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Geastrum triplex

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Geastrum triplex
Scientific classification
Kingdom:
Fungi
Phylum:
Basidiomycota
Class:
Agaricomycetes
Subclass:
Phallomycetidae
Order:
Geastrales
Family:
Geastraceae
Genus:
Geastrum
Species:
G. triplex
Binomial name
Geastrum triplex
Synonyms

Geastrum indicum (Klotzsch) Rauschert
Geastrum michelianum W.G. Sm.
Geastrum tunicatus var. michelianus (W.G. Sm.) Sacc.

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Geastrum triplex
View the Mycomorphbox template that generates the following list
Glebal hymenium
No distinct cap
Spore print is brown
Ecology is saprotrophic
Edibility is inedible

Template:FixBunching Geastrum triplex, commonly known as the collared earthstar, the saucered earthstar, or the triple earthstar, is an inedible species of mushroom belonging to the genus Geastrum, or earthstar fungi. Young fruiting bodies are spherical, somewhat resembling puffballs. As the fungus matures, the outer layer of tissue (the exoperidium) splits into 4 to 8 pointed segments which spread outwards and downwards, lifting and exposing the spherical inner spore sac. Often, a layer of the exoperidium splits so that the spore sac appears to rest in a collar or saucer. Atop the spore sac is a small pointed beak, the peristome, which has a small hole from which spores may be released. The species is considered to be the largest of the earthstar fungi, with a tip to tip length of an expanded mature specimen reaching nearly 12 centimetres (4.7 in). It is a common and widespread species found in the detritus and leaf litter of hardwood forests in many parts of the world, including Europe, Asia, and North and South America.

Taxonomy

The species was first described scientifically by German botanist Franz Wilhelm Junghuhn in 1840; the morphological feature used to differentiate this species from other similar earthstars was the collar-like structure of the inner layer of the exoperidium.[1] In 1907, American mycologist Curtis Gates Lloyd incorrectly opined that this species was a "giant form" of Geastrum saccatum.[2]

Several authors (for example, Ponce de Leon, 1968 and Smith & Ponce de Leon, 1982)[3] have regarded Geastrum indicum as the correct name for G. triplex. However, other more recent authors like Sunhede (1989),[4] Dörfelt & Müller-Uri (1984)[5] and Dörfelt & Hecklau (1987)[6] argue that G. indicum should be rejected as a nomen dubium and that G. triplex should be maintained as the correct name for this species, as also assumed by Mornand in 1993.[7] The species is commonly known as the collared earthstar,[8] the saucered earthstar,[9] or the triple earthstar.[10]

Description

Geastrum triplex is considered to be the largest of the earthstars;[8] the immature, unexpanded fruiting body is typically 1 to 5 centimetres (0.4 to 2.0 in) in diameter, and up to 8 to 9 centimetres (3.1 to 3.5 in) broad (Roody gives a larger value here, up to 11.5 cm)[11] after the rays have spread out. The apex of the structure is a pointed beak 6 to 18 millimetres (0.24 to 0.71 in) long, typically sessile, in large specimens the base somewhat gnarled occasionally, grayish brown to wood brown when young, dull ochraceous to alutaceus in dried (unopened) specimens; outer wall splitting into 4 to 8 rays (primary rays usually 4 in number, splitting secondarily to produce the larger number mentioned above).

The stages of fruiting body emergence

The rays are 2 to 4 centimetres (0.8 to 1.6 in) long and up to 4 mm (3/16 in) thick.[12] The outer surface of the rays and unopened specimens are rough, but unlike several other species of Geastrum earthstars, have very little leaf litter or dirt adhering. The fleshy layers of rays (inner layer) near wood brown when dried, often breaking loose to form a cup in which the spore case is seated. However, there is a great deal of variation to the extent in which the upper surface of the ray cracks, and in some specimens, this tissue layer remains closely attached as a sheet over the unsegmented part of the outer wall, the part adhering to the rays variously cracked and sometimes finally peeling off in places. Lloyd claimed that in tropical regions, with an abundance of high temperatures and humidity, the fungus expands rapidly, more conducive to the fleshy layer breaking away as a cup; in more temperate areas this effect is not as pronounced and "usually does not occur at all".[2] The spore case is 1 to 3 centimetres (0.4 to 1.2 in) in diameter by 0.9 to 2.0 centimetres (0.4 to 0.8 in) high,[13] sessile (attached without a stem), dull grayish brown. The mouth is somewhat cone-shaped, and bordered by a paler circular region; it is made of radially-arranged fibrils that clump together at the apex in groups of unequal length to form an opening that appears jagged or torn.[14] The spores are thought to be dispersed by the wind sucking them out when it blows over the hole, or when raindrops hit the endoperidium and force the spores out.[15]

Microscopic features

The spore sac contains the gleba, which is comprised of a pseudocolumella (a columella that does not attach to the stalk), unbranched capillitium threads (threadlike elements within the spore mass), the basidia (spore-bearing cells) and spores;[16] all of these microscopic elements have certain characteristic features that help distinguish G. triplex. The spores are spherical, and 3.5–4.5 µm in diameter. They are covered with short narrow truncate projections of a hyaline (translucent) substance, which turn pale cinnamon brown in potassium hydroxide, and dark dull brown (near sepia in iodine). The capillitium is made of what appears to be encrusted filaments 3–6 µm in diameter, and the walls of the capillitium are thickened to the point where the interior (lumen) of the cell appears as only a line, color varying from hyaline to dull yellowish brown in KOH, merely yellowish in iodine.[14] The basidia are 2- to 4-spored, and the sterigmata (extensions of the basidia that attach the spores) are long, up to 20 µm. G. triplex does not have cystidia.[17]

Similar species

Geastrum saccatum has no "collar", and is smaller than G. triplex.

This species may be confused with G. saccatum or G. fimbriatum, as the rays do not always break to form a bowl under the spore case. However, it is larger than both of these species.[18] The main characteristics which distinguish this species from the other earthstars are: the pronounced beak of the immature fruiting bodies; the lack of debris adhering to the outer surface; the saucer-like base in which the spore case is seated; the relatively large size; the fibrillose mouth; and the paler surrounding area more or less distinctly setting it off from the remainder of the spore case.[14] Unlike some other Geastrum species, the rays of G. triplex are not hygroscopic, meaning that they do not open and close in response to changes in humidity.[9]

Edibility

G. triplex, like other earthstar mushrooms, is tough and fibrous,[9] and of "no alimentary interest".[19] Mycologist David Arora mentions that they are reputed to be edible when immature (when the gleba is still white and firm), but are rarely found in this form.[9]

Habitat and distribution

Geastrum triplex occurs singly or more commonly in groups in hardwood forests where much humus has accumulated. It is often found around well-rotted stumps.[18] The fruiting bodies are at first almost buried in the loose duff but emerge during maturity. Old spore cases are persistent, and may survive the winter to be found the following spring or summer.[14] A Dutch study reported a propensity for G. triplex to grow on soil made calcium-rich from washed-out chalk of crushed shells on bicycling paths.[20] In Mexico, it was found in tropical deciduous forest.[21] Its frequency of occurrence is described as common.[12] One author says it is commonly found under beech trees.[15]

G. triplex has a broad distribution, and has been collected from Australia,[22] Sweden,[23] Czech Republic,[24] the Canary Islands,[25] Trinidad and Tobago,[26] Turkey,[27] Mexico,[21] the United States,[12][28] Argentina,[29][30] Brazil,[31] Korea,[32] Iran,[33] South Africa,[34] Panama,[35] Congo,[36] Belgium,[37] Hawaii,[3] Chile,[38] and China.[39]

Bioactive compounds

The fruiting bodies of Geastrum triplex have been chemically analyzed and shown to contain a number of bioactive compounds, including ergosta-4,6,8,(14),22-tetraen-3-one,5,6-dihydroergosterol, ergosterol, peroxyergosterol; it also contains such fatty acids as myristic acid, palmitic acid, stearic acid, oleic acid, linoleic acid, and linolenic acid.[38]

References

  1. ^ Junghung F. (1840). "Nova genera et species plantarum florae Javanicae". Tijdschrift Natuurl. Gesch. Physiol. (in German). 7: 285–317.
  2. ^ a b Lloyd CG. (1907). "New notes on the Geasters". Mycological Notes. 25: 309–17.
  3. ^ a b Smith CW, Ponce de Leon P. (1982). "Hawaiian geastroid fungi". Mycologia. 74: 712–17. doi:10.2307/3792856.
  4. ^ Sunhede S. (1989). Geastraceae (Basidiomycotina) : morphology, ecology, and systematics with special emphasis on the north European species. Oslo, Norway: Fungiflora. p. 535.
  5. ^ Dörfelt H, Müller-Uri C. (1984). "Beitrag zur Systematik der Geastrales". Feddes Repertorium (in German). 95: 701–77.
  6. ^ Dörfelt H, Heklau H. (1987). "Contributions to the systematics of the Geastrales II". Feddes Repertorium (in German). 98 (5–6): 357–68.
  7. ^ Mornard J. (1993). "Contribution à La connaissance des champignons de Maine-et-Loire. 2-Gastéromycètes". Bulletin de la Societe mycologique de France. 109 (3): 149–63.
  8. ^ a b Schalkwijk-Barendsen HME. (1991). Mushrooms of Western Canada. Edmonton: Lone Pine Publishing. p. 351. ISBN 0-919433-47-2.
  9. ^ a b c d Arora D. (1986). Mushrooms Demystified: a Comprehensive Guide to the Fleshy Fungi. Berkeley, Calif: Ten Speed Press. p. 703. ISBN 0-89815-169-4. Google Books Cite error: The named reference "Arora1986" was defined multiple times with different content (see the help page).
  10. ^ Rogers RD. (2006). The Fungal Pharmacy: Medicinal Mushrooms of Western Canada. Edmonton: Prairie Diva Press. p. 95. ISBN 0-9781358-1-4.
  11. ^ Roody WC. (2003). Mushrooms of West Virginia and the Central Appalachians. Lexington, Ky: University Press of Kentucky. p. 443. ISBN 0-8131-9039-8. Google Books
  12. ^ a b c Foy N, Phillips R, Kibby G. (1991). Mushrooms of North America. Boston: Little, Brown. ISBN 0-316-70613-2.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  13. ^ Miller HR, Miller OK. (2006). North American Mushrooms: a Field Guide to Edible and Inedible Fungi. Guilford, Conn: Falcon Guide. p. 447. ISBN 0-7627-3109-5.
  14. ^ a b c d Smith AH. (1951). Puffballs and their allies in Michigan. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press. pp. 86–87.
  15. ^ a b Kibby G. (1994). An Illustrated Guide to Mushrooms and Other Fungi of North America. Lubrecht & Cramer Ltd. ISBN 0-681-45384-2.
  16. ^ Ellis JB, Ellis MB. (1990). Fungi without Gills (Hymenomycetes and Gasteromycetes): an Identification Handbook. London: Chapman and Hall. p. 226. ISBN 0-412-36970-2.
  17. ^ Jordan M. (2004). The Encyclopedia of Fungi of Britain and Europe. London: Frances Lincoln. p. 361. ISBN 0-7112-2378-5. Google Books
  18. ^ a b Healy RA, Huffman DR, Tiffany LH, Knaphaus G. (2008). Mushrooms and Other Fungi of the Midcontinental United States (Bur Oak Guide). Iowa City: University of Iowa Press. p. 243. ISBN 1-58729-627-6.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  19. ^ Tyndalo V, Rinaldi A. (1985). The Complete Book of Mushrooms. Avenel, New Jersey: Crescent books. p. 232. ISBN 0-517-51493-1.
  20. ^ Brouwer E, Braat M, van Hoek B, Noteboom R, Oplaat C, de Peijper R, Smits M, Klok P. (2009). "The influence of shell-covered paths on the fungus diversity of the island of Terschelling". Coolia (in Dutch). 52 (1): 7–17.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  21. ^ a b Esqueda M, Herrera T, Perez-Siva E, Sanchez A. (2003). "Distribution of Geastrum species from some priority regions for conservation of biodiversity of Sonora, Mexico". Mycotaxon. 87: 445–456.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  22. ^ Cunningham GH. (1926). "The Gasteromycetes of Australasia. IV. Species of the genus Geaster". The Proceedings of the Linnean Society of New South Wales. 51 (206, part 2): 72–93.
  23. ^ Larsson BMP. (1958). "Studies on Gasteromycetes. I. Geastrum triplex Jungh. found on Kinnekulle, VastergOtland, southern Sweden". Svensk Bot Tidskr. 52 (2): 284–90.
  24. ^ Kupka J. (1966). "Geastrum triplex found in Bilina". Mykologicky Sbornik. 43 (5–6): 83–84.
  25. ^ Eckblad F-E. (1975). "Additions and corrections to the Gasteromycets of the Canary Islands". Norwegian Journal of Botany. 22 (4): 243–48.
  26. ^ Reid DA. (1977). "Some Gasteromycetes from Trinidad and Tobago". Kew Bulletin. 31 (3): 657–90. doi:10.2307/4119418.
  27. ^ Kose S, Gezer K, Gokler I, Tukoglu A. (2006). "Macrofungi of Bekilli (Denizli) district". Turkish Journal of Botany. 30 (4): 267–72.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  28. ^ Coker WC, Couch JN. (1928). The Gasteromycetes of Australia and New Zealand. Chapel Hill. p. 201.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)
  29. ^ Spegazzini C. (1927). "Gasteromicetas Argentinas". Physis. 8: 421–35.
  30. ^ Soto MK, Wright JE. (2000). "Taxonomía del género Geastrum (Basidiomycetes, Lycoperdales) en la Provincia de Buenos Aires, Argentina". Boletin de la Sociedad Argentina de Botanica. 34: 185–201.
  31. ^ Baseia IG, Cavalcanti MA, Milanez AI. (2003). "Additions to our knowledge of the Genus Geastrum (Phallales : Geastraceae) in Brazil". Mycotaxon. 85: 409–15.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  32. ^ Jung HS. (1995). "Fungal flora of Ullung Island: (VI). On ascomycetous, auriculariaceous, and gasteromycetous fungi". Korean Journal of Mycology. 23 (1): 1–9.
  33. ^ Saber M. (1989). "New records of Aphyllophorales and Gasteromycetes for Iran". Iranian Journal of Plant Pathology. 25 (1–4): 21–26.
  34. ^ Bottomley AM. (1948). "Gasteromycetes of South Africa". Bothalia. 4: 473–810.
  35. ^ Garner JHB. (1956). "Gasteromycetes from Panama and Costa Rica". Mycologia. 48: 757–64. doi:10.2307/3755385.
  36. ^ Dissing H, Lange M. (1962). "Gasteromycetes of Congo". Bulletin du Jardin botanique de l'État. 32 (4): 325–416. doi:10.2307/3667249.
  37. ^ Demoulin V. (1968). "Gastermycetes de Belgique: Sclerodermatales, Tulostamatales, Lycoperdales". Bulletin du Jardin botanique de l'État Belgique. 38: 1–101. doi:10.2307/3667475.
  38. ^ a b Torpoco V, Garbarino JA. (1998). "Studies on Chilean fungi. I. Metabolites from Geastrum triplex Jungh". Boletin de la Sociedad Chilena de Quimica. 43 (2): 227–29.
  39. ^ Liu B. (1984). "The Gasteromycetes of China". Nova Hedwigia. 74: 1–235.
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