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Intracellular parasite

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Intracellular parasites are microparasites that are capable of growing and reproducing inside the cells of a host.[citation needed]

Types of parasites

There are two main types of intracellular parasites: Facultative and Obligate.[1]

Facultative intracellular parasites are capable of living and reproducing in or outside of host cells. Obligate intracellular parasites, on the other hand, need a host cell to live and reproduce. Many of these types of cells require specialized host types, and invasion of host cells occurs in different ways.[1]

Facultative

Facultative intracellular parasites are capable of living and reproducing either inside or outside cells.

Bacterial examples include:

Fungal examples include:

Obligate

Two apicomplexans, Toxoplasma gondii, within their host cell. Transmission electron microscopy

Obligate intracellular parasites cannot reproduce outside their host cell, meaning that the parasite's reproduction is entirely reliant on intracellular resources.

Obligate intracellular parasites of humans include:

The mitochondria in eukaryotic cells may also have originally been such parasites, but ended up forming a mutualistic relationship (endosymbiotic theory).[14]

Study of obligate pathogens is difficult because they cannot usually be reproduced outside the host. However, in 2009 scientists reported a technique allowing the Q-fever pathogen Coxiella burnetii to grow in an axenic culture and suggested the technique may be useful for study of other pathogens.[15]

Exceptions

Polypodium is a metazoan intracellular parasite, distinct from most if not all other intracellular parasites for this reason.[citation needed]

Invasion

When an intracellular parasite goes to enter a host cell, it is particular about the type of host cell. This is because most intracellular parasites are able to infect only a few different cell types.[16] The entrance of these host cells will differ between intracellular parasites. Not all intracellular parasites will enter a cell the same way. Some will work with specific components in or on the host cell, an example being Trypanosoma cruzi. This parasite will attach itself to the host cell while increasing the intracellular calcium, which in turn disrupts the actin at the site of attachment, causing the host cell to create a lysosomal-barrier around the disruption. The parasite will take advantage of this membrane and produce a vacuole in the host cell. Other intracellular parasites have developed different ways to enter a host cell that do not require a specific component or action from within the host cell. An example is intracellular parasites using a method called gliding motility. This is the use of an actin-myosin motor that is connected to the intracellular parasites' cytoskeleton.[16]

Nutrition

The majority of intracellular parasites must keep host cells alive as long as possible while they are reproducing and growing. In order to grow, they need nutrients that might be scarce in their free form in the cell. To study the mechanism that intracellular parasites use to obtain nutrients, Legionella pneumophila, a facultative intracellular parasite, has been used as a model. It is known that Legionella pneumophila obtains nutrients by promoting host proteasomal degradation. Self-degradation of host proteins into amino acids provides the parasite with its primary carbon and energy source.[17]

Susceptibility

People with T cell deficiencies are particularly susceptible to intracellular pathogens.[18]

See also

Explanatory notes

  1. ^ Only in animal study at initial stages of infection.[9]
  2. ^ Some sources say that it's parasite, but some not.

References

  1. ^ a b Leon-Sicairos, Nidia; Reyes-Cortes, Ruth; Guadrón-Llanos, Alma M.; Madueña-Molina, Jesús; Leon-Sicairos, Claudia; Canizalez-Román, Adrian (2015). "Strategies of Intracellular Pathogens for Obtaining Iron from the Environment". BioMed Research International. 2015: 1–17. doi:10.1155/2015/476534. ISSN 2314-6133. PMC 4450229.
  2. ^ a b "Bartonella henselae" (PDF).
  3. ^ Dramsi, Shaynoor; Cossart, Pascale (2002-03-18). "Listeriolysin O". The Journal of Cell Biology. 156 (6): 943–946. doi:10.1083/jcb.200202121. ISSN 0021-9525. PMC 2173465. PMID 11901162.
  4. ^ Jantsch, J.; Chikkaballi, D.; Hensel, M. (2011). "Cellular aspects of immunity to intracellular Salmonella enterica". Immunological Reviews. 240 (1): 185–195. doi:10.1111/j.1600-065X.2010.00981.x. PMID 21349094. S2CID 19344119.
  5. ^ Kelly, B. G.; Wall, D. M.; Boland, C. A.; Meijer, W. G. (2002). "Isocitrate lyase of the facultative intracellular pathogen Rhodococcus equi". Microbiology. 148 (Pt 3): 793–798. doi:10.1099/00221287-148-3-793. PMID 11882714.
  6. ^ Bravo-Santano; et al. (2018). "Intracellular Staphylococcus aureus Modulates Host Central Carbon Metabolism To Activate Autophagy". American Society for Microbiology. 3 (4): e00374–18. doi:10.1128/mSphere.00374-18. PMC 6083095. PMID 30089650.
  7. ^ Sebghati TS, Engle JT, Goldman WE (November 2000). "Intracellular parasitism by Histoplasma capsulatum: fungal virulence and calcium dependence". Science. 290 (5495): 1368–72. Bibcode:2000Sci...290.1368S. doi:10.1126/science.290.5495.1368. PMID 11082066.
  8. ^ Alvarez, M.; Burns, T.; Luo, Y.; Pirofski, L. A.; Casadevall, A. (2009). "The outcome of Cryptococcus neoformans intracellular pathogenesis in human monocytes". BMC Microbiology. 9: 51. doi:10.1186/1471-2180-9-51. PMC 2670303. PMID 19265539.
  9. ^ Sterkel, Alana K.; Mettelman, Robert; Wüthrich, Marcel; Klein, Bruce S. (2015-02-15). "The unappreciated intracellular lifestyle of Blastomyces dermatitidis". Journal of Immunology. 194 (4): 1796–1805. doi:10.4049/jimmunol.1303089. ISSN 1550-6606. PMC 4373353. PMID 25589071.
  10. ^ Amann R, Springer N, Schönhuber W, Ludwig W, Schmid EN, Müller KD, Michel R (January 1997). "Obligate intracellular bacterial parasites of acanthamoebae related to Chlamydia spp". Applied and Environmental Microbiology. 63 (1): 115–21. doi:10.1128/AEM.63.1.115-121.1997. PMC 168308. PMID 8979345.
  11. ^ Foley, Janet E.; Nieto, Nathan C.; Barbet, Anthony; Foley, Patrick (2009-12-15). "Antigen diversity in the parasitic bacterium Anaplasma phagocytophilum arises from selectively-represented, spatially clustered functional pseudogenes". PLOS ONE. 4 (12): e8265. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0008265. ISSN 1932-6203. PMC 2789410. PMID 20016821.
  12. ^ Deng, M.; Lancto, C. A.; Abrahamsen, M. S. (2004). "Cryptosporidium parvum regulation of human epithelial cell gene expression". International Journal for Parasitology. 34 (1): 73–82. doi:10.1016/j.ijpara.2003.10.001. PMID 14711592.
  13. ^ David Anthony Burns; Stephen M. Breathnach; Neil H. Cox; Christopher E. M. Griffiths, eds. (2010). Rook's Textbook of Dermatology. Vol. 4 (8th ed.). Chichester: Wiley-Blackwell. p. 28. ISBN 978-1-4051-6169-5.
  14. ^ Lynn Sagan (1967). "On the origin of mitosing cells". J Theor Biol. 14 (3): 255–274. doi:10.1016/0022-5193(67)90079-3. PMID 11541392.
  15. ^ Omsland A, Cockrell DC, Howe D, Fischer ER, Virtaneva K, Sturdevant DE, Porcella SF, Heinzen RA (March 17, 2009). "Host cell-free growth of the Q fever bacterium Coxiella burnetii". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences USA. 106 (11): 4430–4. Bibcode:2009PNAS..106.4430O. doi:10.1073/pnas.0812074106. PMC 2657411. PMID 19246385.
  16. ^ a b Leirião, Patrícia; Rodrigues, Cristina D; Albuquerque, Sónia S; Mota, Maria M (December 2004). "Survival of protozoan intracellular parasites in host cells". EMBO Reports. 5 (12): 1142–1147. doi:10.1038/sj.embor.7400299. ISSN 1469-221X. PMC 1299194. PMID 15577928.
  17. ^ Price, C. T. D; Al-Quadan, T; Santic, M; Rosenshine, I; Abu Kwaik, Y (2011). "Host Proteasomal Degradation Generates Amino Acids Essential for Intracellular Bacterial Growth". Science. 334 (6062): 1553–7. Bibcode:2011Sci...334.1553P. doi:10.1126/science.1212868. PMID 22096100. S2CID 206537041.
  18. ^ Bannister, Barbara A.; Gillespie, Stephen H.; Jones, Jane (2006). "Chapter 22". Infection: Microbiology and Management. Malden, MA: Wiley-Blackwell. p. 432. ISBN 1-4051-2665-5.
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