on the capacity for human interaction in space and time |location=London; Boston |publisher=Allen & Unwin |isbn=0043000827 |oclc=7946554 |ref=harv}}
* {{cite journal |last1=Downs |first1=Joni A |last2=Horner |first2=Mark W |last3=Tucker |first3=Anton D |title=Time-geographic density estimation for home range analysis |year=2011 |month=September |journal=Annals of GIS |volume=17 |issue=3 |pages=163–171 |doi=10.1080/19475683.2011.602023 |ref=harv}}
* {{cite journal |last1=Ellegård |first1=Kajsa |last2=de Pater |first2=Ben |year=1999 |month=July |title=The complex tapestry of everyday life |journal=GeoJournal |volume=48 |number=3 |pages=149–153 |doi=10.1023/A:1007059105684 |ref=harv}}
* {{cite journal |last1=Ellegård |first1=Kajsa |last2=Palm |first2=Jenny |year=2011 |month=May |title=Visualizing energy consumption activities as a tool for making everyday life more sustainable |journal=Applied Energy |volume=88 |number=5 |pages=1920–1926 |doi=10.1016/j.apenergy.2010.11.019 |url=http://liu.diva-portal.org/smash/get/diva2:395245/FULLTEXT01 |ref=harv}}
* {{cite journal |last1=Ellegård |first1=Kajsa |last2=Svedin |first2=Uno |year=2012 |month=July |title=Torsten Hägerstrand's time-geography as the cradle of the activity approach in transport geography |journal=Journal of Transport Geography |volume=23 |pages=17–25 |doi=10.1016/j.jtrangeo.2012.03.023 |url=http://liu.diva-portal.org/smash/get/diva2:544278/FULLTEXT01 |ref=harv}}
* {{cite techreport |last1=Fischer-Kowalski |first1=Marina |last2=Singh |first2=Simron Jit |last3=Ringhofer |first3=Lisa |last4=Grünbühel |first4=Clemens M |last5=Lauk |first5=Christian |last6=Remesch |first6=Alexander |year=2010 |month=March |title=Sociometabolic regimes in indigenous communities and the crucial role of working time: a comparison of case studies |institution=Institute of Social Ecology, [[Klagenfurt University]] |number=121 |issn=1726-3816 |url=http://www.uni-klu.ac.at/socec/downloads/WP121_WEB.pdf |ref=harv}}
* {{cite journal |last=Hägerstrand |first=Torsten |authorlink=Torsten Hägerstrand |year=1970 |title=What about people in regional science? |journal=Papers of the [[Regional Science Association]] |volume=24 |issue=1 |pages=6–21 |doi=10.1007/BF01936872 |ref=harv}}
* {{cite book |last=Hägerstrand |first=Torsten |authorlink=Torsten Hägerstrand |year=1983 |chapter=In search for the sources of concepts |editor-last=Buttimer |editor-first=Anne |title=The practice of geography |location=London; New York |publisher=Longman |pages=238–256 |isbn=0582300878 |oclc=8629687 |ref=harv}}
* {{cite journal |last1=Hägerstrand |first1=Torsten |authorlink1=Torsten Hägerstrand |last2=Carlstein |first2=Tommy |title=The two vistas |year=2004 |month=December |journal=[[Geografiska Annaler]]: Series B, Human Geography |volume=86 |issue=4 |pages=315–323 |doi=10.1111/j.0435-3684.2004.00170.x |ref=harv}}
* {{cite book |editor1-last=Huettmann |editor1-first=Falk |editor2-last=Cushman |editor2-first=Samuel A |year=2009 |title=Spatial complexity, informatics, and wildlife conservation |location=Tokyo; New York |publisher=Springer |isbn=9784431877707 |oclc=567359237 |doi=10.1007/978-4-431-87771-4 |ref=harv}}
* {{cite journal |last=Kuklinski |first=Antoni |year=1987 |title=Torsten Hägerstrand laudatio |journal=GeoJournal |volume=14 |issue=4 |pages=503–510 |doi=10.1007/BF02602724 |ref=harv}}
* {{cite journal |last=Kwan |first=Mei-Po |year=2004 |month=December |title=GIS methods in time-geographic research: geocomputation and geovisualization of human activity patterns |journal=[[Geografiska Annaler]]: Series B, Human Geography |volume=86 |issue=4 |pages=267–280 |doi=10.1111/j.0435-3684.2004.00167.x |url=http://www.meipokwan.org/Paper/GeogAnnaler_2004.pdf |ref=harv}}
* {{cite journal |last=Kwan |first=Mei-Po |year=2007 |title=Affecting geospatial technologies: toward a feminist politics of emotion |journal=[[The Professional Geographer]] |volume=59 |issue=1 |pages=22–34 |doi=10.1111/j.1467-9272.2007.00588.x |url=http://meipokwan.org/Paper/PG_2007.pdf |ref=harv}}
* {{cite journal |last1=Kwan |first1=Mei-Po |last2=Ding |first2=Guoxiang |year=2008 |title=Geo-narrative: extending geographic information systems for narrative analysis in qualitative and mixed-method research |journal=[[The Professional Geographer]] |volume=60 |issue=4 |pages=443–465 |doi=10.1080/00330120802211752 |url=http://meipokwan.org/Paper/PG_2008.pdf |ref=harv}}
* {{cite journal |last=Latham |first=Allan |year=2003 |title=Research, performance, and doing human geography: some reflections on the diary-photograph, diary-interview method |journal=[[Environment and Planning]] A |volume=35 |issue=11 |pages=1993–2017 |doi=10.1068/a3587 |ref=harv}}
* {{cite journal |last=Lenntorp |first=Bo |year=1999 |month=July |title=Time-geography—at the end of its beginning |journal=[[GeoJournal]] |volume=48 |issue=3 |pages=155–158 |doi=10.1023/A:1007067322523 |ref=harv}}
* {{cite journal |last1=Lewchanin |first1=Shari |last2=Zubrod |first2=Louise A |title=Choices in life: a clinical tool for facilitating midlife review |year=2001 |month=July |journal=Journal of Adult Development |volume=8 |issue=3 |pages=193–196 |doi=10.1023/A:1009598425503 |ref=harv}}
* {{cite journal |last1=McQuoid |first1=Julia |last2=Dijst |first2=Martin |title=Bringing emotions to time geography: the case of mobilities of poverty |year=2012 |month=July |journal=Journal of Transport Geography |volume=23 |pages=26–34 |doi=10.1016/j.jtrangeo.2012.03.019 |ref=harv}}
* {{cite book |last=Ringhofer |first=Lisa |year=2009 |title=Fishing, foraging and farming in the Bolivian Amazon: on a local society in transition |location=Dordrecht; London |publisher=[[Springer]] |isbn=9789048134861 |oclc=436030901 |doi=10.1007/978-90-481-3487-8 |ref=harv}}
* {{cite book |last=Rose |first=Gillian |authorlink=Gillian Rose (geographer) |year=1993 |title=Feminism and geography: the limits of geographical knowledge |location=Minneapolis |publisher=[[University of Minnesota Press]] |isbn=0816624178 |oclc=27935641 |ref=harv}}
* {{cite journal |last1=Scholten |first1=Christina |last2=Friberg |first2=Tora |last3=Sandén |first3=Annika |title=Re-reading time-geography from a gender perspective: examples from gendered mobility |year=2012 |month=December |journal=[[Tijdschrift voor economische en sociale geografie]] |volume=103 |issue=5 |pages=584–600 |doi=10.1111/j.1467-9663.2012.00717.x |ref=harv}}
* {{cite journal |last1=Schwanen |first1=Tim |last2=Kwan |first2=Mei-Po |year=2009 |title='Doing' critical geographies with numbers |journal=[[The Professional Geographer]] |volume=61 |number=4 |pages=459–464 |doi=10.1080/00330120903103072 |ref=harv}}
* {{cite techreport |last1=Singh |first1=Simron Jit |last2=Ringhofer |first2=Lisa |last3=Haas |first3=Willi |last4=Krausmann |first4=Fridolin |last5=Fischer-Kowalski |first5=Marina |year=2010 |month=March |title=Local studies manual: a researcher's guide for investigating the social metabolism of local rural systems |institution=Institute of Social Ecology, [[Klagenfurt University]] |number=120 |issn=1726-3816 |url=http://www.uni-klu.ac.at/socec/downloads/WP120_Web.pdf |ref=harv}}
* {{cite journal |last=Sui |first=Daniel Z |year=2012 |month=July |title=Looking through Hägerstrand's dual vistas: towards a unifying framework for time geography |journal=Journal of Transport Geography |volume=23 |pages=5–16 |doi=10.1016/j.jtrangeo.2012.03.020 |ref=harv}}
* {{cite journal |last1=Sunnqvist |first1=Charlotta |last2=Persson |first2=Ulla |last3=Lenntorp |first3=Bo |last4=Träskman-Bendz |first4=Lil |title=Time geography: a model for psychiatric life charting? |year=2007 |month=May |journal=Journal of Psychiatric and Mental Health Nursing |volume=14 |issue=3 |pages=250–257 |doi=10.1111/j.1365-2850.2007.01071.x |ref=harv}}
* {{cite journal |last1=Sunnqvist |first1=Charlotta |last2=Persson |first2=Ulla |last3=Westrin |first3=Åsa |last4=Träskman-Bendz |first4=Lil |last5=Lenntorp |first5=Bo |title=Grasping the dynamics of suicidal behaviour: combining time-geographic life charting and COPE ratings |year=2013 |month=April |journal=Journal of Psychiatric and Mental Health Nursing |volume=20 |issue=4 |pages=336–344 |doi=10.1111/j.1365-2850.2012.01928.x |ref=harv}}
* {{cite journal |last1=Tani |first1=Sirpa |last2=Surma-aho |first2=Outi |title=Young people and the hidden meanings of the everyday: time-space path as a methodological opportunity |year=2012 |journal=International Research in Geographical and Environmental Education |volume=21 |issue=3 |pages=187–203 |doi=10.1080/10382046.2012.698077 |ref=harv}}
* {{cite journal |last1=Thrift |first1=Nigel |authorlink1=Nigel Thrift |last2=Pred |first2=Allan |authorlink2=Allan Pred |title=Time-geography: a new beginning |year=1981 |month=June |journal=[[Progress in Human Geography]] |volume=5 |issue=2 |pages=277–286 |doi= 10.1177/030913258100500209 |ref=harv}}

==Further reading==
* {{cite journal |last=Adams |first=Paul Channing |year=1995 |month=June |title=A reconsideration of personal boundaries in space-time |journal=Annals of the [[Association of American Geographers]] |volume=85 |issue=2 |pages=267–285 |doi=10.1111/j.1467-8306.1995.tb01794.x |ref=harv}}
* {{cite book |last=Adams |first=Paul Channing |year=2009 |title=Geographies of media and communication: a critical introduction |series=Critical introductions to geography |location=Chichester, UK; Malden, MA |publisher=[[Wiley-Blackwell]] |isbn=9781405154130 |oclc=237788695 |ref=harv}}
* {{cite book |last1=Boman |first1=Magnus |last2=Holm |first2=Einar |year=2004 |chapter=Multi-agent systems, time geography, and microsimulations |editor1-last=Olsson |editor1-first=Mats-Olov |editor2-last=Sjöstedt |editor2-first=Gunnar |title=Systems approaches and their application: examples from Sweden |location=Dordrecht; Boston |publisher=Kluwer Academic Publishers |pages=95–118 |isbn=1402023693 |oclc=55502669 |doi=10.1007/1-4020-2370-7_4 |ref=harv}}
* {{cite journal |last1=Chowdhury |first1=Debashish |last2=Schadschneider |first2=Andreas |last3=Nishinari |first3=Katsuhiro |title=Physics of transport and traffic phenomena in biology: from molecular motors and cells to organisms |year=2005 |month=December |journal=[[Physics of Life Reviews]] |volume=2 |issue=4 |pages=318–352 |doi=10.1016/j.plrev.2005.09.001 |ref=harv}}
* {{cite book |last=DiSalle |first=Robert |year=2011 |chapter=Pitholes in space-time: structure and ontology of physical geometry |editor1-last=DeVidi |editor1-first=David |editor2-last=Hallett |editor2-first=Michael |editor3-last=Clarke |editor3-first=Peter |title=Logic, mathematics, philosophy, vintage enthusiasms: essays in honour of John L. Bell |series=The Western Ontario series in philosophy of science |location=New York |publisher=[[Springer]] |pages=345–360 |isbn=9789400702134 |oclc=719361722 |doi=10.1007/978-94-007-0214-1_17 |ref=harv}}
* {{cite book |last=Gren |first=Martin |chapter=Time-geography matters |editor1-last=May |editor1-first=Jon |editor2-last=Thrift |editor2-first=Nigel J |editor3-link=Nigel Thrift |year=2001 |title=TimeSpace: geographies of temporality |series=Critical geographies, 13 |pages=208–225 |location=London; New York |publisher=Routledge |isbn=041518083X |oclc=52996864 |ref=harv}}
* {{cite book |last=Kellerman |first=Aharon |year=1989 |title=Time, space, and society: geographical societal perspectives |series=GeoJournal library |location=Dordrecht; Boston |publisher=Kluwer Academic Publishers |isbn=0792301234 |oclc=19130678 |ref=harv}}
* {{cite journal |last1=Kenett |first1=Dror Y |last2=Portugali |first2=Juval |year=2012 |month=July |title=Population movement under extreme events |journal=[[Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences]] |volume=102 |number=29 |pages=11472–11473 |doi=10.1073/pnas.1209306109 |url=http://www.pnas.org/content/109/29/11472.full |ref=harv}}
* {{cite book |last=Kraak |first=Menno-Jan |year=2008 |chapter=Geovisualization and time: new opportunities for the space-time cube |editor1-last=Dodge |editor1-first=Martin |editor2-last=McDerby |editor2-first=Mary |editor3-last=Turner |editor3-first=Martin |title=Geographic visualization: concepts, tools and applications |location=Chichester, England; Hoboken, NJ |publisher=[[John Wiley & Sons|Wiley]] |pages=293–306 |isbn=9780470515112 |oclc=191847101 |doi=10.1002/9780470987643.ch15 |ref=harv}}
* {{cite journal |last1=Li |first1=Xia |last2=Kraak |first2=Menno-Jan |title=The time wave: a new method of visual exploration of geo-data in timespace |year=2008 |month=August |journal=The Cartographic Journal |volume=45 |issue=3 |pages=193–200 |doi=10.1179/000870408X311387 |ref=harv}}
* {{cite book |last=Liebscher |first=Dierck-Ekkehard |year=2005 |title=The geometry of time |location=Weinheim |publisher=Wiley-VCH |isbn=3527405674 |oclc=60413503 |doi=10.1002/9783527618712 |ref=harv}}
* {{cite journal |last1=Long |first1=Jed A |last2=Nelson |first2=Trisalyn A |title=A review of quantitative methods for movement data |year=2013 |journal=[[International Journal of Geographical Information Science]] |volume=27 |issue=2 |pages=292–318 |doi=10.1080/13658816.2012.682578 |ref=harv}}
* {{cite journal |last=Massey |first=Doreen B |year=1999 |title=Space-time, 'science' and the relationship between physical geography and human geography |journal=[[Transactions of the Institute of British Geographers]] |volume=24 |issue=3 |pages=261–276 |doi=10.1111/j.0020-2754.1999.00261.x |ref=harv}}
* {{cite journal |last=Merriman |first=Peter |year=2012 |title=Human geography without time-space |journal=[[Transactions of the Institute of British Geographers]] |volume=37 |issue=1 |pages=13–27 |doi=10.1111/j.1475-5661.2011.00455.x |ref=harv}}
* {{cite journal |last1=Patten |first1=Bernard C |last2=Straškraba |first2=Milan |last3=Jørgensen |first3=Sven E |title=Ecosystems emerging. 5: Constraints |year=2011 |month=August |journal=Ecological Modelling |volume=222 |issue=16 |pages=2945–2972 |doi=10.1016/j.ecolmodel.2011.04.019 |ref=harv}}
* {{cite book |last=Peuquet |first=Donna J |year=2002 |title=Representations of space and time |location=New York |publisher=[[Guilford Press]] |isbn=1572307730 |oclc=49530164 |ref=harv}}
* {{cite journal |last1=Raubal |first1=Martin |last2=Winter |first2=Stephan |last3=Teßmann |first3=Sven |last4=Gaisbauer |first4=Christian |title=Time geography for ad-hoc shared-ride trip planning in mobile geosensor networks |year=2007 |month=October |journal=ISPRS Journal of Photogrammetry and Remote Sensing |volume=62 |issue=5 |pages=366–381 |doi=10.1016/j.isprsjprs.2007.03.005 |ref=harv}}
* {{cite journal |last=Reydon |first=Thomas A C |year=2008 |month=September |title=Species in three and four dimensions |journal=Synthese |volume=164 |issue=2 |pages=161–184 |doi=10.1007/s11229-007-9221-6 |ref=harv}}
* {{cite book |last1=Richards |first1=Keith |last2=Bithell |first2=Michael |last3=Bravo |first3=Michael |year=2004 |chapter=Space, time and science: individuals, emergence and geographies of space and place |editor1-last=Matthews |editor1-first=John A |editor2-last=Herbert |editor2-first=David T |title=Unifying geography: common heritage, shared future |location=London; New York |publisher=[[Routledge]] |pages=327–352 |isbn=0415305438 |oclc=53814306 |ref=harv}}
* {{cite book |last1=Svee |first1=Eric-Oluf |last2=Sanches |first2=Pedro |last3=Bylund |first3=Markus |year=2009 |chapter=Time geography rediscovered: a common language for location-oriented services |pages=1–4 |title=Proceedings of the 2nd International Workshop on Location and the Web, Boston, Massachusetts, April 4, 2009 |location=New York |publisher=[[Association for Computing Machinery]] |isbn=9781605584577 |oclc=470652992 |doi=10.1145/1507136.1507147 |ref=harv}}


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Revision as of 00:24, 29 May 2013

Time geography or time-space geography is an evolving transdisciplinary perspective on spatial and temporal processes and events such as social interaction, ecological interaction, social and environmental change, and biographies of individuals.[1] Time geography "is not a subject area per se,"[2] but rather an integrative ontological framework and visual language in which space and time are basic dimensions of analysis of dynamic processes. Time geography was originally developed by human geographers, but today it is applied in multiple fields related to transportation, regional planning, geography, anthropology, time use research, ecology, environmental science, and public health.[3] "It is a basic approach, and every researcher can connect it to theoretical considerations in her or his own way."[4]

Origins of time geography

Swedish geographer Torsten Hägerstrand created time geography in the mid-1960s based on ideas he had developed during his earlier empirical research on human migration patterns in Sweden.[5] He sought "some way of finding out the workings of large socio-environmental mechanisms" using "a physical approach involving the study of how events occur in a time-space framework."[6] Hägerstrand was inspired in part by conceptual advances in spacetime physics and by the philosophy of physicalism.[7]

Hägerstrand's earliest formulation of time geography informally described its key ontological features: "In time-space the individual describes a path" within a situational context; "life paths become captured within a net of constraints, some of which are imposed by physiological and physical necessities and some imposed by private and common decisions."[8] "It would be impossible to offer a comprehensive taxonomy of constraints seen as time-space phenomena," Hägerstrand said, but he "tentatively described" three important classes of constraints:

  • capability constraints — limitations on the activity of individuals because of their biological structure and/or the tools they can command,
  • coupling constraints — limitations that "define where, when, and for how long, the individual has to join other individuals, tools, and materials in order to produce, consume, and transact" (closely related to critical path analysis), and
  • authority constraints — limitations on the domain or "time-space entity within which things and events are under the control of a given individual or a given group."[9]

Hägerstrand illustrated these concepts with novel forms of graphical notation (inspired in part by musical notation),[10] such as:

  • the space-time aquarium (or space-time cube), which displays individual paths in axonometric graphical projection of space and time coordinates;
  • the space-time prism, which shows individuals' possible behavior in time-space given their capability constraints and coupling constraints;
  • bundles of paths, which are the conjunction of individual paths due in part to their capability constraints and coupling constraints, and which help to create "pockets of local order";
  • concentric tubes or rings of accessibility, which indicate certain capability constraints of a given individual, such as limited spatial size and limited manual, oral-auditive and visual range; and
  • nested hierarchies of domains, which show the authority constraints for a given individual or a given group.[11]

While this innovative visual language is an essential feature of time geography, Hägerstrand's colleague Bo Lenntorp emphasized that it is the product of an underlying ontology, and "not the other way around. The notation system is a very useful tool, but it is a rather poor reflection of a rich world-view. In many cases, the notational apparatus has been the hallmark of time geography. However, the underlying ontology is the most important feature."[12] Time geography is not only about time-geographic diagrams, just as music is not only about musical notation. Hägerstrand later explained: "What is briefly alluded to here is a 4-dimensional world of forms. This cannot be completely graphically depicted. On the other hand one ought to be able to imagine it with sufficient clarity for it to be of guidance in empirical and theoretical research."[13]

By 1981, geographers Nigel Thrift and Allan Pred were already defending time geography against those who would see it "merely as a rigid descriptive model of spatial and temporal organization which lends itself to accessibility constraint analysis (and related exercises in social engineering)."[14] They argued that time geography is not just a model of constraints; it is a flexible and evolving way of thinking about reality that can complement a wide variety of theories and research methods. In the decades since then, Hägerstrand and others have made efforts to expand his original set of concepts.[15] By the end of his life, Hägerstrand had ceased using the phrase "time geography" to refer to this way of thinking and instead used words like topoecology.[16]

Later developments in time geography

Since the 1980s, time geography has been used by researchers in the social sciences,[17] the biological sciences,[18] and in interdisciplinary fields.

In 1993, British geographer Gillian Rose noted that "time-geography shares the feminist interest in the quotidian paths traced by people, and again like feminism, links such paths, by thinking about constraints, to the larger structures of society."[19] However, she noted that time geography had not been applied to issues important to feminists, and she called it a form of "social science masculinity."[20] Over the following two decades, feminist geographers have revisited time geography and have begun to use it as a tool to address feminist issues.[21]

Time geography has also been used as a form of therapeutic assessment in mental health.[22]

See also

Footnotes

  1. ^ Thrift & Pred 1981, p. 277; Carlstein 1982, p. ii
  2. ^ Lenntorp 1999, p. 155
  3. ^ Sui 2012
  4. ^ Lenntorp 1999, p. 158
  5. ^ Lenntorp 1999, p. 157
  6. ^ Hägerstrand 1970, p. 20–21
  7. ^ In Hägerstrand 1983 and Kuklinski 1987, Hägerstrand cites the writings of Albert Einstein and Arthur Eddington on general relativity as inspirations. Physicalist philosopher and sociologist Otto Neurath is cited in Hägerstrand 1970. While these ideas are important sources for time-geographic ontology, time geography should not be portrayed as exclusively physicalist. In Hägerstrand 1970, phenomenologist Martin Heidegger and conservationist Rachel Carson are also cited as major influences, along with numerous geographers. "Hägerstrand wanted to stress the importance of the material aspects of the real world as the basis of life, with an imperative for researchers to take basic constraints into consideration: that natural resources, time, and space are limited... Nevertheless, Torsten Hägerstrand was not a hardcore materialist. His materialism is embedded in a deep concern for the importance of human experiences, reflections, and reasoning for the development of geographical knowledge." (Ellegård & Svedin 2012, p. 18)
  8. ^ Hägerstrand 1970, p. 10–11
  9. ^ Hägerstrand 1970, p. 11–17
  10. ^ Kuklinski 1987, p. 507; Buttimer & Mels 2006, p. 119; Ellegård & Svedin 2012
  11. ^ Hägerstrand 1970, p. 12–17; Carlstein 1982, p. 40–50
  12. ^ Lenntorp 1999, p. 156
  13. ^ Hägerstrand & Carlstein 2004, p. 323
  14. ^ Thrift & Pred 1981, p. 277
  15. ^ For a more extensive list of Hägerstrand's publications, see Torsten Hägerstrand
  16. ^ Ellegård & Svedin 2012, p. 18; Hägerstrand & Carlstein 2004, p. 323
  17. ^ For example: Ellegård & de Pater 1999; Ellegård & Palm 2011; Fischer-Kowalski et al. 2010; Kwan 2004; Latham 2003; Ringhofer 2009; Schwanen & Kwan 2009; Singh et al. 2010; Tani & Surma-aho 2012
  18. ^ For example: Baer & Butler 2000; Brasebin & Buard 2011; Downs, Horner & Tucker 2011; Huettmann & Cushman 2009
  19. ^ Rose 1993, p. 18
  20. ^ Rose 1993, p. 40
  21. ^ For example: Kwan 2007; Kwan & Ding 2008; McQuoid & Dijst 2012; Scholten, Friberg & Sandén 2012
  22. ^ Lewchanin & Zubrod 2001; Sunnqvist et al. 2007; Sunnqvist et al. 2013

References

Further reading

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