Old Charges (Freemasonry)
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The Old Charges is the name given to a collection of approximately one hundred and thirty documents written between the 14th and 18th centuries. Most of these documents were initially in manuscript form and later engraved or printed, all originating from England. These documents describe the duties and functioning of masons' and builders' guilds, as well as the mythical history of the craft's creation. It is within these fundamental texts, particularly the Regius poem (1390), also known as the Halliwell manuscript, and the Cooke manuscript (1410) for England, as well as the Schaw Statutes (1598) and the Edinburgh manuscript (1696) for Scotland, that speculative Freemasonry draws its sources. However, from a historical perspective, it does not claim a direct lineage with the operative lodges of that era.[1][2][3][4]
History
Overview
Studied and rediscovered since the mid-19th century, these approximately 130 texts are grouped under the generic term of Old Charges, or Ancient Devoirs. Most of them are manuscripts, and some versions were engraved or printed, spanning from the late 14th century to the mid-18th century. They are all of English origin, with no equivalent on the continent. The structure of the manuscripts is identical, presenting a legendary history of the craft's creation, praise for the seven traditional liberal arts, and an enumeration of the ethical and regulatory duties of the masons involved in construction.[5][6]
14th century
The oldest known manuscript document that traces the usages and traditions of English operative masonry is the Regius poem, dated around 1390. This document consists of three parts written in verse, totaling 794 lines. The first part narrates the traditional history of the craft and the Duties of the operative masons.[7] The second part details these Duties in fifteen articles and fifteen points, with the third part primarily of a moral nature. These Old Charges from the Middle Ages are associated with the operative lodges and provide insights into the customs and practices of construction sites during that era.[8]
Following the Regius, the Cooke manuscript appeared around 1420. It exhibits differences from its predecessor. Written in prose and spanning 960 lines, it elaborates on the rules of the Regius by incorporating elements from the Bible and patristic traditions. It reduces the Duties to nine articles and nine points while introducing new elements such as an invocation to God, an ode to geometry, and an exposition on the Liberal Arts.[9] Many subsequent versions of the Old Charges are derived from this manuscript, as the Regius did not have any other descendants.
Both manuscripts share a similar structure. After a historical and mythical account of the craft's creation, they emphasize the obligation to take an oath. This is followed by a set of rules called "articles" and "points", fifteen for the Regius and nine for the Cooke. These rules address professional matters and also include Christian moral prescriptions. These documents make no reference to any authority of the craft or any form of subordination, giving the impression that the operative lodges governed by these rules operated autonomously during the periods, sometimes spanning decades, of construction projects. These two manuscripts, the Regius and the Cooke, are the only sources dating from the late 14th century, and no other versions of these Old Charges are known to date.[10]
16th century
It took 150 years to see the emergence of a new manuscript version dated 1583, known as Grand Lodge No. 1.[11] Nearly 130 known versions to date are derived from this new version. This first document of the 16th century, as well as those that follow, do not reproduce the entire original texts and diverge significantly on various points. This evolution categorizes these documents as a second generation of Old Charges. In these manuscripts, the operative regulations, the main content of the 14th century, are omitted or simplified to allow for application to forms beyond just operative masonry. Precepts and provisions of a moral and religious nature are also introduced in this generation of documents.
Ancient guild regulations
Statutes of Bologna (1248)
The Statutes of Bologna were a set of regulations for stonemasons in Bologna, Italy, written in 1248. They represent one of the earliest codes of conduct for masons in Europe.[12]
The Statutes of Bologna were established by the city council to govern the College of Builders, a preeminent society of masons in Bologna. The statutes outline rules for masters, journeymen, and apprentices within the College.[12] Key regulations include:
- A master must train apprentices thoroughly for 5-7 years before promotion to journeyman
- Sons of masters shall be trained for only 3 years before promotion
- Journeymen must swear obedience to masters and keep their trade secrets
- Masters should be paid wages according to their skill and experience
- Masons shall not steal work or poach labor from others
- Unethical masons may be expelled from the College by a council
The Bologna statutes share similarities with other early masonic codes such as the Regius Manuscript or Cooke Manuscript, indicating an emerging unified set of practices across Europe.[13] All outline hierarchies within the craft, strict training periods for apprentices, and penalties for violating rules.
However, the Bologna document differs in its specific urban setting with direct oversight of masons by city authorities. The statutes also focus more on technical building practices compared to the ethical and religious aspects in British Old Charges.[12] The Bologna statutes represent an early attempt to systematize training and conduct within the masonic profession. Along with other Old Charges, they laid groundwork for organized Masonic lodges in later centuries.
Livre des Métiers (1268)
The Livre des Métiers (translated as the Book of Trades) is an ancient French manuscript dating back to 1268 and is considered one of the earliest documents associated with the historical origins of Freemasonry. While not explicitly named as Freemasonry, this manuscript contains references to freemasons—a term thought to refer to skilled stonemasons working on cathedrals and other significant structures of the time.[14]
The Livre des Métiers encompasses a compilation of texts detailing the regulations, customs, and practices of various medieval trades. Its relevance to Freemasonry lies in sections referencing francs massons (free masons) and their roles in construction projects, notably in cathedral building during the Middle Ages.
Notably, the manuscript emphasizes the importance of maintaining secrecy surrounding trade practices, apprenticeship structures, and the ethical treatment of fellow workers. It also highlights the obligations of masters toward their craftsmen, reflecting principles later evident in Masonic constitutions and charges.[15]
First Mention of "Free Masons"
The reference to francs massons within the Livre des Métiers is among the earliest mentions of the term in historical documentation. The meaning of "free masons" in this context is subject to interpretation, with some scholars suggesting it referred to skilled masons who were exempt from certain feudal restrictions, granting them the freedom to travel and work independently on various construction projects.[15]
This interpretation aligns with the idea of 'free' masons as skilled craftsmen who were not bound to a specific locality and were capable of working on monumental projects such as cathedrals and castles across different regions.[14]
Comparison with Other Masonic Texts and Old Charges
While the direct correlation between the Livre des Métiers and Freemasonry remains debated, similarities between its ethical guidelines and later Masonic constitutions are evident. The manuscript's emphasis on secrecy, moral conduct, and the obligations between masters and apprentices echoes throughout subsequent Masonic texts and Old Charges.
Comparisons between the Livre des Métiers and other Old Charges, such as the Regius Manuscript (1390) and the Cooke Manuscript (1410), reveal shared principles, suggesting a continuity of values within the guild systems and the evolving practices of speculative Freemasonry.
The Avignon Decree (1326)
The Avignon Decree was a papal order issued by Pope John XXII in 1326 to regulate stonemasons and builders in Catholic Europe. It represented an early attempt to standardize masonic conduct across regions.[16]
The Avignon Decree ordered masons to accept only reliable members, follow diocesan statutes, and convene annual assemblies. It prohibited masons from forming sworn congregations that might be construed as conjurations or conspiracies. However, it did allow the creation of mutual aid associations.[16]
Compared to earlier masonic regulations like the Old Charges, the Avignon Decree was unique in originating from centralized papal authority rather than a local guild or lodge. The Pope aimed to exert control over the growing brotherhoods of masons unfolding across Europe.[14]
While intended to regulate masonry under Catholic oversight, the Avignon Decree actually stimulated further development of organized lodges and networks of builders in regions outside direct papal control. This helped disseminate the craft beyond local Gothic style architecture toward the flowering of Renaissance building arts.[14]
So the Avignon Decree represented both an attempt to centralize masonic governance and an impetus toward more widespread masonic self-organization under new regional Grand Lodges. Along with the Old Charges, it shaped the trajectory of free masonry leading toward modern speculative Freemasonry.
Les Règlements de Londres pour les Maçons (1356)
Les Règlements de Londres pour les Maçons or London Regulations for Masons written in Norman-French following the French conquest of England, they were a set of ordinances enacted in London in 1356 to govern the city's stonemasons. There appears to be little reason to question the original Saxon Charge as being designated No. 1. However, owing to a continuous influx of French Masons following the conquest, it is evident that a distinctly French Charge must have existed at a certain juncture, augmenting the earlier English manuscripts.[17]
They were issued by the city's government to regulate the training and conduct of masons in the jurisdiction.[18]
The London Regulations draw extensively from earlier masonic codes like the Regius Manuscript and Old Charges. They reinforce similar rules, including:
- Apprentices must serve faithfully for 7 years before becoming freemasons
- Masons shall not work at night without light or on holy days
- Wages must be paid fairly based on skill and experience
- Masons must be loyal to the King and avoid conspiracy
- The trade secrets of masonry shall be kept confidential
However, as civic ordinances, the London Regulations also imposed new local administrative requirements.[14] Masons had to register with the city authorities and join an approved guild in order to practice their trade in London. Restrictions were enacted on wages.
The London Regulations represented an attempt by municipal authorities to oversee the growing fraternity of local masons in the 14th century. By codifying standards based on traditional Old Charges, the regulations helped institute more formal governance of organized masonry within London.[18] This local oversight would soon lead to the establishment of the London Grand Lodge in the 17th century.
The York Ordinances (1370)
The York Ordinances were a set of regulations for masons in the city of York enacted in 1370. They outlined standards for the training and conduct of stonemasons in York.[19]
Similar to Les Règlements de Londres pour les Maçons, the York Ordinances reinforced many common themes found in earlier masonic codes like the Old Charges. Rules include:
- Apprentices must train diligently for 7-10 years before becoming freemasons
- Masons shall attend church regularly and work ethically
- The secrets of masonry shall remain confidential
- Masons must join the guild to work in York
However, the York Ordinances also established specific administrative procedures for the city's masons.[14] They formalized an organizational structure with elected deacons, overseen by the city council. Requirements were set for meetings, fees, and charitable funds.
By regulating training, conduct, and administration, the York Ordinances helped govern masonry as it professionalized into an organized vocation in the region. Along with the Old Charges, the ordinances provided a framework that paved the way for the later emergence of Freemasonry.[19] They demonstrated localized regulation and structure of masonic lodges in medieval England.
Old charges
Regius Manuscript (1390)
The Regius Manuscript is the oldest known Masonic old charges concerning the regulation of masonry in Britain, dated to approximately 1390. It takes the form of a poem in Middle English rhyming couplets, spanning almost 800 lines.[20]
It is believed to have been written in England, perhaps in York.[21] The manuscript is named after King George II of England, who donated a collection of documents including this poem to the Royal Library in the British Museum in 1757. Hence it became known as the Regius Manuscript.[22]
The Regius Poem outlines a legendary history of geometry and masonry, tracing its origins to Euclid in ancient Egypt. It connects the liberal arts and sciences to great figures of the Bible, promoting geometry as a worthy and moral craft aligned with Christianity.[20] The majority of the manuscript consists of various rules and ethics that masons should uphold, including:
- Masons shall labor properly on working days and attend church on holy days
- Masons shall be true to God, the king, masters and fellows
- Masons shall keep the secrets of their lords and fellows
- Masons shall uphold all the rules and earn their pay justly
- False masons shall be punished and accursed
- The craft shall accept only worthy apprentices
The Regius Manuscript establishes a set of regulations for medieval operative stonemasons. It encouraged morality, skill and secrecy within the profession at a time when masons worked on great cathedrals and castles. The document helped regulate masons with a guild-like structure and procedures.[23]
The Regius Poem remained well-known and widely recopied among stonemasons through the 1600s. It was instrumental in standardizing the Old Charges for pre-Grand Lodge Freemasonry.[20] Even today, the Regius Manuscript provides insight into the origins, ethics and structure of early masonic guilds.
The Cooke Manuscript (1410)
The Cooke Manuscript is one of the oldest and most extensive versions of the Old Charges for masons. It was written around 1410, and is believed to have originated in the southeast of England.[24]
The manuscript is named after its owner in the mid-18th century, Matthew Cooke. It consists of 101 paragraphs outlining the regulations for operative stonemasons. It begins with a history of the craft, tracing it back to Euclid, ancient Egypt, and Biblical figures like Jabal and Abraham.[24]
The majority of the Cooke Manuscript lays out specific standards of conduct and training for masons, including:
- Masons shall work hard and deserve their wages
- Secrets of masonry and lords shall be kept confidential
- Masons shall avoid immorality and debauchery
- Masters shall take on apprentices for 7-12 years of training
- All masons shall gather annually at assembly to establish governance
Compared to earlier manuscripts, the Cooke provides more extensive details on the social organization and institutional structure of lodges.[14]
It outlines ranks, assembly procedures, and charitable funds. This organizational framework helped standardize masonic lodges in England during the 15th century.
The Cooke Manuscript established a transition from purely operative masonry toward more institutionalized Freemasonry. It would influence Masonic writers and constitutions up through Anderson's The Constitutions of the Free-Masons in 1723.[24]
The Regensburg Statutes (1459)
The Regensburg Statutes were a set of regulations for stonemasons in Regensburg, Germany established in 1459. They governed the craft and trade of masonry in the city.[25]
The Regensburg Statutes reinforced many common rules and structures found in earlier masonic codes such as the Old Charges or Avignon Decree. They emphasized secrecy, morality, and faithfulness to the trade. Apprentices had to train for several years before becoming freemasons.[25]
However, the Regensburg Statutes also introduced some new regulations specific to local context. They restricted master masons to only citizens of Regensburg. They also gave the city council oversight power over the masons rather than full self-governance.[14]
Nonetheless, the Regensburg Statutes still allowed masons to elect their own representatives and manage much of their own administration under the larger approval of civic authorities.[25] This helped institutionalize further local organization of lodges.
By building on existing masonic codes, while also adapting to specific municipal context, the Regensburg Statutes demonstrated an evolution toward more formalized local governance of lodges in Germany leading up to the founding of Grand Lodge masonry. The statutes provided a key link between the medieval masons and modern Freemasonry.
The Cologne Charter (1535)
The Cologne Charter was a constitution for the masons guild of Cologne, Germany issued in 1535. It established regulations for the training, conduct, and governance of masons in the city.[26]
The Cologne Charter reinforced many common themes found in earlier masonic codes such as the Old Charges or Regensburg Statutes. Apprentices had to train diligently for 4 years before becoming freemasons. Secrecy and morality were emphasized. Masons were organized under a guild structure with elected deacons and annual assemblies.[26]
However, as a local constitution, the Cologne Charter also introduced new administrative rules specific to masons in the city. It restricted mastership to sons of masters or citizens. Limitations were placed on the number of apprentices per master. Punishments were codified for violating guild secrets or regulations.[14]
By adapting traditional masonic customs to local context, the Cologne Charter provided centralized governance as the craft professionalized in Germany. It guided Cologne masons in the 16th century toward increasing organization and oversight. This eventually led to the establishment of the Grand Lodge of Hamburg in 1737.[26]
The Strasbourg Ordinances (1563)
The Strasbourg Ordinances of 1563 were a set of regulations for the masons guild in the city of Strasbourg, Germany. They codified standards for masonic training and conduct within the region.[27]
The Strasbourg Ordinances reinforced many common masonic themes found in earlier codes such as the Old Charges or Regensburg Statutes. They emphasized moral behavior, secrecy, and proper training of apprentices over seen by masters. Masons were to be organized into a guild with elected deacons and annual assemblies.[27]
However, as a civic code, the Strasbourg Ordinances also introduced regulations specific to masons in the region. Membership was restricted to citizens born in Strasbourg. Limits were placed on the number of apprentices per master. Oversight authority was granted to the city council in addition to internal masonic governance.[14]
By adapting traditional masonic customs to local context, while reinforcing conventional regulations, the Strasbourg Ordinances demonstrated an evolution of lodges toward centralized governance and oversight within autonomous city-states in Germany. This transition paved way for Grand Lodge establishment in the 18th century.
The Grand Lodge No.1 Manuscript (1583)
The Grand Lodge No.1 Manuscript is a version of the Old Charges for masons written in 1583. It is one of the oldest copies belonging to the Grand Lodge of England, hence its name.[28]
The manuscript contains traditional masonic regulations seen in earlier documents like the Regius Poem or Cooke Manuscript. These include:
- Secrecy of the mason's arts and society
- Good moral conduct and character of masons
- Requirements for training apprentices over many years
- Importance of paying fair wages for work
However, the Grand Lodge No.1 Manuscript simplifies and condenses previous versions. For example, it lacks the long mythic histories of masonry. It contains direct, practical instructions for regulating lodges and initiating members.[14]
This efficiency suggests a transition from medieval ceremonial recitals toward modern masonic constitutions. The Grand Lodge No.1 Manuscript bridges operative and speculative eras as Freemasonry formalized in the late 16th century. It helped pave the way for Anderson's The Constitutions of the Free-Masons in 1723.
The William Watson Manuscript (1687)
The William Watson Manuscript is one of the later versions of the Old Charges for masons, written in 1687. It is named after its author William Watson, a member of the Lodge of Antiquity in London.[29]
The Watson Manuscript condenses and summarizes content from earlier masonic regulations like the Regius Manuscript and Cooke Manuscript. It lays out rules for operative masons including:
- Masons shall be loyal to God and church, and attend their parish
- Secrets of masonry shall not be shared with cowans or outsiders
- Masons shall work honestly and be paid based on merit
- Apprentices must be trained thoroughly before becoming freemasons
Compared to previous codes, the Watson Manuscript contains simplified language and organization, suggesting it was meant for handy reference rather than ceremonial recital.[14] The writer also took more latitude to insert their own opinions, such as prohibiting women from being admitted to lodges.
The Watson Manuscript reflects masonry's transition toward modern speculative Freemasonry in 17th century England. As lodges became more established, traditional regulations were condensed into concise guides like this for practical use, while losing some of their elaborate ceremony and narrative backstories.[29]
The First William Schaw Statutes (1598)
The First William Schaw Statutes are a set of documents drawn up in 1598 that outline regulations for stonemasons in Scotland. They are one of the earliest known Masonic documents and an important example of the "Old Charges" that defined rules and duties in operative Masonic lodges.[20]
Background
In the late 16th century, the Scottish Crown aimed to exert more control over the stonemasons and their lodges, which had historically operated with considerable autonomy. [20] William Schaw was appointed as Master of Works and General Warden of the Masons in 1583, giving him authority over all the royal building projects in Scotland.[20]
On December 28, 1598, Schaw drew up the Statutes and Ordinances to be observed by all the master masons in Scotland at Holyroodhouse Palace in Edinburgh. The documents were approved by a convocation of Scottish master masons including the masters of the lodges of Edinburgh, Glasgow, Perth, Dundee, and St Andrews.[20]
Contents
The Statutes consist of 22 articles that define the organization and conduct of operative lodges in Scotland. They regulate the Old Charges, or medieval codes of conduct, that masons should observe. For example, masons are charged to be true to one another, obedient to masters, and to live charitably together.[20]
Other statutes regulate the administration of lodges, such as the election of officers, the timing of meetings, and the acceptance of apprentices. The punishment for violating the statutes is set at monetary fines paid to the lodge.[20]
The Statutes also seek to exert royal control over the masons by requiring them to resolve disputes before Schaw as General Warden and securing the right of the Crown to approve the election of a lodge warden. [20]
Significance
The Schaw Statutes are a landmark document in Masonic history. They represent an early attempt to centralize and standardize the administration of operative lodges in Scotland using the regulatory power of the Crown.[20]
They are also evidence that the Old Charges, drawn from medieval guild statutes, still governed Masonic lodges in the late 16th century. Elements of the Old Charges, such as regulations concerning the moral conduct and responsibilities of masons, were carried over from operative masonry into speculative Freemasonry in the 17th and 18th centuries.[20]
The First Schaw Statutes continued to be copied and distributed after their initial promulgation, and a second similar document, the Second Schaw Statutes, was drawn up by Schaw in 1599.[20][30]
Reception ceremony
A reception ceremony for a new member into the corporation of freemasons in England, following the customs of the Middle Ages, was practiced within the corporations. In his work, author Patrick Négrier calls it the "Rite of the Old Charges", though this name or the existence of such a rite is not attested by historical documents. The Old Charges manuscripts describe this ceremony as an oath-taking, preceded by a reading of the Duties, the legendary history of the craft, and an exhortation, which can be likened to an early ritual.[31]
See also
References
- ^ "Welcome | THE OLD CHARGES". theoldcharges.com.
- ^ "OLD CHARGES - Historic Masonic Charters and Manuscripts". www.masonic-lodge-of-education.com.
- ^ "Landmarks and Old Charges". www.themasonictrowel.com.
- ^ "The Old Charges Revisited | FREEMASONRY". www.freemasons-freemasonry.com.
- ^ "Summary | THE OLD CHARGES". theoldcharges.com.
- ^ "The Old Charges".
- ^ Regius Poem. 1390. p. 1.
- ^ "Chapter 6 | THE OLD CHARGES". theoldcharges.com.
- ^ Cooke Manuscript. 1420. p. 1-9.
- ^ "Chapter 7 | THE OLD CHARGES". theoldcharges.com.
- ^ Grand Lodge No. 1 (in French). 1583.
- ^ a b c Knoop, Douglas; Jones, G. P. (1933). The Mediaeval Mason: An Economic History of English Stone Building in the Later Middle Ages and Early Modern Times. Manchester: Manchester University Press. pp. 120–123.
- ^ Knoop, Douglas; Jones, G.P. (1949). The Genesis of Freemasonry. Manchester: Manchester University Press. pp. 140–146.
- ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l Knoop, Douglas; Jones, G.P. (1949). The Genesis of Freemasonry. Manchester: Manchester University Press. pp. 134–140.
- ^ a b Hargrove, William (1915). "The Medieval Craft Guilds". In Lipson, E. (ed.). An Introduction to the Economic History of England, Vol. I. London: Adam & Charles Black. pp. 298–306.
- ^ a b Begemann, Helen (1961). "The Guilds and Guild Regulations in York". In Reynolds, Susan (ed.). The History of the County of York. London: Victoria County History. pp. 25–28.
- ^ https://www.rgle.org.uk/RGLE_1356.htm
- ^ a b Riley, H.T. (1868). "Masons". In Riley, H.T. (ed.). Memorials of London and London Life in the 13th, 14th and 15th Centuries. London: Longmans, Green & Co. pp. 477–479.
- ^ a b Lambert, W.A. (1961). "The Masons' Company of the City of York". In Reynolds, Susan (ed.). The History of the County of York. London: Victoria County History. pp. 120–130.
- ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m Stevenson, David (1988). The Origins of Freemasonry. Cambridge University Press.
- ^ Roberts, John. The Mythology of the Secret Societies. Secker and Warburg, 1972.
- ^ "History of Freemasonry & Timeline." United Grand Lodge of England, www.ugle.org.uk/about/book-of-constitutions/history-freemasonry-timeline.
- ^ Hamill, John. The Craft: A History of English Freemasonry. Crucible, 1994.
- ^ a b c Knoop, Douglas; Jones, G. P. (September 1953). The "Cooke" Manuscript. Manchester, England: Manchester University Press. pp. 114–131.
- ^ a b c Begemann, Helen (2002). "The Regensburg Stonemasons' Lodge". In Vernon, K.M. (ed.). The Church and Learning in Later Medieval Society. New York: Routledge. pp. 242–257.
- ^ a b c Begemann, Helen (1970). "The Cologne Charter of 1535". In Lindsay, Jack (ed.). The History of the German Stonemasons' Guilds. St. Paul, MN: Llewellyn. pp. 77–102.
- ^ a b Begemann, Helen (1978). "The Strasbourg Lodge". In Knoop, Douglas; Jones, G.P. (eds.). Early Masonic Pamphlets. London: Q.C. Correspondence Circle Ltd. pp. 188–193.
- ^ Lepper, J. Heron; Crossle, Philip (1925). History of the Grand Lodge of Free and Accepted Masons of Ireland, Vol. 1. Lodge of Research, Dublin. pp. 75–79. OCLC 8088473.
- ^ a b Lepper, J. Heron; Crossle, Philip (1935). The Legend of the Craft. London: A. Lewis. pp. 20–29.
- ^ http://theoldcharges.com/chapter-13.html
- ^ Négrier, Patrick (1996). Founding Texts of the Masonic Tradition. Éd. Grasset.
Bibliography
- Roger Dachez, "Origins of Freemasonry: An Assessment of Current Knowledge," Les cahiers Villard de Honnecourt, GLDF, No. 100, November 2016, 57-81.
- Roger Dachez, "A Fresh Look at the Old Charges," Franc-maçonnerie magazine, HS N°3, November 2016, 13-23.
- Philippe Langlet, "The Founding Texts of Freemasonry," Dervy, 2006. ISBN 978-2-84454-448-3.
- Guy Chassagrand, "The Old Charges of Freemasons: Operative Masons & Accepted Masons," Pascal Galodé, 2014. ISBN 978-2-35593-284-7.
- Patrick Négrier, "Founding Texts of the Masonic Tradition," Éd. Grasset, 1996. ISBN 978-2-246-79515-5.
- Patrick Négrier, "The Rite of the Old Charges: Old Charges (1390-1729)," Éd. Ivoire-Clair, December 2006. ISBN 978-2-913882-39-3.