The Feast of the Goat
 The cover of a recent translation. | |
| Author | Mario Vargas Llosa |
|---|---|
| Original title | La fiesta del chivo |
| Translator | Edith Grossman |
| Language | Spanish |
| Genre | Historical novel Dictator novel |
| Publisher | Alfaguara (Spanish) ??? (English) |
Publication date | 2000 |
| Publication place | Peru |
Published in English | 2001 |
| Media type | Print (Hardcover and Paperback) |
| ISBN | [[Special:BookSources/ISBN+978-9505115846+%28Spanish%29%3Cbr+%2F%3E+ISBN+%3F%3F%3F%3F+%28English%29 |ISBN 978-9505115846 (Spanish) ISBN ???? (English)]] Parameter error in {{ISBNT}}: invalid character |
The Feast of the Goat (Spanish: La Fiesta del Chivo, 2000) is a novel by the Peruvian Mario Vargas Llosa. The book is set in two times periods; during the regime of Rafael Leónidas Trujillo in the Dominican Republic and in the modern day Dominican.
The novel follows three interwoven story lines. The first storyline is a modern day retrospective look at the regime through the eyes of a fictional character named Urania Cabral. The second story line is from the perspective of inside members of the regime, including the dictator himself. And the third storyline is from the perspectives of his assassins. These three story lines reveal the political and social environment in the Dominican Republic, past and present. Through these three different perspectives, the reader is able to see the downward spiral of the regime, the assassination of Trujillo, and what followed in the Dominican through the eyes of insiders, conspirators, and a young woman. The modern day thread allows a retrospective look at the nature of a powerful regime.
Mario Vargas Llosa paints a vivid picture of the ending of a 31 year regime by using powerful themes in the story.
Title
The novel's title is taken from the popular Dominican merengue Mataron al Chivo ("They Killed the Goat") which is rooted in the assassination of May 30, 1961 of Rafael Leónidas Trujillo Molina, the Dictator of the Dominican Republic. It is cited at the beginning of the novel:
- "El pueblo celebra
- con gran entusiasmo
- la Fiesta del Chivo
- el treinta de mayo"
- "The people celebrate
- With great enthusiasm
- the feast of the Goat
- the thirtieth of May"
Merengue is a style of music created by Ñico Lora in the 1920s. Rafael Trujillo promoted it during his era, and due to the influence of Merengue in the Dominican Republic, it soon became the country’s national music. Therefore, incorporating a part of this music in the beginning of the book reminds readers of the roots of Latin American society.
Plot summary
The plot centres around three distinctive strands following various characters: Urania Cabral, the conspirators involved in Trujillo's assassination, and Trujillo himself [1]. The novel alternates between these strands and between 1961 and the present day.
The novel begins with the return of Urania to her hometown of Santo Domingo, a city which was renamed Ciudad Trujillo during Rafael Trujillo's Rafael Leónidas Trujillo Molina time in power. This storyline is largely introspective and deals with Urania's memories and her inner turmoil over the events preceding her departure from the Dominican Republic as a young woman. Urania escapes the crumbling Trujillo regime in 1961, allegedly to study under the tutelage of nuns in Michigan. In the following decades, Urania achieves success as a prominent New York lawyer. When she finally returns to the Dominican in 1996, she does so on a whim, and finds herself compelled to confront her father and elements of her past she has long ignored. As Urania speaks to her ailing father, Augustin Cabral, she recalls more and more of the anger and disgust that galvanized her thirty-five years of silence. Urania retells her father's descent into political disgrace and the betrayal that forms the crux of both Urania's storyline and that of Trujillo himself.
The second and third storylines are set in 1961, in the weeks prior to and following Trujillo's assassination on the 30th of May. One storyline tells the background stories of each of Trujillo's assassins and consequently the driving motivators for his elimination. Each of these characters has been wronged by Trujillo and his regime, be it through their pride, their religious faith, their morality, their loved ones, or they themselves. Vargas Llosa weaves the tale of each man as memories recalled on the night of Trujillo's death, as the conspirators lie in wait for The Goat (Trujillo). Interconnected with these stories are the actions of other famous Trujillistas of the time; Joaquín Balaguer, the puppet president, Johnny Abbes García, the merciless head of the Military Intelligence Service (SIM), and various other characters, some real figures, some composites of historical figures, and some purely fictional.
The third storyline is concerned with the thoughts and motives of Rafael Leónidas Trujillo Molina himself. The chapters concerning The Goat recall the major events of his time, including the slaughter of thousands of Dominican Haitians in 1937. They also deal with the Dominican Republic's tense international relationships during the Cold War, especially with the United States under the governance John F. Kennedy, and Cuba under Castro. Vargas Llosa also speculates upon Trujillo's innermost thoughts and paints a picture of a man whose physical body is failing him. Trujillo is unable to control his bladder and his penis, and no amount of iron will can conceal these failures. This storyline leads to a culmination with Urania's recollections and the moment where her bitterness toward her father begins, and where the shame that shadows Trujillo's musings throughout the novel is born.
The final chapters of the novel twist the three storylines together with increasing frequency. In addition, the tone of these chapters is especially dark, as they deal primarily with the horrific torture and death of the assassins at the hands of the SIM, the failure of the coup, the almost unpalatable concessions made to the most vicious Trujillistas, and the rape of Urania at the hands of the Generalissimo himself.
Characters
Modern Day Characters
Urania Cabral: the protagonist, who escapes from the Dominican as a teenager and returns in adulthood to confront her past. Urania left the Dominican Republic at the age of 14 after being sexually abused by the dictator himself, at the willingness of her father. Since leaving she has become a successful woman living in New York, with a side interest in learning about Trujillo's regime from an academic perspective. She did not return to the Dominican for over 30 years until her return in the novel.
El Senor Cabral: the father of Urania and the president of the Senate under Trujillo's rule. In the past parts of the book, Cabral had fallen into disgrace with the regime during one of Trujillo's tests of loyalty. In the modern thread of the novel, Cabral has suffered a severe stroke and is incapable of speaking or caring for himself, requiring constant care.
The Trujillo Regime
Rafael Trujillo: "The Goat", "The Chief", the dictator of the Dominican Republic from 1930 to 1961 and official President of the Republic from 1930 to 1938 and 1943 to 1952 (Delpar, p 597). Trujillo assumes power after the U.S. military occupation of the Dominican, during which time he rises to the rank of Commander in Chief of the Dominican Armed Forces. In 1930 he becomes President of the Republic through electoral fraud (Balderston, p 1501). During his "thirty-one years of horrendous political crimes", Trujillo modernized the country's infrastructure and military, but his regime's attacks against its enemies overseas (particularly the attempted assasination of Rómulo Betancourt, president of Venezuala) led to the imposition of economic sanctions on the Dominican Republic by the Organization of American States in the 1950's (Tenenbaum, p 274). The resultant economic downturn, in conjunction with other factors, leads to the CIA supported assasination plot that ends Trujillo's life on May 30th, 1961 (Delpar, p 597).
Joaquín Balaguer: The puppet president of the Republic who assumes real power after Trujillo's death.
Johnny Abbes García: The head of Trujillo's secret police and the mastermind behind the regime's most cruel acts. He is a fat, poorly kept man, but is the most trusted man to Trujillo.
Henry Chirinos: Supervisor of Trujillo's business operations at the time of his assassination. At various times held other positions such as Senator and Minister of Justice.
Ramfis Trujillo: the son of Rafael Trujillo and a brutal military leader who seeks vengeance against his father's killers. He was decorated as a military officer by his father, and was unsuccessfully schooled at the Fort Leavenworth Military Academy. Ramfis was also known for his womanizing.
Radhamés Trujillo: the second son of Rafael Trujillo.
Petán Trujillo: Rafael Trujillo's brother, who seeks vengeance against his brother's killers.
Héctor Trujillo: Rafael Trujillo's brother, who seeks vengeance against his brother's killers.
The Conspirators
Antonio Imbert Barrera: A politician who becomes disillusioned with the deception and cruelty of the Trujillo regime, and who later helps to kill Trujillo. His first conspiracy to kill Trujillo was foiled one day early by the unsuccessful attempted overthrow of the regime by Cuban para-military forces.
Antonio de la Maza: One of Trujillo's personal guard whose brother is killed as part of a government cover-up, and who later helps to kill Trujillo.
Salvador Estrelle Sadhalá: "Turk", A devout Catholic who, in indignation of the regime's many crimes against God, swears an oath against Trujillo and later helps to kill him.
Amado García Guerrero: "Amadito", a Lieutenant in the army who gave up his beloved as proof of his loyalty to Trujillo, and who later helps to kill Trujillo.
Major themes
There are several important themes in The Feast of the Goat. These include political corruption, machismo, memory, and writing and power. They can help us understand some irrational forces of Latin tradition that give rise to despotisism. [2]
Political corruption
The structure of the South American Society was very hierarchal and gendered. It was ruled by a cruel dictator, Rafael Trujillo, who haunts the people of Santo Domingo even 35 years after his death. He is truely a caudillo who ruled with brutality and corruption. He encourages personality cult in his capitalist society and causes decadence to the regime.[3] Prior to promotion to a position of greatest responsibility, an officer is subjugated to pass “The test of loyalty to Trujillo”.[4] His people are to remain loyal to him at no cost, and they were periodically tested by public humiliation and censure even though they were usually not at fault for anything. Some lieutenants who's wife or children were violated still remained blindly loyal to him, as he validates the violation of women as an expression of political and sexual power.[5] Even the church and military institutions were employed to give women to the tyrant for pleasure.
Many of the assassins had belonged to the Trujillo regime or had at one point been staunch supporters of him, only to find their support eroded away by the crimes of the state against its people.[6] Imbert, one of the assassins, sums up this realization, "They kill our fathers, our brothers, our friends. And now they're killing our women. And here we sit, resigned, waiting our turn."[7] This was in response to the infamous murder of the Mirabal sisters.
Mario Vargas Llosa described the nature of Trujillo as a dictator in one interview, "He had more or less all the common traits of a Latin American dictator, but pushed to the extreme. In cruelty, I think he went far far away from the rest -- and in corruption, too."[8]
Machismo
The two important parts of machismo are aggressiveness and hyper-sexuality. The aggressiveness means that all men should show their strength and power to others. The hyper-sexuality means that men should demonstrate their sexual virility with many female partners.[9]
In this novel, "[Vargas Llosa] reveals traditions of machismo, of abusive fathers, and of child-rearing practices that repeat the shaming of children, so that each generation bequeaths a withering of the soul to the subsequent one."[10]
Trujillo demanded of his aides and cabinet that they provide him with sexual access to their wives and daughters. Urania recalls a memory of seeing a neighbor's wife allow Trujillo in to her home while her husband, a member of his regime, is not at home. Mario Vargas Llosa said of Trujillo's machismo and treatment of women, "[h]e went to bed with his ministers' wives, not only because he liked these ladies but because it was a way to test his ministers. He wanted to know if they were ready to accept this extreme humiliation. Mainly the ministers were prepared to play this grotesque role -- and they remained loyal to Trujillo even after his death."[8] It also served the purposes of affirming his political power and machismo. "The implication is that maximum virility equals political dominance."[11]
The sexual abuse of Urania is part of this quest for machismo that the dictator was known for. However, it is a humiliating experience and a failure for Trujillo, who fails to achieve an erection and is unable to reach his role of supreme "macho."[12]
Memory
All three threads of the novel deal with the issue of memory in some sense or another. The most apparent confrontation of memory is on the part of Urania Cabral, who has returned to the Dominican Republic for the first time in 30 years, and is forced to confront her father and the traumas that led her to leave the country at 14. She was the victim of sexual abuse at the hands of the dictator himself, a sacrifice her father made to try to gain favor with the dictator again, a fact that she alludes to through the whole book. The book ends with her recounting the memory of that night to her aunt and cousins, who never knew the true reason she left the country. When her aunt is suprised that she remembers all these details, she responds that while she forgets many things, "I remember everything about that night."[13] For Urania, forgetting the atrocities committed by the regime is unacceptable.[14] Her father, on the other hand, is not capable of joining her in this process of remembering, since he has suffered a stroke and is not capable of speaking; however, Urania is angry that he chose to forget these things while he was still capable of aknowledging them.[14]
Memory is also important in the sections about the assassins. Each recalls the actions that led him to take place in the assassination of Trujillo. These real historical events included the 1956 Galinez kiddnapping and murder, the 1960 murder of the Mirabal sisters, and the 1961 split with the Catholic Church. "Vargas Llosa systematically links each conspirator with a specific historical event that typified the violence of the dictatorship."[15]
Mario Vargas Llosa also uses the fictionalized Urania to facilitate the novel's attempt at remembering the regime. The story opens and closes with Urania's story, effectively framing the narrative in the terms of remembering the past and the process of understanding the past and its legacy in the present.[16] In addition, because of her academic study of the history of the Trujillo regime, she is also confronting the memory of the regime for the country as a whole.[17] This is in keeping with one purpose of the book, which is to ensure that the atrocities of the dictatorship and the dangers of absolute power will be remembered by a new generation of people.[18]
Writing and power
Power can be seen as a discourse of prohibition which can be reflected in history, for history reflects on what is told or was not told.[19] The government's discourse in The Feast of the Goat shows prohibition discourse: foreign newspapers and magazines were prohibited from entering Trujillo's country as they were seen as a threat to the government's ideas.
Writing expands and limits knowledge. As power influences what gets written, history goes through a selection process. In Trujillo's era, abuse were not recorded in offical history. Through time, writing evolves. The discourse in The Feast of the Goat brings back history and unveils some of the abuse under Trujillo's regime. It shows the role of power in society and its influences on different people.
Writing also has the power to transform reality. It brings us back to the past which allows us to comphrehend myths or distorted stories told by historians. Knowing the past is crucial to our understanding of the present that takes us to postmodernism. This novel, thus, can be seen as a postmodern discourse that gives power to history recreation.[20]
The construction of fictions surrounding the events of Trujillo's regime allow a degree of freedom from the horrors that took places. In fact, these events can "only finally be understood by fiction, only finally be redeemed by the imagination" (Alvarez, 324). Through use of narrative structure Vargas Llosa "reconfigures, and to a large degree demythologizes" Trujillo and his brutal reign (Patterson, 224). Vargas Llosa's writing acts as a cathartic force for this period in history.
Fact and Fiction
The novel is a combination of fact and fiction. Blending together these two elements is important in any historical novel, but especially in The Feast of the Goat because Vargas Llosa chose to narrate an actual event through the minds of both real and fictional characters.[21] Some characters are fictional, and those that are non-fictional still have fictionalized aspects in the book. The general details of the assassination are true, and the assassins are all real people.[22] While they lie in wait for the Dictator to arrive, they recount actual crimes of the regime, such as the murder of the Mirabal sisters.[6] However, other details are invented by Llosa, such as Amadito's murder of the brother of the woman he loved.[6] In this way, Vargas Llosa weaves fact and fiction together to create a narrative of the events of the assassination.
Those within the regime are also a mix of fictional characters and real people. Cabral is a fictional person, but the current President Balaguer is not. The Cabral family is completely fictional. According to Vargas Llosa "uses history as a starting point in constructing a fictionalized account of Trujillo's "spiritual colonization" of the Dominican Republic as experienced by one Dominican family.[23] The fictional family allows Vargas Llosa to show two sides of the Trujillo regime: one, through Augustin, of the ultimate dedication and sacrifice to the leader of the nation; the other, through Urania, of the violence of the regime and the legacy of pain it left behind.
Vargas Llosa also fictionalized the internal thoughts of the characters who were non-fictional, especially those of the Goat himself, "Vargas Llosa's expands all the way into the very "dark area" of Trujillo's consciousness (as the storyteller dares to conceive it)."[24] Vargas Llosa also built an image of the regime with the troubled historical events: "...the slaughter of 25,000 Haitian immigrants in 1937, the murder of the dissident Mirabel sisters, the turncoat bishops with their Pastoral letter, the invasion of Dominican Exiles on June 14 1959 and the enduring, clandestine, “June 14” dissident movement". [25]
Mario Vargas Llosa said about the historical accuracy of his book, "It's a novel, not a history book, so I took many, many liberties. The only limitation I imposed on myself was that I was not going to invent anything that couldn't have happened within the framework of life in the Dominican Republic. I have respected the basic facts, but I have changed and deformed many things in order to make the story more persuasive -- and I have not exaggerated."[8]
Critical Reception
The realist style of The Feast of the Goat is recognized by some reviewers as being a break from a more allegorical approach to the dictator novel.[26] The novel received largely positive reviews, most of which were willing to accept sacrifices of historical accuracy in favour of good storytelling.[27]
A common comment on the novel is the graphic nature of the many acts of torture and murder which are depicted in the novel. Vargas lets the reader see the realities of an oppressive regime with a degree of detail not often used by his compatriots in Latin American literature, as Michael Wood suggests in the London Review of Books: "Vargas Llosa ... tells us far more about the details of day-to-day intrigue, and the sordid, sadistic minutiae of torture and murder."[28]
Walter Kirn of the New York Times suggests that the "grisly scenes of dungeon interrogations and torture sessions" cast other aspects of the novel in a pale light, draining them of their significance and impact.[3]
Similarly, Kirn implies that the "narrative machinery" mentioned by Wood as being somewhat unwieldy also produces a largely superfluous storyline.[3] The plot line centered on Urania Cabral is described by Sturrock as being an emotional centre that focuses the novel, and Wood agrees that her confrontations with past demons holds the readers attention.[26] In contrast, Kirn's review states that Urania's segments are "talky and atmospheric ... seem to be on loan from another sort of book."[3]
Most reviews of The Feast of the Goat make either indirect of direct reference to the relationship between sexuality and power. Miller, Heawood, Kirn, and Wood detail the connection between Trujillo's gradual loss of ultimate control, both over his body and his followers. The means by which Trujillo reinforces political power through sexual acts and begins to lose personal conviction as his body fails him are topics of frequent discussion among reviewers.
Adaptations
Film
A motion picture adaptation was made in 2005 in English. It stars Isabella Rossellini as Urania Cabral, Paul Freeman as her father Agustin, and Tomas Milian as Rafael Leonidas Trujillo. This was directed by Luis Llosa, Mario Vargas Llosa's cousin. It was filmed in both the Dominican Republic and in Spain.[29]
Theater
A theater adaptation of the novel was written by Jorge Alí Triana and his daughter Veronica Triana in 2003, and directed by Jorge Triana.[30]
Notes
- ^ http://www.complete-review.com/reviews/vargas/fiestac.htm#ours
- ^ Lorenzo 2002
- ^ a b c d Kirn 2001
- ^ Vargas Llosa 2001, p. 35
- ^ Neissa 2004, pp. 120–129
- ^ a b c Patterson 2006, p. 232
- ^ Vargas Llosa 2001, p. 137
- ^ a b c Gussow 2002
- ^ http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/machismo
- ^ Loreza 2002
- ^ Niessa 2004, p. 129
- ^ Wolff 2007, p. 287
- ^ Vargas Llosa 2001, p. 385
- ^ a b Wolff 2007, p. 268
- ^ Wolff 2007, p. 275
- ^ Niessa 2004, p. 124
- ^ Wolff 2007, p. 267
- ^ Wolff 2007, p. 263
- ^ Ruiz 2005, p. 22
- ^ Ruiz 2005, p. 31
- ^ http://www.themodernword.com/reviews/feastofthegoat.html
- ^ Patterson 2006, p. 224
- ^ Wolff 2007, p. ??
- ^ Patterson 2006, p. 225
- ^ http://www.themodernword.com/reviews/feastofthegoat.html
- ^ a b Sturrock 2002
- ^ Cheuse 2001
- ^ Wood 2002
- ^ http://www.imdb.com/title/tt0428532/
- ^ Weber 2003
References
- Cheuse, Alan (November 25, 2001), "Power Mad. Review of The Feast of the Goat", The San Francisco Chronicle, retrieved 2008-03-26
{{citation}}: Check date values in:|date=(help)CS1 maint: date and year (link)
- Gussow, Mel (2002), "Lacing his Fiction with History: Vargas Llosa Keeps a Latin American Literary Boom Booming", The New York Times, vol. 151, no. 52071, retrieved 2008-03-27
- Heawood, Jonathan (April 7, 2002), "Sexual Terror and Leaking Trousers. Review of The Feast of the Goat", The Observer, retrieved 2008-03-27
{{citation}}: Check date values in:|date=(help)CS1 maint: date and year (link)
- Kirn, Walter (November 25, 2001), "Generalissimo. Review of The Feast of the Goat", The New York Times, retrieved 2008-03-25
{{citation}}: Check date values in:|date=(help)CS1 maint: date and year (link)
- Lorenzo, Olga (July 15, 2002), "Dissection of a Despot. Review of The Feast of the Goat", The Melbourne Age, retrieved 2008-03-25
{{citation}}: Check date values in:|date=(help)CS1 maint: date and year (link)
- Miller, Laura (December 6, 2001), "The Feast of the Goat by Mario Vargas Llosa", Salon, retrieved 2008-03-24
{{citation}}: Check date values in:|date=(help)CS1 maint: date and year (link)
- Neissa, Peter Anthony (2004), Dictators, Directives, Tyrannical Figures, and Cultural Discourse: Jorge Zalamea, Gabriel García Márquez, and Mario Vargas Llosa, Boston College: Department of Romance Languages and Literatures
{{citation}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link). PhD Dissertation. UMI Number: 3122132.
- Patterson, Richard (2006), "Resurrecting Rafael: Fictional Incarnations of a Dominican Dictator", Callaloo, 29 (1): 223–237
- Ruiz, María Regina (2005), The Permeability of History and Literature in Santa Evita and La fiesta del chivo, The University of Texas at Austin
{{citation}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link). Doctoral dissertation.
- Sturrock, John (April 6, 2002), "A Thug's Life: John Sturrock on The Feast of the Goat, Mario Vargas Llosa's Portrait of a Dictator", The Guardian, retrieved 2008-03-27
{{citation}}: Check date values in:|date=(help)CS1 maint: date and year (link)
- Vargas Llosa, Mario (2001), The Feast of the Goat, New York: Picador, ISBN ??
{{citation}}: Check|isbn=value: invalid character (help). Trans. Edith Grossman.
- Weber, Bruce (March 11, 2003), "Theater Review. Severity of a Tyrant's Tale, from Vargas Llosa", New York Times, retrieved 2008-03-26
{{citation}}: Check date values in:|date=(help)CS1 maint: date and year (link)
- Wolff, Andrew B. (2007), Rewriting Trujillo, Reconstructing a Nation: Dominican History in Novels by Marcio Veloz Maggiolo, Andrés L. Mateo, Viriato Sención, and Mario Vargas Llosa, Pennsylvania State University
{{citation}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link). Doctoral dissertation.
- Wood, Michael (May 9, 2002), "Memories of a Skinny Girl. Review of The Feast of the Goat", London Review of Books, 24 (9), retrieved ??
{{citation}}: Check date values in:|accessdate=and|date=(help)CS1 maint: date and year (link)