Comparison of the AK-47 and M16
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 M16 (top) and AK-47 (bottom) assault rifles | |||
| Weapon | AK-47 | M16 | |
|---|---|---|---|
| Manufacturer | IZhMASh | Colt Firearms | |
| Design year | 1946 | 1957 | |
| Weight | 3.8 kg (8.4 lb) | 3.6 kg (7.9 lb) | |
| Length | 87 cm (34 in) | 99 cm (39 in) | |
| Cartridge | 7.62 x 39 mm | 5.56 x 45 mm | |
| Rate of fire | 600 round/min | 800 round/min, cyclic | |
| Effective range | 365 m (399 yd) | 550 m (600 yd) | |
The two most common assault rifles in the world are the Colt AR-15 (designated the M16 by the United States military) and its variants, and the Avtomat Kalashnikova Model 1947 (AK-47). These two have been compared since the late 1960s as rival models, and so have spawned controversy and comparison.
Influence of World War II
World War II combat experience indicated that in the future, the combatant with higher firepower and mobility would be in a better position to successfully attain his goals, which was a shift from the previous doctrine of static wars favoring the defender. Bolt-action rifles and revolvers became obsolete in the face of semi-automatic and fully automatic weapons, and machine guns became lighter and more mobile. In particular, the American M1 Garand semi-automatic rifle, the Russian SVT-40 self-loading rifle and the German Sturmgewehr 44 assault rifle would revolutionize future infantry weapon designs. Both the USA and the USSR realized the need to adapt their current weaponry to the newly adopted doctrines and tactics, and they took different approaches to the same problem, which resulted in the eventual adoption by both sides of the assault rifle concept.
Origins
The AK-47 design work was completed shortly after World War II, as can be seen by the origin of its model number (47 representing the year it was first built) and was in service in the Soviet army from the early 1950s. The design was influenced by contemporary and previous weapons such as the FG 42, Sturmgewehr 44, and early Russian attempts to build a lighter, automatic rifle based on the Japanese 6.5 mm Arisaka round, such as the AVS-36 Simonov and early 1916 Avtomat by Fedorov. The AK-47 was adopted as the standard issue Red Army infantry weapon due to its firepower, ease of use, low production costs, and reliability, which fit the Soviet concept of operational art as well as being suited for the new mobile warfare doctrines. The AK-47 was widely supplied or sold to nations allied with the USSR and the blueprints were shared with several friendly nations (the People's Republic of China standing out among these).
After the end of World War II, the United States started looking for a replacement for the M1 Garand and Thompson submachine guns in the different branches of its armed forces. Early experiments with selective fire versions of both the M1 Carbine and the Garand proved disappointing. The .30-06 round was too powerful for controllable full automatic fire and couldn't be carried in sufficient quantities to support the rate of fire, and fighting in Korea suggested the .30 carbine round was underpowered. American weapons designers reached the same conclusion as the Germans and Russians: an intermediate round was necessary. However, senior American commanders insisted the emphasis be placed on powerful and accurate rounds and thus the T-65 cartridge (.308 Winchester) was formally adopted as 7.62x51 NATO (there is some debate as to whether Winchester Repeating Arms, which developed the cartridge, originally intended it for civilian or military use). It was around this caliber the T44E (derived from the T37, in turn a development of the Garand), later adopted as the M14 in 1957, was developed. The first confrontation between the AK-47 and the M14 came in the early part of the Vietnam War. Reports from the field that the rifle had too much recoil for automatic fire convinced the Army to adopt a new rifle with smaller caliber, lower-powered ammunition. The 5.56x45mm cartridge, commercially available as .223 Remington, had comparable muzzle energy to the Soviet 7.62x39 mm used in the AK-47, and was the product of lethality studies performed on goats in the late 1950s and early 1960s showing smaller projectiles at higher velocities were more efficient at creating casualties. It should be noted the designer of the AR-15/M16, Eugene Stoner, got very little positive feedback from the Army about his design. It was only after the USAF adopted the AR-15 that the Army became interested in the design. This eventually led to the adoption of the AR-15 as the M16 in 1967.
Conceptual differences
AK-47
The AK-47 was designed to use the production methods that were state of the art in the Soviet Union in the late '40s. This implied it more or less used the same methods of construction as the PPSh-41 and PPS-43.The design of an automatic rifle was in the works in Russia before World War II even began. The Avtomat Kalashnikov barrel and bolt were milled out of a steel billet. Its receiver, which was at first milled, was later formed from sheet metal stampings, simplifying manufacture and reducing the weight of the rifle. In order to be able to use a steel grade that was easy to machine, the barrel and bore were hard chromed. The stock was simply made out of wood, which was a non-strategic material, and perfectly fit the Soviet manufacturing philosophy, where large plants using untrained labor could manufacture basic weapons cheaply and in very large quantities.
Another feature typical of Soviet assault rifles is the capability of the AK-47 to fire under very adverse conditions. This can be attributed to the bad experience the Soviet Union had during the early stages of WW2, where it lacked proper ammunition production facilities. Thus, until 1943, the Soviet Union was reduced to using some very poor powders in its ammunition, leaving heavy residue in the guns using it. The Soviets also had learned early on that during a major conflict there is little time to train soldiers to keep their weapons clean.
Vietnam war veteran David H. Hackworth recalled,
One of the bulldozers uncovered the decomposing body of an enemy soldier, complete with AK-47. I happened to be standing right there, looking down into the hole and pulled the AK out of the bog. "Watch this, guys," I said, "and I'll show you how a real infantry weapon works." I pulled the bolt back and fired 30 rounds — the AK could have been cleaned that day rather than buried in glug for a year or so. That was the kind of weapon our soldiers needed, not the confidence-sapping M16.
Over time, AK-47 descendants have been simplified through the use of spot welding and by further reducing the number of machined parts. The Izhevsk factory manufacturing descendants like the AK-101 can produce around 24,000 units a day. Because of its design it is not possible to manufacture the AK-47 series efficiently in small plants, due to large amount of metal stamping equipment needed for mass production. However, the AK-47 has been copied and manufactured in small shops all around the world, at the expense of more man hours per unit.
M16
During the later '50s, when Colt bought the blueprints of the AR-15 (M16) from ArmaLite, there had been many improvements in the field of machining equipment, the biggest being the introduction of numerical control machines.
The objective was to design a new assault rifle that was easy to carry and manufacture in early automated plants using numerical control machining. It was to use a smaller caliber bullet to allow the soldier to carry more ammunition, which increased his firepower while also enabling him to obtain a higher hit probability. The M16 would achieve all these objectives by using all the latest technologies of its day.
The M16's 5.56 mm M193 bullet would sometimes fragment on impact, and thus create wounds that were out of proportion to its caliber. The 7.62x39 mm round of the AK-47 generally does not fragment, but "is still quite deadly having an unusual tendency to remain intact even after taking unusual deviations upon contact with bone."[1]
Unlike all the other gas operated modern assault rifles, the M16 does not have a separate piston. Rather, it directs the gas into a small chamber inside the bolt carrier, and thus pushes the bolt carrier back directly. Note that the gas actually impinges inside of the bolt carrier itself (in the chamber formed inside of the carrier behind the bolt itself), applying rearward pressure on the centerline of the barrel, reducing rotational torque. This system works well provided clean burning powders are used in the ammunition. The primary advantage of this system is enhanced accuracy when firing full automatic (and some even argue in semi-automatic due to fewer moving parts and less 'mass' moving around in general). It also reduces felt recoil to a very low level. The main disadvantage is it introduces fouling directly into the receiver, which mandates frequent cleaning and oiling of the outside of the bolt and of all surfaces on the bolt carrier. One early major improvement was to also hard chrome the barrel and chamber, which reduced spent case ejection problems plaguing the very first M16s. Hard chrome seals the pores in the metal of the barrel and chamber, making it much more difficult for residues and particles to adhere to the surface. Hard chrome on these surfaces also greatly reduces cleaning time. Currently, both the AK47/AKM/AK74 and M16/M4 variants have chrome lined bores and chambers. Over time, however, many other small changes have improved the reliability of the M16. Reliability issues with first production version were worked out later in the Vietnam conflict by re-introducing stick powder into the ammunition, as opposed to ball powder which would swell the cartridge casing and cause jamming. The forward assist was also added to the M16 Army Variant (the Air Force had made the forward assist a condition of acceptance), which allowed for the correction of the situation where the bolt would fail to fully push a cartridge out of the magazine and into the chamber.
Post-Vietnam, all branches of the United States Military began tweaking the rifle to perform at its peak accuracy, and with a much greater reliability in adverse conditions. Thus was born the M16A2: it now carried a heavier steel milled barrel and a tighter rifle twist (1:7) to allow the use of a heavier (and longer) projectile, as the new ammunition would now include the modern SS109 62 grain projectile from Belgium. Full-automatic capability was replaced with a 3-round burst feature, although some specialized forces were equipped with fully automatic M16A2s (also known as the M16A3). The latest model is the M16A4, with MIL-STD-1913 rails (also known as Picatinny rails), which allow soldiers to easily attach scopes, red dot sights, and carrying handles. They also include a rail system on the fore-grip, produced by Knights Armament Company. The weapons are now capable of being customized to each soldiers preference, making it a Modular Weapons System. There is confusion about the M16A3 having the Picatinny rail like the M16A4, but really the M16A3 only has the fixed sight of the M16A2.
With the evolution of modern CNC (Computer Numerical Control) machinery, the M16 can now be manufactured in micro plants. In the U.S., a number of manufacturers make modern M16 variants and many are indeed micro plant manufacturers. This is possible because of the high degree of automation that can be applied to the machining of the M16 receiver and upper, which are made out of aluminum.
The M16 appeared much later than the AK-47 and thus provided a platform that offered much more development potential than the AK series. Unlike the AK-47, the M16 continues to benefit from every advance in the CNC field, which allows more and more small manufacturers to make M16s and AR-15s (AR-15 is now used as the designation for civilian versions, limited to semi-automatic fire only). While the M16 is made using aluminum and plastics, it can also be made entirely out of machined steel and wood, at the expense of adding some weight. Where the AK-47 has so far relied on huge Soviet-style, state-run factories(albeit with considerable illicit small-scale production existing), the M16 is considered ideal for market economy production, spread among many manufacturers around the country, this also ensures it would be nearly impossible to disrupt U.S. M16 production in the case of a major conflict. However, should CNC technology be applied to AK-47 derivatives on a large enough scale, this advantage might be negated.
Comparison of characteristics
Weight and size
The weight of the AK-47 with the machined steel receiver is 3.8 kg (8.4 lb) without the magazine and is 87 cm (34 in) in length.The later AKM, produced with the stamped receiver, weighs 3.1 kg (6.8 lb). Virtually all civilian and military versions in use today are of the lighter AKM variety. The M16A1 model of the Vietnam era weighs 3.6 kg (7.9 lb) with a 30 round magazine. M16A1 length is 100 cm (39 in). The later models of the M16 weighed more than the original with the addition of heavier (and more accurate) barrels and more rugged components. The M16A2, for example, weighs 3.99 kg (8.8 lb) loaded.
Caliber
The AK-47 was designed to use the 7.62x39 mm Soviet cartridge, whereas the M16 was designed for the 5.56x45 mm NATO.
A brief comparison between cartridges reveals the higher-velocity American cartridge has a noticeable edge in long range accuracy (group sizes of approximately 2 inches (50 mm) or less at 100 yards (91 m) vs. group sizes of 2–4″ at 100 yards), and newer versions of the Russian cartridge, with a hollow point tip, has more effective terminal performance in its newly found ability to penetrate and fragment wildly in human tissue (see photo at right). The heavier Russian projectile is also better in circumstances where the bullet has to pass through any intervening material. This allows the shooter to fire through light wall materials (cinder blocks, wooden structures, or drywall) or a common vehicle's metal body and into an opponent attempting to use these things as cover. This can prove important in urban combat (where doors, walls, and vehicles can deflect the lighter 5.56 mm round or shatter it altogether) or in heavy foliate, but can cause other problems, where the 7.62 mm projectile might go through a wall that the 5.56 mm bullet cannot penetrate, thus possibly causing unintended casualties.
However, recent developments in Russian and American Ammunition manufacture are changing the game a little bit. The Ulyanovsky 8M3 Hollow Point made by Wolf Ammunition and sold under the Wolf Military Classic ammunition line has shown a consistent ability to fragment effectively in ballistic gelatin (see photo at right). This 8M3 hollow point is found loaded in the Wolf Military Classic 124 grain HP load, and not the Wolf 'black box' HP load. The 8M3 represents an enormous improvement in wounding ability over the M43 and M67 ammunition types. It exceeds the wounding ability of all but the heaviest AR ammunition types. Alternatively, the 5.56x45mm OTM heavy match rounds have also shown enhance wounding ability over standard 5.56 rounds. These heavy-for-caliber loads (70 grains and heavier), like the Mk 262 MOD 1 77 grain OTM loaded by Black Hills and currently used by the US military, show explosive fragmentation but sacrifice virtually all of their penetrative ability (due to their intrinsically thin jackets and relatively fragile 'varmint bullet' heritage).
The original ammunition for the M16 was M193 ball, a 55-grain (3.5 gram) projectile with a muzzle velocity of 1,000 m/s (3,280 ft/s) from a 20″ barrel. It is often stated this round would "tumble" upon striking a target. However, any spitzer-type projectile (like those of most bolt-action hunting rifle cartridges) will do this. At ranges of up to 150 m, the lead-cored round travels fast enough (above 2900 ft/s) such that the force of striking a non-armored human body will often cause the round to fragment along the cannelure (the crimp where the bullet is clamped to the casing) into at least three pieces (front, back, and jacket). This produces a larger wound than the 7.62x39 mm M43 round. However, the M43 round has not been manufactured since 1967 (when the M67 was introduced). Most, if not all, of the 7.62x39 mm ammunition found today is of the upgraded M67 variety. There is relative parity between the wounding capacity of the M67 and the current M855 5.56x45 mm round. The current M855 is also fired from a shorter barrel than the original M16. The M4's 14.5" barrel length reduces muzzle velocity and effective wounding range of the current-issue 5.56x45 mm ammunition even further. This reduced wounding ability of the short barrels is one reason that, despite the Army's transition to short-barrel M4's, the Marine Corps has decided to continue to use an upgraded M16 variant with the 20″ barrel. As the 5.56x45mm M855 is largely dependent upon high velocity in order to wound effectively, the 7.62x39mm M67's wounding ability declines at a very steady and predictable rate with increased distance.
During the 1970s and 1980s, the quest for greater body-armor and helmet penetration ability from light machine guns (due to Soviet advances in personal body armor) led to the adoption of a heavier, slower, bullet; the M855. The heavier 62-grain (4 gram) SS109 projectile used in the later M855 cartridges sacrificed muzzle velocity and added a "penetrator tip" to increase its ability to defeat Soviet body armor when fired from LMG's (specifically, to penetrate a soldier's helmet consistently at 200 yards (180 m) when fired from an M249 SAW). There have been repeated and consistent reports of the M855's inability to wound effectively (i.e. fragment) even at close ranges when fired from the short barreled M4 carbine.
Firing mode
The AK-47 and M16A1 both have a switch allowing the operator to select semi-automatic or fully automatic mode. The M16A1's selector is a small switch on the left side of the lower receiver. The first position is safe, followed by semi-automatic, and then fully automatic. The AK-47's is a lever located on the right side of the receiver. The top-most position is safe, the middle is fully automatic, and the bottom is semi-automatic. The M16's selector can be manipulated with the thumb of the hand holding the pistol grip. Beginning with the M16A2 model, the ability to select fully automatic fire was replaced by a three-round burst mode to aid in ammunition conservation and accuracy. Some later derivatives of M16, such as the M16A3 and the M4A1, retain full automatic ability.
Reliability
The AK-47 has always enjoyed a reputation of rugged reliability. It is gas operated, using the gas from the barrel to push a piston attached to the bolt carrier, thus operating the action. The gas tube is fairly large and is visible above the barrel with ports or vents to allow the excess "dirty" gas to escape without affecting the action. The AK-47 is often built with generous clearances, allowing it to function easily in a dirty environment with little or no maintenance. While these clearances may not greatly harm accuracy, they certainly do not contribute to it either. It is very simple to disassemble and clean, and easily maintainable.
One major factor in terms of reliability lies in the design of the AK-47's magazine "feed-lips" (the surfaces at the top of the magazine that control the angle at which the cartridge enters the chamber). The top of the AK's magazine is machined from a single steel billet, making it practically impossible to damage the "feed-lips" causing jams or Failures-To-Feed (hereafter "FTF"). The M16 magazine (and other NATO magazines) are pressed/stamped sheet steel of a much thinner gauge than the AK's. The feed lips are proportionally weaker and this results in a relatively fragile feed system when compared to the AK-47. Many U.S. civilian aftermarket magazines have been developed to effectively mitigate this shortcoming in the AR (i.e. such as Magpul's P-MAG and H&K's all-stainless-steel magazine). This attention to detail reflects the AK-47's combat-based design; in combat, equipment suffers from hard use and gets damaged.
The M16 uses a direct impingement gas system and it is similar to normal gas operation in principle, but unique in operation. Gas from the barrel is used to cycle the action, but in a different way than the AK series (via a port in the barrel and a long "gas-tube" to transport the gasses back to the receiver), but the gas-piston is not present. The gas is sent from the barrel, through the gas tube, directly to the inside of the receiver so it can push on the bolt carrier itself. This means that the gas alone impinges upon the bolt carrier. This design is much lighter and more compact than a gas-piston design. However, this design requires that combustion byproducts from the discharged cartridge to be blown into the receiver as well (as they are always part of the "gas" behind the projectile). This allows for the "condensation" and accumulation of vaporized metals and other combustion byproducts on all interior surfaces of the receiver and of exterior and interior surfaces of the bolt and bolt-carrier. This quickly accumulating carbon and vaporized metal build-up within the receiver and bolt-carrier negatively affects reliability and necessitates more intensive maintenance on the part of the individual soldier. This DI operation also greatly increases the heat that is deposited in the receiver while firing. The greatly increased temperatures found during the firing of the M16 cause essential lubricant to be "burned-off". This requires frequent and generous re-applications of appropriate lubricant types via the vent holes that are found when viewing the bolt-carrier through the ejection port when the port cover is open (there are two small holes through which lubricant should be applied). Using the wrong lubricant (i.e, an oil that is too thick or of the wrong chemical composition) can also be the source or a contributing factor of stoppages or jams. Additionally, the large temperature swings (periods of very high heat followed quickly by periods of near-ambient temperature) in the receiver contribute greatly to the increased wear of springs, metal gas rings, and other parts inside of the receiver, decreasing the service life of various internal workings. Lack of proper lubrication is a common source of weapon stoppages. The original M16 fared poorly in the humid, dirty environment of the Vietnamese jungle, due to a change in propellant that was made against the original designer's specifications and that was not field tested before widespread issue to the soldiers in the field. Part of the problem was the M16 was originally falsely-billed as self-cleaning (no weapon is or ever has been), and cleaning kits were not issued. The infamous reliability problems were due to production errors and a conscious decision on the part of the military to use the more powerful "ball powder" ammunition in the cartridges. While ball powder resulted in a higher muzzle velocity, it created much more residue. The weapon itself was designed to fire cartridges with stick powder. When cartridges using stick powder were introduced, and when proper cleaning kits and instructions were provided to the soldiers, the reliability problems decreased greatly.
The initial problems became the target of a Congressional investigation. The results of the investigation found that:
- The M16 was billed as self-cleaning when it was in fact not.
- The rifle was issued to troops without cleaning kits or instruction on how to clean the rifle.
- The rifle was tested and approved with the use of a Dupont IMR powder that was switched to a ball powder that increased both wear and fouling.
- The lack of a chrome liner for the barrel and chamber created a corrosion problem and contributed to brass case swelling and extraction problems.
- Lack of a forward assist rendered the rifle inoperable in combat when it jammed.
 | This section's factual accuracy is disputed. (November 2008) |
Accuracy
The AK-47 is a less accurate rifle than the M16. The difference in accuracy is primarily due to the slower muzzle velocity and a shorter distance between the sights of the AK-47. The greater perceived recoil of the 7.62x39 mm cartridge may also be detrimental to the untrained soldier (or novice civilian shooter), requiring more skill and training to adjust to. It should be noted, however, that both rounds would qualify as low-power hunting rounds in the U.S. and neither has as much recoil force as even a moderate U.S. hunting rifle (i.e. a rifle chambered in .243 Winchester). Accordingly, the difference in recoil forces is relative and recoil should not be an issue of comfort or accuracy for an average adult male with either the M16 or the AK-47. Even with the lighter recoil and higher velocity of the 5.56x45 mm round, the original M16 and M16A1 did not offer the accuracy achieved with the later M16A2 using the SS109 bullet in semi-automatic mode. The M16 came from the factory capable of 3–4 MOA accuracy, allowing reliable hits on targets at up to 300 meters.[citation needed]
The aperture sights of the later M16A2 are superior to those used on most earlier M16 assault rifles. Using an aperture rear sight and a small hole to center the front sight post. The M16A2's rear sight features two aperture settings. The larger aperture enables faster sighting in poor lighting conditions. The smaller aperture permits more precise aiming for long-distance targets. However due to a narrow field of view and diffraction blurring, the aperture sight is not ideal for target acquisition, especially if the target is camouflaged or rapidly moving. The aperture sight also requires the shooter to close one of his eyes decreasing battlefield awareness. The aperture sight does not allow enough light to pass through to be used effectively at night, therefore on some M16s there is an intermediate setting which turns the aperture sight into a crude open sight. Modern versions of the M16 have given up the aperture sight altogether replacing it with various scopes and red dot sighting devices.
The AK-47's sights are of a more traditional open style. The rear sight is a simple V-notch in which the front post is to be centered. Some argue this requires more concentration to use, [citation needed] as both the front and rear sight must be kept in alignment, and must be placed further away from the eye to decrease blurring. AK-47 sights allow the shooter to shoot with both eyes open and to quickly acquire moving targets at medium range. Another advantage to the AK-47s sights is that they are much easier to adjust to different ranges, this requires simply sliding the rear notch forward and backward. Modern versions of the AK have a side rail for mounting a variety of scopes and red dot sighting devises.
Different philosophies
The M16 and the AK-47 design, capabilities, and role on the battlefield were reflections of the different experience and doctrine of the United States and the Soviet Union.
The AK-47 was the result of Soviet combat experience during World War II. Studies of battlefield reports showed most combat occurred within 300 meters, and the winner was usually the side with the most firepower. The bolt-action and semi-automatic rifles used on the Eastern Front were not optimal choices for this kind of combat, and the late-war submachine guns employed to compensate for these shortcomings lacked range and accuracy, leading to compromise designs such as the SKS, and later AK-47, with the AK-47 considered the ultimate answer to these goals. It gave the average soldier a high rate of fire rendering an AK-equipped squad’s firepower equivalent to submachine guns at close range, while also having a sufficiently powerful cartridge to engage moderately distant targets. The AK-47 was never meant to be a rifle that was effectively accurate at ranges beyond 600 meters since in mobile warfare, distances were covered rather quickly. It also had the advantage of not needing particularly experienced soldiers to be effective—it required very little maintenance, and accuracy was not very important which was ideal for the large conscript-based Soviet army. Weight was not important either because Soviet doctrine placed an emphasis on the use of armored spearheads in an attack, followed closely by troop transports like the BTR-70 (which later culminated in the IFV concept; see M2 Bradley and BMP-2). Later models, such as the AKM and AK-74, are significantly lighter and more accurate than the original AK-47.
The M16, on the other hand, was influenced by the U.S. Army's preference for an accurate semi-automatic weapon. Although the U.S. Army’s studies into World War II combat accounts came up with very similar results to that of the Soviets', the Army maintained its traditional views and preferred highly accurate weapons. This culminated in the M14. Combat experience in Vietnam showed this was anachronistic. A replacement was needed, a medium between the traditional philosophy of highly accurate semi-automatic rifles and the AK-47. Lighter weight, accuracy and ergonomics were the priority for the American armed forces, and aviation materials were used in its construction, which resulted in higher costs per unit when compared to the simple steel construction of the AK-47. Because American patrols in the thick Vietnamese jungle during the Vietnam War were restricted to foot and later on, helicopter movement, weight was a very important consideration.[citation needed]
See also
Notes
- ^ "Terminal Ballistics "Wound Ballistics"". Bob Tuley. Retrieved 2007-08-16.
References
- "Tales of the gun: The AK-47", History Channel documentary
- "Tales of the gun: The AR-15", History Channel documentary
- "Great Battles: AK-47 vs M16", Military Channel documentary
External links
- Wound Ballistics and Profile Illustrations
- Extensive comparison of AK-47 and M-16 at AK-47.us
- M16 description at World Guns
- AK-47 description at World Guns
- 7.62 mm Versus 5.56 mm - 1986 Comparison of 5.56x45 and 7.62x39 at globalsecurity.org