Jump to content

User:TripleRoryFan/sandbox/Achaemenid Empire/Formation and expansion: Difference between revisions

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Browse history interactively
← Previous editNext edit →
Content deleted Content added
VisualWikitext
moved image up coz it was annoying me
more on ethiopia
Line 16: Line 16:
In 530 BC, Cyrus died while on a military expedition against the [[Massagetae]] in Central Asia. He was succeeded by his eldest son [[Cambyses II]], while his younger son [[Bardiya]] received a large territory in Central Asia.{{sfn|Briant|2002|pp=49-50}} By 525 BC, Cambyses had successfully subjugated [[Phoenicia]] and [[Cyprus]] and was making preparations to invade [[Ancient Egypt|Egypt]] with the newly created Persian navy.{{sfn|Briant|2002|pp=52-55}} The great Pharaoh [[Amasis II]] had died in 526 BC and had been succeeded by [[Psamtik III]], resulting in the defection of key Egyptian allies to the Persians.{{sfn|Briant|2002|pp=52-55}} Psamtik positioned his army at [[Pelusium]] in the [[Nile Delta]]. He was soundly defeated by the Persians in the [[Battle of Pelusium (525 BC)|Battle of Pelusium]] before fleeing to [[Memphis, Egypt|Memphis]], where the Persians defeated him and took him prisoner.{{sfn|Briant|2002|pp=52-55}}<ref name=III.11,13>Herodotus, ''[[Histories (Herodotus)|Histories]]'' [http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Hdt.+3.11&fromdoc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0126 III.11], [http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0126%3Abook%3D3%3Achapter%3D13 III.13]</ref>
In 530 BC, Cyrus died while on a military expedition against the [[Massagetae]] in Central Asia. He was succeeded by his eldest son [[Cambyses II]], while his younger son [[Bardiya]] received a large territory in Central Asia.{{sfn|Briant|2002|pp=49-50}} By 525 BC, Cambyses had successfully subjugated [[Phoenicia]] and [[Cyprus]] and was making preparations to invade [[Ancient Egypt|Egypt]] with the newly created Persian navy.{{sfn|Briant|2002|pp=52-55}} The great Pharaoh [[Amasis II]] had died in 526 BC and had been succeeded by [[Psamtik III]], resulting in the defection of key Egyptian allies to the Persians.{{sfn|Briant|2002|pp=52-55}} Psamtik positioned his army at [[Pelusium]] in the [[Nile Delta]]. He was soundly defeated by the Persians in the [[Battle of Pelusium (525 BC)|Battle of Pelusium]] before fleeing to [[Memphis, Egypt|Memphis]], where the Persians defeated him and took him prisoner.{{sfn|Briant|2002|pp=52-55}}<ref name=III.11,13>Herodotus, ''[[Histories (Herodotus)|Histories]]'' [http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Hdt.+3.11&fromdoc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0126 III.11], [http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0126%3Abook%3D3%3Achapter%3D13 III.13]</ref>


Following the conquest of Egypt, the [[Ancient Libya|Libyans]] and the Greeks of [[Cyrene, Libya|Cyrene]] and [[Barca (ancient city)|Barca]] in Libya surrendered to Cambyses and sent tribute without a fight.{{sfn|Briant|2002|pp=52-55}}<ref name=III.11,13/> Cambyses then planned invasions of [[Carthage]], the oasis of Ammon and [[Aethiopia|Ethiopia]].<ref>Herodotus, ''[[Histories (Herodotus)|Histories]]'' [http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0126%3Abook%3D3%3Achapter%3D17 III.17]</ref> Herodotus claims that the naval invasion of Carthage was cancelled because the Phoenicians, who made up a large part of Cambyses' fleet, refused to take up arms against their own people,<ref>Herodotus, ''[[Histories (Herodotus)|Histories]]'' [http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0126%3Abook%3D3%3Achapter%3D19 III.19]</ref> but modern historians doubt whether an invasion of Carthage was ever planned at all.{{sfn|Briant|2002|pp=52-55}} However, Cambyses dedicated his efforts to the other two campaigns, aiming to improve the Empire's strategic position in Africa by conquering the [[Kingdom of Kush|Kingdom of Meroë]] and taking strategic positions in the western oases. To this end, he established a garrison at [[Elephantine]] consisting mainly of Jewish soldiers, who remained stationed at Elephantine throughout Cambyses' reign.{{sfn|Briant|2002|pp=52-55}}
Following the conquest of Egypt, the [[Ancient Libya|Libyans]] and the Greeks of [[Cyrene, Libya|Cyrene]] and [[Barca (ancient city)|Barca]] in Libya surrendered to Cambyses and sent tribute without a fight.{{sfn|Briant|2002|pp=52-55}}<ref name=III.11,13/> Cambyses then planned invasions of [[Carthage]], the oasis of Ammon and [[Aethiopia|Ethiopia]].<ref>Herodotus, ''[[Histories (Herodotus)|Histories]]'' [http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0126%3Abook%3D3%3Achapter%3D17 III.17]</ref> Herodotus claims that the naval invasion of Carthage was cancelled because the Phoenicians, who made up a large part of Cambyses' fleet, refused to take up arms against their own people,<ref>Herodotus, ''[[Histories (Herodotus)|Histories]]'' [http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0126%3Abook%3D3%3Achapter%3D19 III.19]</ref> but modern historians doubt whether an invasion of Carthage was ever planned at all.{{sfn|Briant|2002|pp=52-55}} However, Cambyses dedicated his efforts to the other two campaigns, aiming to improve the Empire's strategic position in Africa by conquering the [[Kingdom of Kush|Kingdom of Meroë]] and taking strategic positions in the western oases. To this end, he established a garrison at [[Elephantine]] consisting mainly of Jewish soldiers, who remained stationed at Elephantine throughout Cambyses' reign.{{sfn|Briant|2002|pp=52-55}} The invasions of Ammon and Ethiopia themselves were failures. Herodotus claims that the invasion of Ethiopia was a failure due to the madness of Cambyses and the lack of supplies for his men,<ref>Herodotus, ''[[Histories (Herodotus)|Histories]]'' [http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Hdt.+3.25&fromdoc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0126 III.25]</ref> but recent archaeological evidence suggests that the expedition was not a failure, and a fortress at the [[Cataracts of the Nile|Second Cataract of the Nile]], on the border between Egypt and Kush, remained in use throughout the Achaemenid period.{{sfn|Briant|2002|pp=52-55}}


His immediate successors were less successful. Cyrus' son [[Cambyses II]] conquered Egypt in 525 BC, but died in July 522 BC during a revolt led by a sacerdotal clan that had lost its power following Cyrus' conquest of Media. The cause of his death remains uncertain, although it may have been the result of an accident.<ref name=camb>{{cite book|author = Maria Brosius|title = The Persians: an introduction|url = https://books.google.com/?id=9vnCeA_Z73cC|year = 2006|publisher = Taylor & Francis|isbn = 978-0-415-32089-4|page = 13}}</ref>
His immediate successors were less successful. Cyrus' son [[Cambyses II]] conquered Egypt in 525 BC, but died in July 522 BC during a revolt led by a sacerdotal clan that had lost its power following Cyrus' conquest of Media. The cause of his death remains uncertain, although it may have been the result of an accident.<ref name=camb>{{cite book|author = Maria Brosius|title = The Persians: an introduction|url = https://books.google.com/?id=9vnCeA_Z73cC|year = 2006|publisher = Taylor & Francis|isbn = 978-0-415-32089-4|page = 13}}</ref>

Revision as of 09:00, 10 March 2019

Formation and expansion

Map of the expansion process of Achaemenid territories

Cyrus revolted against the Median Empire in 553 BC, and in 550 BC succeeded in defeating the Medes, capturing Astyages and taking the Median capital city of Ecbatana.[1][2][3] Once in control of Ecbatana, Cyrus styled himself as the successor to Astyages and assumed control of the entire empire.[4] By inheriting Astyages' empire, he also inherited the territorial conflicts the Medes had had with both Lydia and the Neo-Babylonian Empire.[5]

King Croesus of Lydia sought to take advantage of the new international situation by advancing into what had previously been Median territory in Asia Minor.[6][7] Cyrus led a counterattack which not only fought off Croesus' armies, but also led to the capture of Sardis and the fall of the Lydian Kingdom in 546 BC.[8][a] Cyrus placed Pactyes in charge of collecting tribute in Lydia and left, but once Cyrus had left Pactyes instigated a rebellion against Cyrus.[9][10] Cyrus sent the Median general Mazares to deal with the rebellion, and Pactyes was captured. Mazares, and after his death Harpagus, set about reducing all the cities which had taken part in the rebellion. The subjugation of Lydia took about four years in total.[11]

When power in Ecbatana changed hands from the Medes to the Persians, many tributaries to the Median Empire believed their situation had changed and revolted against Cyrus.[12] This forced Cyrus to fight wars against Bactria and the nomadic Saka in Central Asia.[13] During these wars, Cyrus established several garrison towns in Central Asia, including the Cyropolis.[14]

Cyrus the Great is said in the Bible to have liberated the Hebrew captives in Babylon to resettle and rebuild Jerusalem, earning him an honored place in Judaism.

Nothing is known of Persian-Babylonian relations between 547 BC and 539 BC, but it is likely that there were hostilities between the two empires for several years leading up to the war of 540-539 BC and the Fall of Babylon.[15] In October 539 BC, Cyrus won a battle against the Babylonians at Opis, then took Sippar without a fight before finally capturing the city of Babylon on 12 October, where the Babylonian king Nabonidus was taken prisoner.[16][15] Upon taking control of the city, Cyrus depicted himself in propaganda as restoring the divine order which had been disrupted by Nabonidus, who had promoted the cult of Sin rather than Marduk,[17][18][19] and he also portrayed himself as restoring the heritage of the Neo-Assyrian Empire by comparing himself to the Assyrian king Ashurbanipal.[20][21][19] The Hebrew Bible also unreservedly praises Cyrus for his actions in the conquest of Babylon, referring to him as Yahweh's anointed.[22][23] He is credited with rescuing the people of Judah from their exile and with authorizing the reconstruction of much of Jerusalem, including the Second Temple.[22][24]

The tomb of Cyrus the Great, founder of the Achaemenid Empire

In 530 BC, Cyrus died while on a military expedition against the Massagetae in Central Asia. He was succeeded by his eldest son Cambyses II, while his younger son Bardiya received a large territory in Central Asia.[25] By 525 BC, Cambyses had successfully subjugated Phoenicia and Cyprus and was making preparations to invade Egypt with the newly created Persian navy.[26] The great Pharaoh Amasis II had died in 526 BC and had been succeeded by Psamtik III, resulting in the defection of key Egyptian allies to the Persians.[26] Psamtik positioned his army at Pelusium in the Nile Delta. He was soundly defeated by the Persians in the Battle of Pelusium before fleeing to Memphis, where the Persians defeated him and took him prisoner.[26][27]

Following the conquest of Egypt, the Libyans and the Greeks of Cyrene and Barca in Libya surrendered to Cambyses and sent tribute without a fight.[26][27] Cambyses then planned invasions of Carthage, the oasis of Ammon and Ethiopia.[28] Herodotus claims that the naval invasion of Carthage was cancelled because the Phoenicians, who made up a large part of Cambyses' fleet, refused to take up arms against their own people,[29] but modern historians doubt whether an invasion of Carthage was ever planned at all.[26] However, Cambyses dedicated his efforts to the other two campaigns, aiming to improve the Empire's strategic position in Africa by conquering the Kingdom of Meroë and taking strategic positions in the western oases. To this end, he established a garrison at Elephantine consisting mainly of Jewish soldiers, who remained stationed at Elephantine throughout Cambyses' reign.[26] The invasions of Ammon and Ethiopia themselves were failures. Herodotus claims that the invasion of Ethiopia was a failure due to the madness of Cambyses and the lack of supplies for his men,[30] but recent archaeological evidence suggests that the expedition was not a failure, and a fortress at the Second Cataract of the Nile, on the border between Egypt and Kush, remained in use throughout the Achaemenid period.[26]

His immediate successors were less successful. Cyrus' son Cambyses II conquered Egypt in 525 BC, but died in July 522 BC during a revolt led by a sacerdotal clan that had lost its power following Cyrus' conquest of Media. The cause of his death remains uncertain, although it may have been the result of an accident.[31]

While Cambyses II was in Egypt, the Zoroastrian priests, whom Herodotus called Magi, usurped the throne for one of their own, Gaumata, who then pretended to be Cambyses II's younger brother Bardiya (Greek: Smerdis or Tanaoxares/Tanyoxarkes[31]), who had been assassinated some three years earlier. Owing to the strict rule of Cambyses II, especially his stance on taxation,[32] and his long absence in Egypt, "the whole people, Perses, Medes and all the other nations," acknowledged the usurper, especially as he granted a remission of taxes for three years.[33] Cambyses II himself would not be able to quell the imposters, as he died on the way back from Egypt.[citation needed]

The claim that Gaumata had impersonated Bardiya (Smerdis), is derived from Darius the Great and the records at the Behistun Inscription. Historians are divided over the possibility that the story of the impostor was invented by Darius as justification for his coup.[34] Darius made a similar claim when he later captured Babylon, announcing that the Babylonian king was not, in fact, Nebuchadnezzar III, but an impostor named Nidintu-bel.[35]

According to the Behistun Inscription, Gaumata ruled for seven months before being overthrown in 522 BC by Darius the Great (Darius I) (Old Persian Dāryavuš, "who holds firm the good", also known as Darayarahush or Darius the Great). The Magi, though persecuted, continued to exist, and a year following the death of the first pseudo-Smerdis (Gaumata), saw a second pseudo-Smerdis (named Vahyazdāta) attempt a coup. The coup, though initially successful, failed.[36]

Herodotus writes[37] that the native leadership debated the best form of government for the empire. It was agreed that an oligarchy would divide them against one another, and democracy would bring about mob rule resulting in a charismatic leader resuming the monarchy. Therefore, they decided a new monarch was in order, particularly since they were in a position to choose him. Darius I was chosen monarch from among the leaders. He was cousin to Cambyses II and Bardiya (Smerdis), claiming Ariaramnes as his ancestor.[citation needed]

The Achaemenids thereafter consolidated areas firmly under their control. It was Cyrus the Great and Darius the Great who, by sound and far-sighted administrative planning, brilliant military manoeuvring, and a humanistic world view, established the greatness of the Achaemenids and, in less than thirty years, raised them from an obscure tribe to a world power. It was during the reign of Darius the Great (Darius I) that Persepolis was built (518–516 BC) and which would serve as capital for several generations of Achaemenid kings. Ecbatana (Hagmatāna "City of Gatherings", modern: Hamadan) in Media was greatly expanded during this period and served as the summer capital.[citation needed]

The Persian queen Atossa, Daughter of Cyrus the Great, sister-wife of Cambyses II, Darius the Great's wife, and mother of Xerxes I

Ever since the Macedonian king Amyntas I surrendered his country to the Persians in about 512–511, Macedonians and Persians were strangers no more as well. Subjugation of Macedonia was part of Persian military operations initiated by Darius the Great (521–486) in 513 – after immense preparations – a huge Achaemenid army invaded the Balkans and tried to defeat the European Scythians roaming to the north of the Danube river.[38] Darius' army subjugated several Thracian peoples, and virtually all other regions that touch the European part of the Black Sea, such as parts of nowadays Bulgaria, Romania, Ukraine, and Russia, before it returned to Asia Minor.[38][39] Darius left in Europe one of his commanders named Megabazus whose task was to accomplish conquests in the Balkans.[38] The Persian troops subjugated gold-rich Thrace, the coastal Greek cities, as well as defeating and conquering the powerful Paeonians.[38][40][41] Finally, Megabazus sent envoys to Amyntas, demanding acceptance of Persian domination, which the Macedonians did. The Balkans provided many soldiers for the multi-ethnic Achaemenid army. Many of the Macedonian and Persian elite intermarried, such as the Persian official Bubares who married Amyntas' daughter, Gygaea. Family ties the Macedonian rulers Amyntas and Alexander enjoyed with Bubares ensured them good relations with the Persian kings Darius and Xerxes I. The Persian invasion led indirectly to Macedonia's rise in power and Persia had some common interests in the Balkans; with Persian aid, the Macedonians stood to gain much at the expense of some Balkan tribes such as the Paeonians and Greeks. All in all, the Macedonians were "willing and useful Persian allies. Macedonian soldiers fought against Athens and Sparta in Xerxes' army.[38] The Persians referred to both Greeks and Macedonians as Yauna ("Ionians", their term for "Greeks"), and to Macedonians specifically as Yaunã Takabara or "Greeks with hats that look like shields", possibly referring to the Macedonian kausia hat.[42]

By the 5th century BC the Kings of Persia were either ruling over or had subordinated territories encompassing not just all of the Persian Plateau and all of the territories formerly held by the Assyrian Empire (Mesopotamia, the Levant, Cyprus and Egypt), but beyond this all of Anatolia and Armenia, as well as the Southern Caucasus and parts of the North Caucasus, Azerbaijan, Uzbekistan, Tajikistan, all of Bulgaria, Paeonia, Thrace and Macedonia to the north and west, most of the Black Sea coastal regions, parts of Central Asia as far as the Aral Sea, the Oxus and Jaxartes to the north and north-east, the Hindu Kush and the western Indus basin (corresponding to modern Afghanistan and Pakistan) to the far east, parts of northern Arabia to the south, and parts of northern Libya to the south-west, and parts of Oman, China, and the UAE.[43][44][45][46][47][48][49]

Notes

  1. ^ The chronology of the reign of Cyrus is uncertain, and these events are alternatively dated in 542–541 BC.[5]

References

  1. ^ Nabonidus Cylinder I.8-II.25
  2. ^ Nabonidus Chronicle II.1-4
  3. ^ Briant 2002, p. 31.
  4. ^ Briant 2002, p. 33.
  5. ^ a b Briant 2002, p. 34.
  6. ^ Herodotus, Histories I.72, I.73
  7. ^ Briant 2002, p. 35.
  8. ^ Briant 2002, p. 36.
  9. ^ Briant 2002, p. 37.
  10. ^ Herodotus, Histories I.154
  11. ^ Briant 2002, pp. 37–38.
  12. ^ Justin, Epitome I.7
  13. ^ Briant 2002, p. 39.
  14. ^ Briant 2002, p. 40.
  15. ^ a b Briant 2002, pp. 41–43.
  16. ^ Nabonidus Chronicle III.12-16
  17. ^ Cyrus Cylinder 23-35
  18. ^ Kuhrt 1983, pp. 85–86.
  19. ^ a b Briant 2002, pp. 43–44.
  20. ^ Cyrus Cylinder 43
  21. ^ Kuhrt 1983, pp. 88–89.
  22. ^ a b Briant 2002, p. 46.
  23. ^ Isaiah 41:2–4; 45:1–3
  24. ^ Ezra 6:2–5
  25. ^ Briant 2002, pp. 49–50.
  26. ^ a b c d e f g Briant 2002, pp. 52–55.
  27. ^ a b Herodotus, Histories III.11, III.13
  28. ^ Herodotus, Histories III.17
  29. ^ Herodotus, Histories III.19
  30. ^ Herodotus, Histories III.25
  31. ^ a b Maria Brosius (2006). The Persians: an introduction. Taylor & Francis. p. 13. ISBN 978-0-415-32089-4.
  32. ^ Augustus William Ahl (1922). Outline of Persian history based on cuneiform inscriptions. Lemcke & Buechner. p. 56.
  33. ^ Herodotus III.68
  34. ^ "Britannica Online Encyclopedia". Concise.britannica.com. Archived from the original on 15 October 2007. Retrieved 7 July 2010. {{cite web}}: Unknown parameter |deadurl= ignored (|url-status= suggested) (help)
  35. ^ Jona Lendering. "Nidintu-Bêl / Nebuchadnezzar III". Livius.org. Archived from the original on 14 July 2010. Retrieved 7 July 2010. {{cite web}}: Unknown parameter |deadurl= ignored (|url-status= suggested) (help)
  36. ^ Herodotus (1897). Herodotus: the text of Canon Rawlinson's translation, with the notes abridged, Volume 1. C. Scribner's. p. 278.
  37. ^ Herodotus. The Histories Book 3.80–83.
  38. ^ a b c d e Joseph Roisman,Ian WorthingtonA Companion to Ancient Macedonia. pp. 342–45. John Wiley & Sons, 2011 ISBN 1-4443-5163-X
  39. ^ The Oxford Classical Dictionary by Simon Hornblower and Antony Spawforth,ISBN 0-19-860641-9, p. 1515, "The Thracians were subdued by the Persians by 516"
  40. ^ "Persian influence on Greece (2)". Retrieved 17 December 2014.
  41. ^ Howe & Reames 2008, p. 239.
  42. ^ Johannes Engels, "Ch. 5: Macedonians and Greeks", In: Roisman and Worthington, "A companion to Ancient Macedonia", p. 87. Oxford Press, 2010.
  43. ^ http://www.livius.org/maa-mam/maka/maka.html
  44. ^ Behistun Inscription
  45. ^ "DĀḠESTĀN". Retrieved 29 December 2014.
  46. ^ Suny, Ronald Grigor (1994). The Making of the Georgian Nation. ISBN 978-0-253-20915-3. Retrieved 29 December 2014.
  47. ^ Ramirez-Faria, Carlos (2007). Concise Encyclopedia Of World History. Atlantic Publishers & Dist. p. 6. ISBN 978-81-269-0775-5. Retrieved October 7, 2012.
  48. ^ Kuhrt 2013, p. 2.
  49. ^ O'Brien, Patrick (2002). Concise Atlas of World History. Oxford University Press. p. 43. ISBN 978-0-19-521921-0. Retrieved October 7, 2012.
    Curtis, John E.; Tallis, Nigel (2005). Forgotten Empire: The World of Ancient Persia. University of California Press. p. 47. ISBN 978-0-520-24731-4.
    Facts On File, Incorporated (2009). Encyclopedia of the Peoples of Africa and the Middle East. Infobase Publishing. p. 60. ISBN 978-1-4381-2676-0. Retrieved October 7, 2012.
    Parker, Grant (2008). The Making of Roman India. Cambridge University Press. p. 13. ISBN 978-0-521-85834-2. Retrieved October 7, 2012.
    Thapar, Romila (2004). Early India: From the Origins to AD 1300. University of California Press. p. 157. ISBN 978-0-520-24225-8. Retrieved October 7, 2012.

Sources

Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=User:TripleRoryFan/sandbox/Achaemenid_Empire/Formation_and_expansion&oldid=887055759"