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Bhartṛhari

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Bhartṛhari
भर्तृहरि
Born
Ujjain
Notable workVākyapadīya
Era7th century CE
RegionMadhya Pradesh, India
LanguageSanskrit
Main interests
Grammar, linguistics
Notable ideas
Sphota
For the folk hero, see Bharthari (king). For other uses, see Bharthari.

Bhartṛhari (Devanagari: भर्तृहरि; also romanised as Bhartrihari; fl. c. 5th century CE) was a Hindu linguistic philosopher[1] to whom are normally ascribed two influential Sanskrit texts:

  • the Trikāṇḍī (including Vākyapadīya), on Sanskrit grammar and linguistic philosophy, a foundational text in the Indian grammatical tradition, explaining numerous theories on the word and on the sentence, including theories which came to be known under the name of Sphoṭa; in this work Bhartrhari also discussed logical problems such as the liar paradox and a paradox of unnameability or unsignifiability which has become known as Bhartrhari's paradox, and
  • the Śatakatraya, a work of Sanskrit poetry, comprising three collections of about 100 stanzas each; it may or may not be by the same author who composed the two mentioned grammatical works.

In the medieval tradition of Indian scholarship, it was assumed that both texts were written by the same person.[citation needed] Modern philologists were sceptical of this claim, owing to an argument that dated the grammar to a date subsequent to the art of poetry.[citation needed] Since the 1990s, however, scholars have agreed that both works may indeed have been contemporary, in which case it is plausible that there was only one Bhartrihari who wrote both texts.[citation needed]

Both the grammar and the poetic works had an enormous influence in their respective fields. The grammar in particular, takes a holistic view of language, countering the compositionality position of the Mimamsakas and others.

According to Aithihyamala, he is also credited with some other texts like Harikītika and Amaru Shataka.

The poetry constitute short verses, collected into three centuries of about a hundred poems each. Each century deals with a different rasa or aesthetic mood; on the whole his poetic work has been very highly regarded both within the tradition and by modern scholarship.

The name Bhartrihari is also sometimes associated with Bhartrihari traya Shataka, the legendary king of Ujjaini in the 1st century.

Life and background

Bhartrhari, best known as a grammarian and a philosopher, is believed to have been born in Ujjain, Malwa, India and lived in the 5th century.[2][3][4] Details of his personal life are not known, but it is assumed, and accepted by scholars, that he lived between 485 and 540 AD.[2][4][5] He was associated to the court of Valabhi (modern Vala, Gujarat); however, he decided to follow the path of Indian sages and renounced a sensuous life to find higher meaning.[3] He attempted to live a monastic life but he was unable to successfully detach from worldly pleasures. After some time, he lived a life as a yogi in Ujjain till his death.[3]

Siṃhasūrigaṇi, a 6th-century Jain writer, states that Bhartrhari studied under a Grammarian named Vasurāta.[5] Additionally, Bhartrhari credits some of his theories to Vasurāta in his work the Vakyapadiya.[2]

Chinese traveler, Yi-Jing (635-713 CE), mentions Bhartrhari in his travel notes. He claims that Bhartrhari was a Buddhist and wrote the works Vakyapadiya, Peina, and a commentary on Patanjali's Mahabhashya. Researchers have found that some of the details by Yi-Jing are erroneous, specifically the time period that Bhartrhari was alive and that he was a Buddhist.[6] Bhartrhari's philosophical position is widely held to be an offshoot of the Vyākaraṇa or grammarian school, closely allied to the realism of the Nyayas and distinctly opposed to Buddhist positions like Dignaga, who are closer to phenomenalism.[7][8]

Philosophical contributions

Bhartrhari is known for his work in the philosophy of language, particularly his theories articulated in the "Vakyapadiya," (which translates to "Treatise on Sentences and Words"). This text is a comprehensive study of grammar and its metaphysical foundations. Bhartrhari's philosophy is marked by the concept of "Shabda-Brahman" or the ultimate reality being expressed through words​. He posited that language and cognition are linked and by understanding grammar, one can attain spiritual liberation.[4][9]

Works

Bhartrhari is best known for his work in the philosophy of language. He wrote four books on grammar (vyākaraṇa): Vākyapadīya, Mahābhāṣyatikā (an early sub-commentary on Patanjali's Vyākaraṇa-Mahābhāṣya), Vṛtti, and Śabdadhātusamīkṣā.[2][6][9][10]

Vākyapadīya

Main article: Trikāṇḍī

The Vākyapadīya, also known as Trikāṇḍī (three books) is an Indian linguistic treatise on the philosophy of language, grammar, and semantics. It is divided into 3 main sections (or kāṇḍa): Brahma-kāṇḍa (Book of Brahman), Vākya-kāṇḍa (Book of Sentences), and Pada-kāṇḍa (Book of Words). The Brahma-kāṇḍa contains the metaphysical aspects of language. The Vākya-kāṇḍa deals with sentence structure and the relationship between its components. The Pada-kāṇḍa focuses on the meaning of words, phonetics, morphology, and semantics.[11][4]

Bhartrhari's philosophy is centered around the concept of "sphoṭa". He believed that sphoṭa carries the meaning of the word(s) and it is revealed to the listener upon hearing the word(s).[11] Unlike Patanjali, Bhatrihari applies the term sphoṭa to each element of the utterance, varṇa (varṇasphoṭa; the letter or syllable), pada (padasphoṭa; the word), and vākya (vākyasphoṭa; the sentence).[11]

Mahābhāṣyatikā

Also known as Tripadi or Mahabhashya-dipika. Tripadi, also known as Mahabhashya-tika or

  • The earliest commentators on the text call it Tripadi, and the title Mahabhashya-dipika is known only from one manuscript.[12]
  • The author probably intended to write a commentary on the entire text, but died after completing the work on the three padas of Maha-bhashya. The title Tripadi was probably coined by someone other than the author.[13]
  • The currently surviving version of the work covers only the first seven ahnikas of the first pada of Mahabhashya. It is known from a fragmentary manuscript.[14]

Śatakatraya

Main article: Śatakatraya

Bhartrihari's poetry is aphoristic, and comments on the social mores of the time. The collected work is known as Śatakatraya "the three śatakas or 'hundreds' ('centuries')", consisting of three thematic compilations on shringara, vairagya and niti (loosely: love, dispassion and moral conduct) of hundred verses each.

Unfortunately, the extant manuscript versions of these shatakas vary widely in the verses included. D.D. Kosambi has identified a kernel of two hundred that are common to all the versions.[15]

Here is a sample that comments on social mores:

And here is one dealing with the theme of love:

The clear bright flame of a man's discernment dies
When a girl clouds it with her lamp-black eyes. [Bhartrihari #77, tr. John Brough; poem 167][17]

Other works

  • Shabda-dhatu-samiksha, now lost
    • This work is attributed to Bharthari by the Kashmiri Shaivite authors Soma-nanda and Utpalacharya (9th-10th centuries). According to Utpalacharya, in this work, Bharthari described the concept of pashyanti, which he also discusses in the Trikandi.[18]
  • Possibly, a commentary on Jaimini's Mimamsa Sutras

Tradition also attributes several other works to "Bharthari", although the authenticity of such attributions is doubtful.[19] For example, tradition identifies Bharthari the grammarian with the poet who composed Subhashita-tri-shati, a work said to contain 300 stanzas. However, the number of stanzas in the surviving text is much more than 300, which complicates the identification of its actual author.[18]

Influence and legacy

Bhartrhari's works have been studied in various Indian philosophical traditions, including Vedanta and Mimamsa. Islamic and Western scholars have also shown interest through various translations and commentaries.[9][4]

In the field of Indian poetics, Bhartrhari's Shatakatrya continue to be revered and studied.[20]

Further reading

  • B. K. Matilal, 1990, The Word and the World: India's Contribution to the Study of Language. Delhi: Oxford University Press. p. 129-130.
  • Hemanta Kumar Ganguli, "Theory of Logical Construction and Solution of some Logical Paradoxes" , appendix to Philosophy of Logical Construction: An Examination of Logical Atomism and Logical Positivism in the light of the Philosophies of Bhartrhari, Dharmakirti and Prajnakaragupta, Calcutta, 1963.
  • Jan E.M. Houben, The Sambandha-samuddeśa (chapter on relation) and Bhartrhari's philosophy of language, Gonda Indological Series, 2. Groningen: Egbert Forsten, 1995, pp. 213–219.

References

  1. ^ Cornille, Catherine (8 June 2020). The Wiley-Blackwell Companion to Inter-Religious Dialogue. John Wiley & Sons. p. 199. ISBN 978-1-119-57259-6.
  2. ^ a b c d "Bhartrihari | Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy". Retrieved 20 June 2024.
  3. ^ a b c "Bhartrihari | Indian Poet, Sanskrit Scholar | Britannica". www.britannica.com. Retrieved 20 June 2024.
  4. ^ a b c d e Craig, Edward; Routledge (Firm), eds. (1998). Routledge encyclopedia of philosophy. London ; New York: Routledge. ISBN 978-0-415-07310-3.
  5. ^ a b Potter, Karl H., ed. (1977). Encyclopedia of Indian philosophies. Princeton, N.J: Princeton University Press. ISBN 978-0-691-07281-4.
  6. ^ a b Srimannarayana Murti, M. (1997). Bhartṛhari, the grammarian. Makers of Indian literature. Sahitya Akademi. New Delhi: Sahitya Akademi. ISBN 978-81-260-0308-2.
  7. ^ Bimal Krishna Matilal (1990). The Word and the World: India's contribution to the study of language. Oxford University Press.
  8. ^ N. V. Isaeva (1995), From early Vedanta to Kashmir Shaivism: Gaudapada, Bhartrhari, and Abhinavagupta, SUNY Press, p. 75, ISBN 978-0-7914-2450-6Bhartrihari may have been "within the fold of Vedānta".
  9. ^ a b c Herzberger, Radhika (1986). Bhartṛhari and the Buddhists. Dordrecht: Springer Netherlands. doi:10.1007/978-94-009-4666-8. ISBN 978-94-010-8574-8.
  10. ^ Extensively used by later grammarians such as Kaiyaṭa, the text is only fragmentarily preserved. An edition based on an incomplete manuscript was published by Bhandarkar Oriental Research Institute, Pune (1985-1991), in six fascicules (fascicule 6 in two parts).
  11. ^ a b c Coward, Harold G.; Kunjunni Raja, Kumarapuram (1990). The philosophy of the grammarians. Encyclopedia of Indian philosophies. Princeton (N.J.): Princeton university press. ISBN 978-0-691-07331-6.
  12. ^ Harold G. Coward 1990, pp. 121–122.
  13. ^ Ashok Aklujkar 1994, p. 26.
  14. ^ Ashok Aklujkar 1994, p. 34.
  15. ^ Vidyākara (1968), Daniel Henry Holmes Ingalls (ed.), Sanskrit poetry, from Vidyākara's Treasury, Harvard University Press, p. 39, ISBN 978-0-674-78865-7
  16. ^ Bhartrihari: Poems. Translated by Miller, Barbara Stoler. Columbia University Press. 1967. ISBN 9780231029995.
  17. ^ John Brough (trans.) (1977). Poems from the Sanskrit. Penguin. poem 12
  18. ^ a b Harold G. Coward 1990, p. 122.
  19. ^ Harold G. Coward 1990, p. 121.
  20. ^ Wortham, Biscoe Hale; Wortham, Biscoe Hale (2000). The Śatakas of Bhartr̥ihari. India : language and literature, in 14 volumes (Reprint ed.). London: Routledge. ISBN 978-0-415-24510-4.

Sources

External links

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