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Doctorate

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Aquatint of a Doctor of Divinity at the University of Oxford, in the scarlet and black academic robes corresponding to his position. From Rudolph Ackermann's History of Oxford, 1814.

A doctorate is an academic degree of the highest level. The term comes from the Latin doctor, meaning "teacher." It originated in Medieval Europe as a license to teach at a university. In this sense doctoral training was a form of apprenticeship to a guild. The traditional term of study before new teachers were admitted to the guild of "Masters of Arts," seven years, was the same as the term of apprenticeship for other occupations. Originally the terms "master" and "doctor" were synonymous, but over time the doctorate came to be regarded as a higher qualification than the master's degree.

The usage and meaning of the doctorate has changed over time, and it has also been subject to regional variations. For instance, until the early 20th century few faculty members in English-speaking universities held doctorates, except for very senior scholars and those in holy orders. After that time the German practice of requiring faculty candidates to have completed a "research doctorate" became widespread. Additionally, universities' shifts to "research oriented" education increased the importance of the doctorate. Today such a doctorate is generally a prerequisite for pursuing an academic career, although not everyone who receives a research doctorate becomes a member of a university. Many universities also award "honorary doctorates" to individuals who have been deemed worthy of special recognition, either for scholarly work or for other contributions to the university or to society.

Although the Ph.D. is almost universally accepted as the standard qualification for an academic career, it is a relatively new invention. The older-style doctorates (now usually called "Higher Doctorates" in the United Kingdom) take much longer to complete, since candidates must show themselves to be leading experts in their subjects. These doctorates are now becoming rare, and are often primarily awarded honoris causa. In France, the higher doctorate is the doctorat d'État. The latter was replaced for academic recruitment purposes by the "habilitation to direct theses". The Habilitation is still used for academic recruitment purposes in many countries within the EU and is a research doctorate involving either a new long thesis (a second book) or a portfolio of research publications. The Habilitation demonstrates independent and thorough research, experience in teaching and lecturing and, more recently, the ability to generate funding within the area of research. The "Habilitation" is regarded as a senior post-doctoral qualification, many years after the Ph.D., and is necessary for a Privatdozent position.

A similar system traditionally holds in Russia. Already in the Russian Empire the academic degree doctor of science (doctor nauki) marked the highest academic degree which can be achieved by an examination. This system was generally adopted by the USSR/Russia and many post-Soviet countries.

Types of doctorate

Since the Middle Ages, there has been considerable evolution and proliferation in the number and types of doctorates awarded by universities throughout the world, and practices vary from one country to another. Broadly speaking, though, doctorates may be loosely classified into the following categories.

Research doctorates

Research doctorates are awarded in recognition of academic research that is in principle publishable in a peer-refereed context (such as a research journal or monograph) and represents at least a modest contribution to human knowledge. The research is usually assessed by submission and defense of a thesis or dissertation, or of a suitable body of published work.

The most common example of this type is the degree of Doctor of Philosophy (PhD), which has become particularly widespread over the past century. Other examples include the Doctor of Engineering (EngD) in the United States and United Kingdom and the Doctor rerum naturalium (Dr.rer.nat.) in Germany.

Minimum periods for research doctorates vary considerably: In the UK and USA the minimum time for completing a Ph.D. is usually three years following the completion of a master's degree, however there is an increasing trend in the UK for students obtaining first class honours degrees to progress straight into a Ph.D. programme. Although completions within this period are possible, most candidates take considerably longer: anywhere from five to ten years. During the late 1990s, the UK research councils introduced penalties (in the form of a reduction of future funding) for departments whose students regularly failed to submit their thesis within four years (full time) from initial registration. Students in the physical sciences typically have shorter completion times than students in the arts due to their better access to funding sources. In the USA, the research doctorate normally requires two to three years of coursework and a minimum of three years of research. Coursework is increasingly becoming a required component in research doctorates around the world.

Under European law, holders of research doctorates from any EU country are recognized in others.

Higher doctorates

In some countries, especially the United Kingdom, Ireland and some Scandinavian and Commonwealth nations, there is a higher tier of research doctorates, awarded on the basis of a formally submitted portfolio of published research of a very high standard. Examples include the Doctor of Science and Doctor of Letters degrees found in the UK and some Commonwealth countries, and the Danish dr.theol. degree.

The German habilitation postdoctoral qualification may be regarded as belonging to this category.

Higher doctorates are often also awarded honoris causa when a university wishes to formally recognise an individual's achievements and contributions to a particular field.

Professional doctorates

Professional doctorates are awarded in certain fields where most holders of the degree are not engaged primarily in scholarly research and academic activities, but rather in a profession, such as law, medicine, music, or ministry. Examples include the US degrees of Doctor of Medicine (MD) and Juris Doctor (JD), and the degrees of Doctor of Dental Medicine (MDDr.) and Doctor of Veterinary Medicine (MVDr.) in the Czech Republic.

Honorary doctorates

When a university wishes to formally recognise an individual's achievements and contributions to a particular field, it may choose to award him or her a degree (usually a doctorate) honoris causa ('for the sake of the honour'). In these circumstances, the university waives the usual formal requirements for the award of that degree. Often the recipient's achievements will be academic in nature, and of the requisite standard for award of a substantive doctorate; in other cases the achievements may not be academic in character.

There is a widely-held view that these degrees are in some way lesser than academinally earned degrees. However, because a university is empowered to grant degrees for whatever reasons it deems fit, in theory there is no difference between earned and honorary doctorates. In theory, the holder is entitled to the style 'Dr.' In practice, this is rarely done.

The title of "Doctor" is often used both by, and of those holding research doctorates or limited professional (usually medical) doctorates. In the UK and most Commonwealth countries this title has for many centuries also been accorded to holders of the degree of Bachelor of Medicine and Surgery (equivalent to the degree of Doctor of Medicine in the US and elsewhere). However in the UK, for historical reasons, members of the surgical Royal Colleges are not addressed as "Doctor", but as Mister, Miss, etc.

In the past, in the United States a person with a research doctorate would use the title "doctor" in an academic or research/development setting, and in publication; however, it is becoming more common to use the title if working in a corporate setting. This is the case in most continents. In some countries the term "doctor" may be used as a title of respect even if the person being addressed has no doctoral degree.

The earliest doctoral degrees (theology - Divinitatis Doctor (D.D.), philosophy - Doctor of philosophy (D.Phil., Ph.D.) and medicine - Medicinæ Doctor (M.D., D.M.)) reflected the historical separation of all University study into these three fields. Over time the D.D. has gradually become less common, and studies outside of theology and medicine have become more common (such studies were then called "philosophy", but are now classified as sciences and humanities - however the phrase Doctor of philosophy degree remains in common usage).

Country-specific practice

Brazil

Doctoral programs are available in most Brazilian public universities. The candidate is normally required to have received first a Master's degree in a related field prior to getting a Doctor's degree. In a few cases however, some institutions may admit candidates who do not hold a Master's degree, based on their individual academic merit. A second and a third foreign language are also common requirements for those wishing to enrol in a doctoral program in Brazil. The process of admission varies by institution. Some require candidates to take several tests prior to admission to the program and others base admissions on a research proposal application and interview. However, in this second instance, the applicant must have a supervisor who will coordinate his or her research during the doctorate.

The requirements for the Doctor's degree usually include satisfactory performance in a minimum number of advanced graduate courses, passing an oral qualifying exam, and submitting a doctoral thesis that must represent an original and relevant contribution to existing knowledge in the field of study to which the thesis topic is related. The thesis is examined in a final public oral exam administered by a panel of at least five faculty members, two of whom must be necessarily external examiners. After completion of the program, which normally lasts from 3 to 6 years, the candidate is commonly awarded the degree of Doutor (Doctor) followed by the name of the main area of specialization in which his/her research was conducted, e.g. Doutor em Direito (Doctor of Laws), Doutor em Ciências da Computação (Doctor of Computer Sciences), Doutor em Filosofia(Doctor of Philosophy), Doutor em Economia (Doctor of Economics), Doutor em Engenharia (Doctor of Engineering), Doutor em Medicina (Doctor of Medicine), and so on. The generic title of Doutor em Ciências (Doctor of Sciences) is normally used to refer collectively to doctorates in the natural sciences (i.e. Physics, Chemistry, Biological and Life Sciences, etc.)

All graduate programs in Brazilian public universities are free as public universities are not allowed under the Brazilian constitution to charge tuition fees from the students. On top of that, most gifted graduate students are also supported by individual or institutional scholarships granted by federal government agencies like CNPq and CAPES, or by the various FAP's at the state level (especially FAPESP in the state of São Paulo). Competition for graduate financial aid is very intense though and most scholarships support at most 2 years of Master's studies and 4 years of doctoral studies. The normal monthly stipend for doctoral students in Brazil is between 500 and 1000 USD.

Finland

Finland requires 45 weeks (1800 hours) of study for older students. This requirement has been removed during the Bologna process leaving the decision to individual students and their professors, but some fields recommend a requirement 70 course credits (1866,67 hours). Receiving the doctorate also requires a written thesis. Thesis can either be a monograph or it can be edited from a collection of 3 to 7 journal articles, including an introduction tying the individual parts.

Germany

In Germany, all doctorates bear the same level of merit. There are no first-degree doctorates as lawyers; medical doctors do not necessarily hold a doctorate, although it is much easier for medical students to earn the degree (it is completed in about one year within their course) than for those studying other disciplines (where the doctorate usually takes at least three years to complete). Apart from that, Germany uses different titles, which are written in front of the first name for addresses (within texts, the abbreviation "Dr." is common) and accompany the person's name (unlike in German-speaking Switzerland). This is a list of the types of doctorates encountered most often. For each title the subject is indicated in which it is mostly awarded. (There are exceptions from this, depending on the rules and traditions of the degree-awarding university.). Some believe that in Germany the title "Dr." is part of a person's name and that these people have a right to be addressed with the title. This misunderstanding comes forth from the fact that "Dr." is the only academic degree that can be mentioned in one's identity card. But this does not make it part of the name. In Southern Germany and Austria it is more common to address somebody with the title than in the North. It can also depend on the occasion and of course of the individual person whether to use the title or not. The proper expression is "Herr Doktor" (male) or "Frau Doktor" (female). Doktors may not address other Doktors with the title, because that would give the impression that one were preferring, or even insisting on, being called Doktor oneself, which could be seen as slightly pathetic. When officially writing to a person with several titles, it would be proper to begin with the "highest" title and eventually name several Dr.-titles, e.g. Prof. Dr. Dr. Schmidt. The actual addressing begins with Sehr geehrter Herr Professor / Sehr geehrte Frau Professor. There are dif ferent opinions whether dropping the Herr or Frau in such occasions.

Upon the completion of a second dissertation or Habilitationsschrift a senior doctorate (dr. habil.) is awarded. This senior doctorate is known as the Habilitation. It is not a degree, but an additional qualification. This or an equivalent professional experience is - traditionally - the necessary prerequisite for a position of Privatdozent and Professor. Now, with the BA/MA-modell and the Juniorprofessoren to be introduced, this has already changed partially.

The Netherlands

The traditional academic system of The Netherlands provides four basic academic diplomas and degrees: propaedeuse, candidate, doctorandus (drs.) and doctor (dr.). After successful completion of the first year of University, the student is awarded the propaedeutic diploma (not a degree). The candidate degree, which was all but abolished by 1989, used to be attained after three years of academic study, after which the student was allowed to begin work on his doctorandus' thesis. The successful completion of this thesis allows one to use the doctorandus title, attainment of which means one's initial studies are finished. Those who choose to, and are hired as promovendus (research assistant), perform extensive research and write a doctoral dissertation (usually over the course of four years). Upon completion, a doctor's degree is awarded. This is the highest academic degree one can attain. In addition to these 'general' degrees, a number of specific titles for certain subjects are available, each of which is equivalent to the doctorandus degree: for law: meester ('master') (mr.), and for engineering: ingenieur ('engineer')(ir.).

In the last few years, the Dutch have incorporated the Anglo-Saxon system of academic degrees into their own. The old candidate's degree has been revived as bachelor's degree, the doctorandus' by the master's degree. This development has led the Eindhoven University of Technology to award a Professional Doctorate in Engineering (PDEng), which replaced a post-master degree. Professional Doctorates are not commonly awarded by Dutch Universities.

Poland

Polish system is similar to the one adopted in Germany, with Ph.D. as a first level doctorate and habilitation (habilitacja) as second. The award of the title of doktor (Ph.D.) is usually preceded by 4-5 years of doctoral study (a post-graduate study offered at most universities, with or without an obligation to teach some classes), but can also be obtained without a formal participation in the doctoral studies. In order to become a doktor habilitowany (i.e. being awarded second level doctorate) a candidate has to publish a dissertation, preceded with several years of deep field studies and have recognized research record. Only candidates with habilitation are eligible to become professors.

To become a doctor one needs to write a dissertation (varying in length), which then must be accepted by a panel of professors during a so-called defence of the dissertation (obrona pracy doktorskiej). There are several other requirements, like passing an exam in a foreign language and philosophy or economics (similar to the Russian system).

A prospective doctor must have also published some works (articles, books) beforehand, otherwise s/he would not be allowed to start the doctoral proceedings (przewód doktorski).

The title of a doctor is abbreviated as dr (without a full stop) before the surname of a person, e.g. dr Kowalski.

Doktor is also a common form of addressing a physician, but that does not indicate that the person actually holds a doctoral degree. Doctors of medicine have the abbreviation dr n. med. (doctor of medical studies) before or after their surname.

The title of dr in#. (doctor of engineering) is another specific doctoral titles. Dr n.hum. means doctor of humanities (incl. psychology and sociology), but is rarely used to differentiate from doctors of other fields. All other doctorates have no indications of their field.

Portugal

  • Doutor (Doctor)

In Portugal and in the African Countries of Portuguese Official Language it is common to use the title "Dr." (supposedly the abbreviation of "Doutor") in reference to people with "Licenciatura" degrees (a "Licenciatura" is something between a Bachelor and a Master Degree in most countries, and currently (Jan 2006) represents 4 or 5 years of graduate studies; except in the following Licenciaturas: Pharmaceutical Sciences, Medicine, Veterinary Medicine and Dental Medicine, which are six years long and the degree is equivalent to DPharm, DM/MD, etc. After the Bologna Process reform takes place in Portugal, it will have 3 to 4 years and be equivalent to any Bachelor degree in the E.U. countries that adopt this process). Some professionals have, however, different titles. For example: "Eng." (Engenheiro, Engineer), "Arq." (Arquitecto, Architect). The term Doctor" in Portugal is used for those with a PhD and, instead of the title "Dr.", use "Doutor" (the extended form) or "Professor Doutor" (because, usually, PhD's are university professors).

Russia

The USSR and many post-Soviet countries, including Russian Federation, have two-stage research degree obtaining path, generally similar to the doctorate system in Europe. The first stage is named "Kandidat of <...> Sciences" (for instance, Kandidat of Medical Sciences, of Chemical Sciences, of Philological Sciences, and so on). The Kandidat of Sciences degree is usually recognised as equivalent of Philosophy Doctor (PhD) and require at least (and typically more than) three years of post-graduate research which finished by defence of a thesis. Additionally, a seeker of the degree has to pass three examinations (so-called "Kandidate's minimum"): in his/her special field, in one foreign language, and in philosophy. After an additional certification by the corresponding experts the Kandidat degree may be recognized internationally as an equivalent of Ph.D. (An unconditional Ph.D. equivalence has been recognized before the dissolution of the Soviet Union, and the additional certification in many countries has become required after the steep increase flow of post-Soviet emigration.)

The second stage, "Doctor of <...> Sciences", is equal to Professor Degree in Europe or North America. It requires many years of research experience and writing of a second dissertation. A position of Professor can be held only by a Doctor of Sciences.

The degrees of Kandidat and Doctor of Sciences are only awarded by the special governmental agency (Higher Attestation Commission); a university or a scientific institute where the thesis was defended can only recommend to award a seeker the sought degree.

Acceptance of Russian scientists holding the degree of Candidate into a research filed in North America created a confusing situation when Soviet Doctoral graduates are equalized in rights with their undersupervized.

Soviet scientists holding degree of Candidate take positions of Post doctoral fellows, Post doctoral research associates etc.

Scandinavia

In Denmark there are five levels of degrees: Bachelor's, Candidate's (may be compared to Master), Magister (similar to an MPhil in the United Kingdom system; a degree by research, higher than a Master's but lower than a Ph.D.), Ph.D., and finally Dr., which is the higher doctorate.

  • dr. med. - Medicine
  • dr. jur. - Law
  • dr. theol. - Theology
  • dr. phil. - Philosophy (humanities)
  • dr. polit. - Economics
  • dr. scient. - Science (natural sciences)
  • dr. techn. - Technology
  • dr. ling. merc. - Professional language

These degrees (and in addition dr. ing.) were also used in Norway, which traditionally used the same system as Denmark. Besides dr. philos, which is awarded to people who don't follow an organized degree program, new candidates are no longer awarded these degrees, but are instead awarded a Ph.D. The new Ph.D. degree was introduced in the early 2000s.

The Ph.D. in Norway is not a lower-level research doctorate.

Slovakia and the Czech Republic

Professional doctorates

These degrees do not require completion of a thesis or dissertation and are awarded after six years of study.

  • Doctor of medicine (Medicinæ universæ doctor - MUDr.)
  • Doctor of dental medicine (Medicinæ dentalis doctor - MDDr., only in the Czech Republic)
  • Doctor of veterinary medicine (Medicinæ veterinariæ doctor - MVDr.)

First-degree doctorates

These degrees require the viva-voce defense of a written thesis/dissertation. They are written before the name, as "JUDr. Smith", or usually abbreviated "Dr. Smith".

  • Doctor of philosophy (Philosophiæ doctor - PhDr.)
  • Doctor of natural sciences (Rerum naturalium doctor - RNDr.)
  • Doctor of pharmacy (Pharmaciæ doctor - PharmDr.)
  • Doctor of laws (Juris utrisque doctor - JUDr.)
  • Doctor of paedeutics (Paedagogiæ doctor - PaedDr., no longer used in the Czech Republic)
  • Doctor of theology (Theologiæ doctor - ThDr.)
  • Doctor of economy (Rerum commercialum doctor - RCDr., no longer used)
  • Doctor of social sciences (Rerum societarum doctor - RSDr., deprecated - used by communist regime)

Higher doctorates

These degrees require the viva-voce defense of a written comprehensive thesis/dissertation. They are written after the name, that is, "Smith, PhD".

  • Candidate of sciences (Candidatus scientarum - CSc., since the 1990's replaced by common PhD.)
  • Doctor of philosophy (Philosophiae doctor - PhD., awarded since the 1990's; requires at least 3-year doctoral study)
  • Doctor of sciences (Doctor scientarum - DrSc., in the Czech Republic DSc. if awarded after 2002; D(r)Sc. replaces its prerequisite PhD./CSc.)
  • Doctor of arts (Artes doctor - ArtD.)
  • Doctor of theology (Theologiae doctor - ThD.)

Both Czech and Slovak ortography state that "philosophiae doctor" is abbreviated as "PhD." analogously to all of other degrees. However, perhaps under influence of international use of "Ph.D.", in the Czech law of scientifical and academical degrees this foreign form is used. In fact, Czech lawgivers have enacted an orthographic mistake.

Spain

Doctoral programs are available in all universities. According to the current study plan, the doctorate is a three-year long course.

During the first year, the student must obtain 20 lecture credits (200 hours aprox). During the second year, he/she is required to write and a "thesis project" and support it with a presentation. If the projects receives approval from the univeristy, he/she will receive a "Diploma de Estudios Avanzados" (part qualified doctor). The student must write his/her thesis during the third and final school year. Once published, he/she will receive the doctorate.

United Kingdom

All doctorates (except for those awarded honoris causa) granted by British universities are research doctorates in the sense described above, in that their main (and in many cases only) component is the submission of a thesis or portfolio of original research, examined by an expert panel appointed by the university.

Even the relatively new 'vocational doctorates' such as the Eng.D., Ed.D. and D.Clin.Psych. require the submission of a body of original research of a similar length to a Ph.D. thesis. In the case of the Eng.D., for example, this might comprise one or more technical reports on research projects undertaken by the candidate.

The Ph.D. itself is a comparatively recent introduction to the UK, dating from c.1920. It was originally introduced in order to provide a similar level of graduate research training as was available in several other countries, notably Germany and the USA. Previously, the only doctorates available were the higher doctorates, awarded in recognition of an illustrious research career.

The universities of Oxford and Sussex denote the degree of Doctor of Philosophy with the postnominal initials D.Phil. The University of York also did this for some years, switching to the more conventional Ph.D. quite recently.

Higher doctorates

Higher doctorates are awarded in recognition of a substantial body original research undertaken over the course of many years. Typically the candidate will submit a collection of work which has been previously published in a peer-refereed context. Most universities restrict candidacy to graduates or academic staff of several years' standing. The most common examples of these degrees are as follows:

Of these, the D.D. historically ranked highest, theology being the senior faculty in the mediaeval universities. The degree of Doctor of Canon Law was next in the order of precedence, but did not survive the Protestant reformation. The D.Mus. was, historically, in an anomalous situation, since a candidate was not required to be a member of Convocation (that is, to be a Master of Arts). The D.Litt. and D.Sc. are relatively recent innovations, dating from the latter part of the 19th century.

Honorary doctorates

Most British universities award degrees honoris causa in order to recognise individuals who have made a substantial contribution to a particular field. Usually an appropriate higher doctorate is used in these circumstances, depending on the achievements of the candidate. However, some universities, in order to differentiate between honorary and substantive doctorates, have introduced the degree of Doctor of the University (D.Univ.) for these purposes, and reserve the higher doctorates for formal academic research.

United States

Research doctorate

The most common type of research doctorate is a Ph.D. (Philosophiæ Doctor or Doctor of Philosophy), though there are many other equivalent designations, listed below.

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The Doctor of Science (Sc.D. or D.Sc.) degree is the only doctoral degree equivalent to the Ph.D. degree, both requiring demonstration and defense of rigorous academic research. The Sc.D., which was first conferred in North America by Harvard University in 1872, is rarer than the Ph.D. (by comparison, the Ph.D. degree was first conferred in North America by Yale University in 1861, which established the first arts & sciences graduate school in North America in the 1840s.) However, the Sc.D. degree has long been awarded by leading institutions such as Harvard University, Johns Hopkins University, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, etc. At many of these universities, the academic requirements for the Ph.D. and Sc.D. are identical.

Professional doctorate

In the United States, the first professional degrees in many clinical fields have the name "doctor" and are also known as "professional doctorates." Such fields include audiology, chiropractic, dentistry, medicine, occupational therapy, optometry, osteopathy, pharmacy, physical therapy, podiatry, psychology, veterinary medicine, and many others.

It is important to recognize that practitioners in these fields hold first-professional degrees, not graduate research degrees, and the level of research training is not equivalent to a Ph.D.[1] For example, professional doctoral education (such as medicine and law) does not generally require completion of a thesis/dissertation to graduate, a central component of Doctoral and most Master's level research degrees. There are some exceptions though, as some law schools and a small number of medical schools require that the candidate perform original research and write a formal research paper. Even when not a requirement, most medical students still conduct some form of academic research before residency, often leading to publication. The minimum term for such a degree (M.D. and J.D.) is 3 years past postsecondary education, the same minimum term required for a research doctorate. In addition, many academic fields allow individuals to pursue teaching and research careers within their field with a professional doctorate.

Not all fields have chosen to name (or rename as was the case in the field of law) their first professional degrees "doctorates". For example in accountancy it is the Master of Accountancy. Despite being named "masters" some masters degree programs may require about the same amount of time to complete as "professional doctorate" programs in other fields so the naming is somewhat arbitrary. For example, despite being a "masters" level degree, the first professional degree in architecture may require 3 to 3.5 years to complete. There is currently some debate in the architectural community to rename the degree to a "doctorate" in the manner that was done for the law degree decades ago.[[2]]

It should be noted that titling of first professional degrees in the above-named fields as a "doctorate" is a uniquely American convention that is not utilized in most other countries. In many other countries, the "equivalent" degree is often a bachelor's or master's degree (for example, Bachelor of Medicine and Surgery, Bachelor of Law). In fact, U.S. law schools used to name their law degree the LL.B. (Bachelor of Laws) before renaming the degree to J.D. (Doctor of Jurisprudence).

Professional doctorates (also called First Professional Degrees)

Column-generating template families

The templates listed here are not interchangeable. For example, using {{col-float}} with {{col-end}} instead of {{col-float-end}} would leave a <div>...</div> open, potentially harming any subsequent formatting.

Column templates
Type Family
Handles wiki
table code?†
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mobile suited 		Start template Column divider End template
Float "col-float" Yes Yes {{col-float}} {{col-float-break}} {{col-float-end}}
"columns-start" Yes Yes {{columns-start}} {{column}} {{columns-end}}
Columns "div col" Yes Yes {{div col}} – {{div col end}}
"columns-list" No Yes {{columns-list}} (wraps div col) – –
Flexbox "flex columns" No Yes {{flex columns}} – –
Table "col" Yes No {{col-begin}},
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Practitioner's doctorate

Other professional doctorates which are not 'first professional' as described above include post-Masters doctorates like the Doctor of Education (Ed.D.), the Doctor of Health Science (D.H.Sc.), the Doctor of Business Administration (D.B.A.) and the Professional Doctorate (Prof.Doc.) or Doctor of Professional Studies (D.P.S. or D.Prof.). These generally require a Masters degree (such as a Master of Education or a Master of Business Administration) and perhaps some professional post-bachelors experience (5 to 10 years or more in some cases) in a relevant field as an entry condition. These are also known as "practitioner's doctorates" due to their applied focus and target group of advanced practitioners of various professions.

A post-Masters dissertation of a comparable or slightly shorter length than that required for a PhD is usually a requirement for graduation. Additionally, post-Masters taught courses are a common feature. PhD programmes offered in countries like the UK, Australia and most commonwealth countries are typically solely based on the successful completion of an academically-focused dissertation. The distinction from practitioner's doctorates is that the latter allow candidates to learn more advanced topics through taught courses[citation needed].

The focus of a practitioner doctorate's dissertation is usually application, rather than creation, of theories. This focus appeals to non-academicians such as educators, teachers, business executives, leaders, civil servants and other practitioners who are more interested in the successful application of advanced theories in their respective professions rather than academic research into their field.

Generally, practitioner's doctorates as such are considered to be equivalent in academic standing to the PhD, though the latter is usually preferred for academic positions.

Other doctorates

Typically, these degrees prepare the individual to practice in the designated area.

The degrees Doctor of Engineering (D.Eng. or Eng.D.) or Engineering Doctorate (Eng.D.) usually indicates a qualification comparable to a Ph.D.

See also

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