Guqin

The guqin (Chinese: 古琴; pinyin: gǔqín; Wade–Giles: ku-ch'in; lit. 'ancient stringed-instrument') is the modern name for a plucked 7-string Chinese musical instrument of the zither family. It has been played since ancient times, and has traditionally been favored by scholars and literati as an instrument of great subtlety and refinement.

Traditionally the instrument was called simply qin 「琴」 (which can also be written as 「琹」), but by the 20th century the term had come to be applied to many other musical instruments as well (e.g., the yangqin 「揚琴」 hammered dulcimer, the huqin 「胡琴」 family of bowed string instruments, and the piano, which in Chinese is called gāng qín 「鋼琴」, literally "steel stringed-instrument"), so the prefix "gu-" 「古」 (meaning "ancient") was added for clarification. It can also be called qixianqin 「七絃琴」 ("seven-stringed instrument"). The guqin is not to be confused with the guzheng (「古箏」 "ancient strung-instrument"), another Chinese long zither also without frets, but with moveable bridges under each string. Because R. H. Van Gulik's famous book about the qin is called The Lore of the Chinese Lute, the guqin is sometimes inaccurately called a lute. ^[1]

A guqin in the Lian Zhu 連珠 or "continuous pearl" form/shape

The qin is a very quiet instrument, with a range of about four octaves, and its open strings are tuned in the bass register (its lowest pitch is about two octaves below middle C, or the lowest note on the cello). Sounds are produced by plucking open strings, stopped strings, and harmonics. Stopped sounds are noteworthy for the variety of slides and ornaments used, and the use of glissando (sliding tones) gives it a sound reminiscent of a pizzicato cello or fretless bass guitar. Extended passages consisting entirely of harmonics are common, this made possible because the 91 indicated harmonic positions allow great flexibility; early tablature shows that even more harmonic positions were used in the past. By tradition the qin originally had five strings, but ancient qin-like instruments with 10 or more strings have been found. The modern form has been standardized for about two millennia.

History

Legend has it that the qin, the most revered of all Chinese musical instruments, has a history of about 5,000 years; that the legendary figures of China's pre-history, Fuxi, Shennong and Huangdi the Yellow Emperor was involved in its creation ^[2]. It is mentioned in Chinese writings dating back nearly 3,000 years, and related instruments have been found in tombs from about 2,500 years ago. Non-fretted zithers unearthed in southern Chinese tombs show similar instruments that gradually became longer and had fewer strings, but they are not named in the tombs. Chinese tradition says the qin originally had five strings, but then two were added about 1,000 BCE, making seven. Whether the southern instruments can be called "qin," or simply southern relatives of a northern instrument that has not survived, is open to debate. Based on the detailed description in the poetic essay "Qin Fu" 《琴賦》 by Xi Kang or Ji Kang (223–262), the form of the qin that is recognizable today was most likely set around the late Han Dynasty. The earliest surviving qin in this modern form, preserved in both Japan and China, have been reliably dated to the Tang Dynasty. Many are still playable, the most famous perhaps being the one named "Jiuxiao Huanpei" 《九霄環佩》, attributed to the famous late Tang dynasty qin maker Lei Wei (雷威). It is kept in the Forbidden City Museum in Beijing. Famous titles are often repeated: a Tang qin of the same name which was recently sold in an auction was not the famous one kept in the Forbidden City Museum, but it has been played by Li Xiangting, who praised it highly. ^[3]

In 1977, a recording of "Liu Shui" (Flowing Water, as performed by Guan Pinghu, possibly the greatest qin player of the 20th century) was chosen to be included in the Voyager Golden Record, a gold-plated LP recording containing music from around the world, which was sent into outer space by NASA on the Voyager 1 and Voyager 2 spacecrafts. It is the longest excerpt included on the disc. In 2003, guqin music was proclaimed one of the Masterpieces of the Oral and Intangible Heritage of Humanity by UNESCO. ^[4]

Mentions in Chinese literature and Guqin literature

When consulting ancient Chinese texts, one will come across frequent references to the qin. Such references are particularly frequent in poetry of the Tang period. In the Shijing 【詩經】 (Book of Songs), several poems mention the qin (with their Mao numbers):

「我有嘉賓，鼓瑟鼓琴。」 "I have fine guests; So I strum the se, strum the qin..." [161]

「夫妻好合，如鼓琴瑟。」 "Husband and wife in love with each other; Like the strumming of qin and se..." [164]

「窈窕淑女，琴瑟友之。」 "Fair and gentle is the maiden; Use qin and se to befriend her..." [1]

「琴瑟在御，莫不靜好。」 "Qin and se are in my carriage; There is no-one who likes silence..." [82]

In Tang Poetry, we have many mentions, including:

「泠泠七弦上，靜聽松風寒，古調雖自愛，今人多不彈。」 "Emotionless the mood of your 'seven-strings'; In the quiet, I sense the cool of the 'Wind through the pines'; I am one who loves the ancient tunes; There are few now who can play them." [Playing the Zither : Liu Changqing, 《彈琴》 : 劉長卿]

「主人有酒歡今夕，請奏鳴琴廣陵客，月照城頭烏半飛，霜淒萬木風入衣，銅鑪華燭燭增輝，初彈淥稅後楚妃，一聲已動物皆靜，四座無言星欲稀，清淮奉使千餘里，敢告雲山從此始。」 "Our host brings wine, for merry-making tonight; And bids the guest from Guangling, to play upon the zither; Moonlight bathes the city walls, crows fly mid-air; Frost petrifies ten thousand tress, wind pierces our robes. But the copper stove gleams bright, and candles add their shimmer; First he plays Lu Water, then The Princess of Chu. As the first note trembles, all else falls silent; From the whole company not a word, till the stars begin to pale. The thousand miles to Qinghuai, I was sent by the Emperor's mandate; On such a night I venture to speak of, retiring to the mountains and the clouds." [A Zither Song : Li Qi, 《琴歌》 : 李頎]

「獨坐幽篁裡，彈琴復長嘯，深林人不知，明月來相照。」 "Sitting alone, in the hush of the bamboo; I thrum my lute, and whistle lingering notes. In the secrecy of the wood, no one can hear; Only the clear moon, comes to shine on me." [Hut Among the Bamboos : Wang Wei, 《竹里館》 : 王維]

The above poems are from 【唐詩三百首】 Tangshi Sanbai Shou [Three Hundred Tang Poems]. ^[5]

Guqin literature

Main article: List of Guqin literature

There are a number of ancient sources that discuss qin lore, qin theory and general qin literature. Some of these books are available inserted into certain qinpu (qin tablature collections).

Schools, societies and players

The famous painting "Ting Qin Tu" (聽琴圖, *Listening to the Qin*), by the Song emperor Huizong (1082–1135)

Historical schools and societies

Because of the difference in geography in China, many qin schools known as qin pai (琴派) developed over the centuries. Such schools generally formed around areas where qin activity was greatest. The main schools are: Guangling (廣陵); Yushan (虞山 also known as Qinchuan (琴川) or Shu (熟)) in Shanghai 上海; Shu (蜀 or Chuan (川)) in Sichuan 四川; Fanchuan (泛川); Songjiang (松江); Jinling (金陵); Zhucheng (諸城); Mei'an (梅庵 / 楳盦); Min (閩) in Fujian 福建; Pucheng (浦城); Jiuyi (九嶷); Zhe (浙); Shaoxing (紹興); Wu (吳) and Shan'nan (山南).

Most qin schools and societies are based in China, but during the 20th century many overseas societies began to form. Although qin study was initially confined to China in ancient times, countries like Japan also have their own qin traditions via import from China, but are extremely small in scale. The Tokyo Qin Society was recently founded, opening up more opportunities for qin study in Japan. Japan has published a qinpu (qin tablature collection) in the past, known as Toukou Kinpu or Donggao Qinpu 【東臯琴譜】.

Main article: List of Qin societies

Players

Historical:

Confucius 孔子 (philosopher, 551–479 BCE)
Bo Ya 伯牙 (Qin player of the Spring and Autumn Period)
Cai Yong 蔡邕 (Han musician, author of Qin Cao)
Cai Wenji 蔡文姬 (Cai Yong's daughter)
Sima Xiangru 司馬相如 (Han poet, 179-117 BCE)
Ji Kang 嵇康 (Sage of the Bamboo Grove, musician and poet)
Li Bai 李白 (Tang poet, 701-762)
Bai Juyi 白居易 (Tang poet, 772-846)
Song Huizong 宋徽宗 (Song emperor famous for his patronage of the arts)

The classical collections such as Qin Shi, Qinshi Bu and Qinshi Xu have biographies of hundreds of more players. ^[6]

Contemporary:

Main article: List of contemporary Guqin players

Contemporary qin players extend from the early 20th century to the present. More so than in the past, such players tend to have many different pursuits and occupations other than qin playing.

Playing technique

The beauty of qin melodies comes not only from the melodies themselves, but from the colors a player can apply to the individual tones and their combinations. The exceedingly rich tones of the qin can be categorised as three distinctively different "sounds." The first is san yin 〔散音〕, which means "scattered sounds." This meant simply pluck the required string to sound an open note. The second is fan yin 〔泛音〕, or "floating sounds." These are harmonics, and the player simply lightly touches the string with one or more fingers of the left hand at a position indicated by the hui dots, pluck and lift, creating a crisp and clear sound. The third is an yin 〔按音 / 案音 / 實音 / 走音〕, or "stopped sounds." This forms the bulk of most qin pieces and requires the player to press on a string with a finger or thumb of the left hand until it connects with the surface board, then pluck. Afterwards, the hand can slide up and down, thereby modifying the pitch.

There are eight basic right hand finger techniques: pi 〈劈〉 (thumb pluck outwards), tuo 〈托〉 (thumb pluck inwards), mo 〈抹〉 (index in), tiao 〈挑〉 (index out), gou 〈勾〉 (middle in), ti 〈剔〉 (middle out), da 〈打〉 (ring in), and zhai 〈摘〉 (ring out); the little finger is not used. Out of these basic eight, their combinations create many. Cuo 〈撮〉 is to pluck two strings at the same time, lun 〈輪〉 is to pluck a string with the ring, middle and index finger out in quick succession, the suo 〈鎖〉 technique involves plucking a string several times in a fixed rhythm, bo 〈撥〉 cups the fingers and attacks two strings at the same time, and gun fu 〈滾拂〉 is to create glissandi by running up and down the strings continuously with the index and middle fingers. These are just a few.

Left hand techniques start from the simple pressing down on the string (mostly with the thumb between the flesh and nail, and the ring finger), sliding up or down to the next note (shang 〈上〉 and xia 〈下〉), to vibrati by swaying the hand (yin 〈吟〉 and rou 〈揉〉, there are as many as 15 plus different forms of vibrato), plucking the string with the thumb whilst the ring finger stops the string at the lower position (qiaqi 〈掐起 / 搯起〉), hammering on a string using the thumb (yan 〈掩 / 罨〉), to more difficult techniques such as pressing on several strings at the same time.

〈挑〉 Tiao

〈挑〉 Tiao
〈勾〉 Gou
〈劈〉 Pi

〈劈〉 Pi
〈撥〉 Bo
〈滾〉 Gun
〈上〉 Shang
〈掐起 / 搯起〉 Qiaqi
〈掩 / 罨〉 Yan

Techniques executed by both hands in tandem are more difficult to achieve, like qia cuo san sheng 〈掐撮三聲〉 (a combination of hammering on and off then plucking two strings, then repeating), to more stylised forms, like pressing of all seven strings with the left, then strumming all the strings with the right, then the left hand quickly moves up the qin, creating a 'bloommmmmmmmmmmmmmm' sound like a bucket of water being thrown in a deep pool of water (this technique is used in the Shu style of Liu Shui to imitate the sound of water). ^[7]

In order to master the qin, there are in excess of 50 different techniques that must be mastered. Even the most commonly used (such as tiao) are difficult to get right without proper instruction from a teacher. Also, certain techniques vary from teacher to teacher and school to school. ^[8]

There are also a lot of obsolete fingerings and notation that are rarely used in modern tablature. There are now new books that have began to be published about these fingerings and notation as Qin culture and study gains momentum. ^[9]

Tablature and notation

First section of Youlan, showing the name of the piece: 《碣石調幽蘭第五》 "Jieshi Diao Youlan No.5", the preface describing the piece's origins, and the tablature in longhand form.

Written qin music did not directly tell what notes were played; instead, it was written in a tablature detailing tuning, finger positions, and stroke technique, thus comprising a step by step method and description of how to play a piece. The earliest example of the modern shorthand tablature survives from around the 12th century CE. An earlier form of music notation from the Tang era survives in just one manuscript, dated to the 7th century CE, called Jieshi Diao: You Lan 《碣石調幽蘭》 (Solitary Orchid, in Stone Tablet Mode). It is written in a longhand form called wenzi pu 〔文字譜〕 (literally "written notation"), which gives all the details using ordinary written Chinese characters. Later in the Tang dynasty Cao Rou (曹柔) and others simplified the notation, using only the important elements of the characters (like string number, plucking technique, hui number and which finger to stop the string) and combined them into one character notation. This meant that instead of having two lines of written text to describe a few notes, a single character could represent one note, or sometimes as many as nine. This notation form was called jianzi pu 〔減字譜〕 (literally "reduced notation") and it was a great leap forward for recording qin pieces. It was so successful that from the Ming dynasty onwards, a great many qinpu 〔琴譜〕 (qin tablature collections) appeared, the most famous and useful being "Shenqi Mipu" (The Mysterious and Marvellous Tablature) compiled by Zhu Quan 朱勸, the 17th son of the founder of the Ming dynasty ^[10]. In the 1960s, Zha Fuxi discovered more than 100 qinpu that contain well over 3000 pieces of written music. Sadly, many qinpu compiled before the Ming dynasty are now lost, and many pieces have remained unplayed for hundreds of years. ^[11]

File:Shenqi Mipu, vol 1 pg 1.jpg

First page / leaf of volume 3 of Shenqi Mipu. From right to left: Full title of tablature collection 【臞仙神奇秘譜】 with volume number 下卷 (lower or third) plus seals of the owner of this copy (if any), title of the volume 霞外神品, the tuning and method of tuning 〈黃鐘調〉, name of the 'modal preface' 〔調意〕, the tablature (shorthand) of the modal preface, [next page] title of the piece, discription of the piece's origins, and the tablature of said piece.

Another major change in the tablature happened during the Qing period. Before, the recording of the note positions between hui were only approximations. For example, to play sol on the seventh string, the position the player must stop is between the 7th and 8th hui. The tablature of Ming times would only say "between 7 and 8" 「七八日(間)」 or for other positions "below 6" 「六下」 or even say "11" 「十一」 (when the correct position is slightly higher). During the Qing, this was replaced by the decimal system. The space between two hui were split into 10 'fen' 〔分〕, so the tablature can indicate the correct position of notes more accurately, so for the examples above, the correct positions are 7.6, 6.2 and 10.8 respectively. Some even went further to split one fen into a further 10 'li' 〔釐〕, but since the distance is too minute to affect the pitch to a large degree, it was considered impractical to use.

File:Qinpu 1.jpg

A selection of facsimile qinpu in a private collection

Existing qinpu generally come from private collections or in public libraries throughout China, etc. Those that are available for public purchase are facsimile qinpu printed and bound in the traditional Chinese bookbinding process.

Main article: List of existing Qinpu

New developments in qin tablature

A number of efforts have been made to further develop qin tablature. A book by Wang Guangqi (王光祈) uses Roman and Arabic numerals to express the information provided by qin tablature. The qin player, Gong Yi, developed a format using staff notation combined with some tablature marks ^[12]. Others have tried to write a computer program that will do this. Chen Changlin, a Beijing-based computer scientist and qin player of the Min (Fujian) School, developed the first computer program to encode qin notation from ancient tablature sources. ^[13]

Repertoire

Qin pieces are usually around three to eight minutes in length, with the longest being "Guangling San" 《廣陵散》, which is 22 minutes long. Other famous pieces include "Liu Shui" 《流水》 (Flowing Water), "Yangguan San Die" 《陽關三疊》 (Three Refrains on the Yang Pass Theme), "Meihua San Nong" 《梅花三弄》 (Three Variations on the Plum Blossom Theme), "Xiao Xiang Shui Yun" 《瀟湘水雲》 (Mist and Clouds over the Xiao and Xiang Rivers), and "Pingsha Luo Yan" 《平沙落雁》 (Wild Geese Descending on the Sandbank). The average player will generally have a repertoire of around ten pieces which they will aim to play very well, learning new pieces as and when they feel like it or if the opportunity arises. Players mainly learn popular well transcribed versions, often using a recording as a reference. In addition to learning to play established or ancient pieces very well, highly skilled qin players may also compose or improvise, although the player must be very good and extremely familiar with the instrument to pull off successfully.

A list of Guqin pieces which includes mostly played pieces, is used for Guqin certification examinations in China. ^[14]

Dapu 〔打譜〕 is the transcribing of old tablature into a playable form. This can be used to create new music as well as to reconstruct the ancient melodies. Since qin tablature does not indicate note value, tempo or rhythm, the player must work it out for him/herself. Normally, qin players will learn the rhythm of a piece through a teacher or master. They sit facing one another, with the student copying the master. The tablature will only be consulted if the teacher is not sure of how to play a certain part. Because of this, traditional qinpu do not indicate them (though near the end of the Qing dynasty, a handful of qinpu had started to employ various rhythm indicating devices, such as dots). If one did not have a teacher, then one had to work out the rhythm by themselves. But it would be a mistake to assume that qin music is devoid of rhythm and melody. By the 20th century, there had been attempts to try to replace the "jianzi pu" notation, but so far, it has been unsuccessful; since the 20th century, qin music is generally printed with staff notation above the qin tablature. Because qin tablature is so useful, logical, easy, and the fastest way (once the performer knows how to read the notation) of learning a piece, it is invaluable to the qin player and cannot totally be replaced (just as staff notation cannot be replaced for Western instruments, because they developed a notation system that suited the instruments well). There are two views of how to best utilize dapu: one is to use it to create new music, and the other is to use it to reconstruct the way way the original music was played. ^[15]

Construction

Whilst the qin followed a certain grammar of acoustic in its construction, its external form could and did take on a huge amount of variation, whether it be from the embellishments or even the basic structure of the instrument. Qin tablatures from the Song era onwards have catalogued a plethora of qin forms. All, however, obey very basic rules of acoustics and symbolism of form.

According to tradition, the qin originally had five strings, representing the five elements of metal, wood, water, fire and earth. Later, in the Zhou dynasty, Zhou Wen Wang 周文王 added a sixth string to mourn his son, Bo Yihou 伯邑考. His successor, Zhou Wu Wang 周武王, added a seventh string to motivate his troops into battle with the Shang. The thirteen hui 『徽』 on the surface represent the 13 months of the year (the extra 13th is the 'leap month' in the lunar calendar). The surface board is round to represent Heaven and the bottom board flat to represent earth. The entire length of the qin (in Chinese measurements) is 3 feet, 6.5 inches, representing the 365 days of the year (though this is just a standard since qins can be shorter or longer depending on the period's measurement standard or the maker's preference). Each part of the qin has meaning, some more obvious, like "dragon pool" 『龍池』 and "phoenix pond" 『鳳沼』.

Names of the front and back parts of the qin

The sound chamber of the qin is constructed with two boards of wood, typically of differing wood types. The slightly rounded top board (soundboard) is usually made of tong wood 『桐』, the Chinese parasol tree, or Chinese paulownia. There are many different types of tong wood, the names of which are listed in the Yuguzhai Qinpu: wutong 『梧桐』 (Paulownia tomentosa, also Firmiana platanifolia or Firmiana simplex), baitong 『白桐』, qingtong 『青桐』 (Japanese paulownia), paotong 『泡桐』, yitong 『椅桐』 and nantong 『南桐』; the best is wutong, but paotong is now widely used. The bottom board is made of zi mu 『梓木』 catalpa (Catalpa ovata) or, more recently, nan mu 『楠木』 camphor wood (Machilus nanmu). The wood must be well seasoned, that is, the sap and moisture must be removed (of the top board wood). If sap remains then it will deaden the sound and, as the moisture evaporates, the wood will warp and crack. Some makers use old or ancient wood to construct qins because most of the sap and moisture has been removed naturally by time (old shan mu 『杉木』, Chinese Cunninghamia or Japanese Cryptomeria, is often used for creating modern qins). Some go to lengths to obtain extremely ancient wood, such as that from Han dynasty tomb structures or coffins. Although such wood is very dry, it is not necessarily the best since it may be infected with wood worm or be of inferior quality or type. Many modern qins made out of new tong wood (such as those made by Zeng Chengwei) can surpass the quality of antique qins. ^[16]

There are two sound holes in the bottom board, as the playing techniques of the qin employ the entire surface of the top board which is curved / humped. The inside of the top board is hollowed out to a degree (if the board is too thick, then the sound will be dull and deadened; if the board is too thin, the sound will be too bright and loud). Inside the qin, there are 'nayin' 『納音』 sound absorbers to reinforce the sound, and a 'tian chu' 『天柱』 and 'di chu' 『地柱』 soundposts that connect the bottom board to the top (which act as sound reinforcers but also anti-warping devices). The boards are joined using a "hinge joint" method to produce the typically mellow sounds of the qin. Lacquer 『漆』 from the Chinese lacquer tree (Rhus vernicifera) is then applied to the surfaces of the qin, mixed with various types of matrix, the most common being "lujiao shuang" 『鹿角霜』, the remains of deer antler after the glue has been extracted. Often, ceramic powder is used instead of deer antler powder, but the quality is not as good. After the lacquer has dried (a qin will need several layers), the surface will be polished using oil stones. At the head end of the instrument is the "yue shan" 岳山 or bridge, and at the other end is the "long yin" 『龍齦』 (dragon's gums) or nut. There are 13 circular mother-of-pearl inlays which mark the harmonic positions, as well as a reference point to note position, called hui 『徽』 ("insignia"). The book Yugu Zhai Qinpu is perhaps the most famous book that describes in detail the construction method of the qin.

Duanwen

On the surface of the qin there may be cracks or patternations called duanwen 〔斷紋〕. These cracks appear after a long period of time due to aging. The wood's water content slowly evapourates, so the wood retracts; the lacquer, however, does not, so it cracks. It should be distinguished from cracking or warping from the wood, which creates structural cracks. Duanwen are highly prized by the qin connoisseur because they not only prove the qin's antiquity (to a certain degree of error), but are also pleasant to look at. There are many names for different cracks, such as "snake-skin cracks" 『蛇腹斷』, "ice-crack markings" 『冰裂紋』, "cow-hair cracks" 『牛毛斷』, "flowing-water markings" 『流水紋』, "running-cloud markings" 『行雲紋』, "tortoise-back markings" 『龜背紋』, "plum-blossom cracks" 『梅花斷』, etc. Modern qin makers can artificially create cracks by first heating the lacquered qin for a few hours until it is hot, then immersing it in a bath of ice cubes, thus the wood retracts quickly causing cracks on the surface of the qin (this is not a new method). Of course, this method does not create the best of cracks. Although a qin may have duanwen, one can still play it, providing the duanwen is not flaking off or lifting off the surface. Otherwise, it would have to be re-lacquered, partially if the flaking is not too severe, entirely if it is literally unplayable. Qin makers tend to avoid removing the old lacquer when re-lacquering and maintain as much of the duanwen as possible since real duanwen cannot be created overnight but through centuries of natural aging. Some makers when re-lacquering would use a different hue or colour of lacquer so that the lacquer underneath can contrast with the new, and thus be seen more clearly. The colour of the lacquer used can range from extreme black to brown to purple to red (in the rarest cases). Colour is achieved by using minerals or chemicals added to the processed lacquer. ^[17]

Another property of duanwen is that the lacquer does not stick to the wood so tightly, therefore, the sound is not restricted as in a newly lacquered qin.

Strings

Until the Cultural Revolution, the guqin's strings were always made of various thicknesses of twisted silk 『絲』, but since then most players use modern nylon-flatwound steel strings 『鋼絲』. This was partly due to the scarcity of high quality silk strings and partly due to the newer strings' greater durability and louder tone.

Recently in China, production of very good quality silk strings has resumed and more players are beginning to use them. The American qin player and scholar John Thompson advocates for the use of both silk and nylon-wrapped metal strings for different styles of qin music, much like the guitar exists in both classical (nylon-string) and steel-string forms. ^[18]

Although most contemporary players use nylon-wrapped metal strings, some argue that nylon-wrapped metal strings cannot replace silk strings for their refinement of tone. Further, it is the case that nylon-wrapped metal strings can cause damage to the wood of old qins. Many traditionalists feel that the sound of the fingers of the left hand sliding on the strings to be a distinctive feature of qin music. The modern nylon-wrapped metal strings were very smooth in the past, but are now slightly modified in order to capture these sliding sounds.

Although silk strings tend to break more often than metal nylon ones, they are stronger than one may be led to think. Silk is very flexible, and can be strung to high tensions and tuned up to the standard pitch that was proposed by mainland China (5th string at A) without breaking. Also, although they may be more likely to break at higher tension, they are hardly discardable once a string has broken. Silk strings tend to be very long (more than 2 metres) and break at the point where it rubs on the bridge. One simply ties another butterfly knot at the broken end, cut the frayed bit, then re-string. In this way, the string can be re-used up to ten times for the thinner strings (three or four times for thicker ones), and every set includes an extra seventh (most likely to break) and probably a fourth (next most likely to break). Because silk strings break easily, there are very few that survive from the past dynasties.

Traditionally, the strings were wrapped around the goose feet 『雁足』 ^[19], but there has been a device that has been invented, which is a block of wood attached to the goose feet, with pins similar to those used to tune the guzheng protruding out at the sides, so one can string and tune the qin using a tuning wrench. This is good for those who lack the physical strength to pull and add tension to the strings when wrapping the ends to the goose feet. However, the tuning device looks rather unsightly and thus many qin players prefer the traditional manner of tuning; many also feel that the strings should be firmly wrapped to the goose feet in order that the sound may be "grounded" into the qin. Further, one cannot wrap silk strings around such tuning pins as they tend to break more easily at the wrapping end. Stephen Dydo of the United States has recently developed a customised tuning device which uses violin pegs rather than zither pins. It is more suitable for silk strings. However, it is still difficult to control and tune accurately. Such devices are really best used for metal-nylon strings.

Although the future of metal-nylon string manufacture is secure, the manufacture situation of silk strings is not. Throughout the ages, particularly the political disturbances of the 20th century as well as the popularity of the metal-nylon strings, has seen silk string manufacture decline. Plus the difficulty in obtaining the best quality silk and the difficulty in obtaining a high quality throughout has brought about only short phases now and again of silk string manufacture. There is currently a steady supply of standard silk strings (from Suzhou), plus a fluctuating quality and supply of extremely good quality strings.

Etymological note: There are a number of Chinese characters for the word string(s). 『絃』, 『弦』, 『線』 and 『綫』. According to Chinese Characters (1915), 『線』 and 『綫』 are both the same character (the former used in Taiwan and Hong Kong, the later used in mainland China in it's simplified form), which meaning is 'thread', 'line' or 'wire'. However, the characters 『絃』 and 『弦』 mean the same thing ('string'), but have different etymological meanings. In the case of 『絃』, the radical is 「糸」, which is the radical for silk, whilst for 『弦』, the radical is 「弓」 which is the radical for the archery 'bow'. It is important to distingush from the two as they are often used to refer to the strings of the qin, or any other stringed instrument, sometimes together on the same page. However, etymologically, 『絃』 is the correct character to be used to refer to strings of the qin as the radical denotes, qin strings were made of silk (though probably etymologically incorrect for the modern metal-nylon strings). But for 『弦』, it probably denotes a string used on an instrument which requires a bow to play, such as erhu or violin. Maybe, 『弦』 can also be used to refer to metal / metal-nylon strings... ^[20]

Tuning

To string a qin, one traditionally had to tie a butterfly knot (shengtou jie 『蠅頭結』) at one end of the string, and slip the string through the twisted cord (rongkou 『絨剅』) which goes into holes at the head of the qin and then out the bottom through the tuning pegs (zhen 『軫』). The string is dragged over the bridge (yueshan 『岳山』), across the surface board, over the nut (longyin 『龍齦』 dragon gums) to the back of the qin, where the end is wrapped around two legs (fengzu 『鳳足』 "phoenix feet" or yanzu 『雁足』 "geese feet"). Afterwards, the strings are fine tuned using the tuning pegs. The most common tuning, "zheng diao" 正調, is pentatonic: 1245612 in the traditional Chinese number system (jianpu 〔簡譜〕). Today this is generally interpreted to mean C D F G A c d , but this should be considered do re fa so la do re, since historically the qin was not tuned to absolute pitch. In fact the same tuning can also be considered as 5612356 when the third string is played as do ^[21]. Thus, except when accompanied by other instruments, only the pitch relations between the seven strings needs to be accurate. Other tunings are achieved by adjusting the tension of the strings using the tuning pegs at the head end. Thus manjiao diao 〈慢角調〉 (slackened third string) gives 1235612 and ruibin diao 〈蕤賓調〉 (raised fifth string) gives 1245712, which is transposed to 2356123. It is important to note that in early qin music theory, the word "diao" 〔調〕 means both tuning and mode, but by the Qing period, "diao" meant tuning (of changing pitch) and "yin" 〔音〕 meant mode (of changing scales). Often before a piece, the tablature names the tuning and then the mode using traditional Chinese names: gong 《宮》 (do), shang 《商》 (re), jiao 《角》 (mi), zhi 《徵》 (so), yu 《羽》 (la), or combinations thereof. ^[22]

There are more than 20 different tunings used in qin music, out of which only between two and four are commonly used. Some of these, however, are actually alternate names for the same tuning. A single tuning can have several different names depending on which system the composer was taught and used; an additional confusion is caused by the fact that two different tunings can share the same name. For example, huangzhong diao 〈黃鐘調〉 could mean either "lower first string and tighten fifth string" (e.g. Shenqi Mipu, etc), or normal tuning (e.g. Mei'an Qinpu). ^[23]

Playing context

The guqin is nearly always used a solo instrument, as its quietness of tone means that it cannot compete with the sounds of most other instruments or an ensemble. It can, however, be played together with a xiao (「簫」 end-blown bamboo flute), with other qin, or played while singing. In old times, the se (「瑟」 a long zither with movable bridges and 25 strings, similar to the Japanese koto) was frequently used in duets with the qin. Sadly, the se has not survived into this century, though duet tablature scores for the instruments are preserved in a few qinpu, and the master qin player Wu Jinglüe was one of only a few in the 20th century who knew how to play it together with qin in duet. Lately there has been a trend to use other instruments to accompany the qin, such as the xun (「塤」 ceramic ocarina), pipa (「琵琶」 four-stringed pear-shaped lute), dizi (「笛子」 transverse bamboo flute), and others.

In order for an instrument to accompany the qin, its sound must be mellow and not overwhelm the qin. Thus, the xiao generally used for this purpose is one pitched in the key of F, known as qin xiao 「琴簫」, which is narrower than an ordinary xiao. If one sings to qin songs (which is rare nowadays) then one should not sing in a operatic or folk style as is common in China, but rather in a very low pitched and deep way; and the range in which one should sing should not exceed one and a half octaves. The style of singing is similar to that used to recite Tang poetry. To enjoy qin songs, one must learn to become accustomed to the eccentric style some players may sing their songs to, like in the case of Zha Fuxi.

Traditionally, the qin was played in a quiet studio or room by oneself, or with a few friends; or played outdoors in places of outstanding natural beauty. Nowadays, many qin players perform at concerts in large concert halls, almost always, out of necessity, using electronic pickups or microphones to amplify the sound. Many qin players attend yaji (『雅集』 literally "elegant gatherings"), at which a number of qin players, music lovers, or anyone with an interest in Chinese culture can come along to discuss and play the qin. In fact, the yaji originated as a multi-media gathering involving the four arts: qin, chess, books, and painting.

Charlie Huang 皇龝靐 of the London Youlan Qin Society UK playing his qin in his room, December 2005. Qin players tend to play in the seclusion of their own rooms, or with friends at yajis

Qin aesthetics

When playing qin, there are many aesthetics involved. Firstly is the whole aspect of musicality. Take, for example, the second section of "Pingsha Luoyan." The first few bars contain a rou vibrato followed by a phase of sliding up and down the string, even when the sound has already become inaudible. For the musically trained, this is not seen as music. Normally, they would pluck the string very lightly to create a very quiet sound. For the qin player, this plucking is a 'forced pluck', trying to force a sound out of the string instead of letting the sounds come out of it naturally. Why pluck it lightly to create an empty sound when you want to hear something? Some qin players say that the sliding on the string even when the sound has disappeared is a distinctive feature in qin music. It creates a "space" or "void" in a piece, playing without playing, sound without sound. In fact, when the viewer looks at the player sliding on the string without sounds, the viewer automatically "fills in the notes" with their minds. This, of course, cannot happen when listening to a recording, as one cannot see the performer. This creates a connection between player, instrument and listener. But, truth be told, there is sound, the sound coming from your fingers sliding on the string. With a really good qin, silk strings, and a perfectly quiet environment, all the tones can be sounded. And since the music is more player oriented than listener oriented, and the player knows the music, he/she can hear it even if the sound is not there. And with silk strings the sliding sound might be called the "qi" or "life force" of the music. The really empty sounds are the pauses between notes. ^[24]

Qin music tends to linger on certain notes, with an emphasis on silence and timbre, giving it a meditative quality. Being an instrument historically associated with literati, its aim is Confucian (in trying to cultivate one's mind) as well as Daoist (in seeking harmony between man and nature). 「琴棋書畫」 (qin qi shu hua) refers to the Four Arts of the Chinese Scholar, wherein 琴 qin/music refers specifically to guqin. [This phrase is a rather late invention of the Song period (according to the Wuzhizhai Qinpu), so it is not clear how essential it was to the pedagogy of earlier scholar classes]. It is rarely used to play popular and fast tunes which are deemed to be vulgar to the instrument of the scholars. Because of this, the qin is not so popular amongst the uninitiated, and because of the decline of its popularity in the periods of turmoil in China (especially during the Cultural Revolution, when the qin was seen as an elitist and feudal instrument), and even in China, very few people are familiar with it. However, there has been a revival of interest in recent years, especially among Westerners, as the qin embodies a philosophy which appeals to those who wish to escape the stress and confusion of the modern world.

There is much comment in qin texts decrying "vulgar" music, but this really only means that there was a lot of it around. And it is interesting to hear people decry "popular and fast tunes" and then find out their favorite qin melody is Flowing Streams. By focusing only on what the scholars have idealized, people can miss a lot of the reality.

Related instruments

The Japanese ichigenkin 「一絃琴」, a monochord zither, is believed to be derived from the qin. The qin handbook Lixing Yuanya (【理性元雅】, 1618) includes some melodies for a one-string qin, and the Wuzhi Zhai Qinpu contains a picture and description of such an instrument ^[25]. The modern ichigenkin apparently first appeared in Japan just after that time. However, the honkyoku (standard repertoire) of the ichigenkin today most closely resembles that of the shamisen.

The Korean komungo may also be related, albeit distantly. Korean literati wanted to play an instrument the way their Chinese counterparts played the qin. For some reason they never took to the qin itself, instead playing the komungo, a long zither plucked with a thin stick. The repertoire was largely the komungo parts for melodies played by the court orchestra. It should be noted that another ancient Chinese zither, the zhu, was likely plucked with a stick, so the komungo may also be related to that instrument.

References

Chinese books on Qin:

Zhou, Ningyun (1915). Qinshu Cunmu 【琴書存目】.

A list of "existing" qinpu; most listed have never been found. Out of print.

Zha, Fuxi (1958). Cunjian Guqin Qupu Jilan 【存見古琴曲譜輯覽】. Beijing: The People's Music Publishers. ISBN 7-103-02379-4.

A "dictionary" of qin music. Lists existing qinpu, all their prefaces and afterwords, and a complete collection of full qin songs. Extremely useful. New reprint.

Xu, Jian (1982). Qinshi Chubian 【琴史初編】. Beijing: The People's Music Publishers. ISBN 7-103-02304-2.
Gong, Yi (1999). Guqin Yanzhoufa 【古琴演奏法】. 2nd ed., rev. inc. 2 CDs. Shanghai: Shanghai Educational Publishers. ISBN 7-5320-6621-5

Gong Yi's teaching manual for the qin. Includes fingering and many pieces in staff notation, some with qin tablature, some with Gong Yi's new guqin staff notation form.

Yin, Wei (2001). Zhongguo Qinshi Yanyi 【中國琴史演義】. Yunnan: People's Publishers of Yunnan. ISBN 7-222-03206-1/I‧866
Li, Xiangting (2004). Guqin Shiyong Jiaocheng 【古琴實用教程】. Shanghai: Shanghai Music Publishers. ISBN 7-80667-439-X

A very good teaching manual for the qin. Step by step with every piece explained in detail. Recommended.

Yao, Bingyan and Huang, Shuzhi (2005). Tangdai Chen Zhuo Lun Guqin Zhifa: Yao Bingyan Qinxue Zhu Shu zhi Yi 【唐代陳拙論古琴指法‧姚丙炎琴學著述之一】. Beijing: Shu zhi Zhai Wenhua Co. Ltd. ISBN 988-98739-1-5.

Qinpu

Zhu, Quan (1425, 2001). Shenqi Mipu 【神奇秘譜】. Beijing: China Bookstore. ISBN 7-80568-973-3/J‧284
Zhou, Zi'an (1722, 2000). Wuzhi Zhai Qinpu 【五知齋琴譜】. Beijing: China Bookstore. ISBN 7-80568-864-8/J‧237
Chu, Fengjie (1855). Yugu Zhai Qinpu 【與古齋琴譜】. Fujian: Private publication.
Yang, Zongji (1910-1931, 1996). Qinxue Congshu 【琴學叢書】. Beijing: China Bookstore. ISBN 7-80568-562-5/I‧139
Wang, Binglu (1931, 2005). Mei'an Qinpu 【楳盦琴譜】. Beijing: China Bookstore. ISBN 7-80663-297-2/J‧331
Wu, Jinglüe and Wenguang (2001). Yushan Wushi Qinpu【虞山吳氏琴譜】 The Qin Music Repertoire of the Wu Family. Beijing: Eastern Publishings. ISBN 7-5060-1454-8/I‧78

English books on Qin:

Gulik, Robert Hans van (1940, 1969). The Lore of the Chinese Lute. 2nd ed., rev. Rutland, Vt., and Tokyo: Charles Tuttle and Sophia University; Monumenta Nipponica. Library of Congress catalogue number 68-57056.

The only extensive qin literature to be published in English. Out of print and very rare.

Gulik, Robert Hans van (1941). Hsi K'ang and his Poetical Essay on the Chinese Lute. Tokyo: Monumenta Nipponica. Library of Congress catalogue number 68-58913.

The only English translation of Ji Kang's Qin Fu. Out of print and rare.

Lieberman, Fredric (1983). A Chinese Zither Tutor: The Mei-an Ch'in-p'u. Trans. and commentary. Washington and Hong Kong: Hong Kong University Press. ISBN 0-295-95941-X

Lieberman's translation of the Mei'an Qinpu. Does not contain the qin tablature to be able to play any pieces. New re-print.

Non Qin books:

Dr. L. Wieger, S. J. (1915, 1927, 1965). Chinese Characters: Their origin, etymology, history, classification and signification. A thorough study from Chinese documents. L. Davrout, S. J. (trans.). New York: Dover Publications. ISBN 0-486-21321-8
Zhang Yushu et al. (1921). Kangxi Zidian 【康熙字典】. Shanghai: Shanghai Old Books Distribution Place.

Old re-print in 60 volumes in 4 cases

Herdan, Innes (trans.)(1973, 2000). 300 Tang Poems【英譯唐詩三百首】, Yee Chiang (illus.). Taipei: The Far East Book Co., Ltd. ISBN 957-612-471-9
No author (1976, 1982). (Putonghua : Yueyin) Zhonghua Xin Zidian 【（普通話‧粵音）中華新字典】. Hong Kong: Chinese Book Department, Hong Kong Section. ISBN 962-231-001-X

External links

Some of these sites are in English and/or Chinese. Much of the information in this article comes from a variety of these sites as well as from books and qinpu.

Qin society sites

North American Guqin Association 北美琴社 Wang Fei's US based qin society, with a link to a store that sells good quality qins, CDs and books as well as other Chinese instruments, updates often and a library of qin music samples and other useful material
London Youlan Qin Society 倫敦幽蘭琴社 Cheng Yu's UK based qin society with information about each yaji and regular updates on upcoming events
New York Qin Society 紐約琴社 New York based qin society, with information of their previous yaji, now updated with new material
University of Toronto Guqin Association 多倫多大學古琴社 Toronto-based qin society, providing a network for promoting and connecting qin players in the Greater Toronto Area.
Anhui Mei'an Qin Society 安徽梅庵琴社 The Mei'an Qin Society's website has some information about the society and various qin information. In English and Chinese

General Qin sites

John Thompson's Silk-stringed Qin A host of information on the qin and silk strings for qins in English, including extensive study of Shenqi Mipu and analysis of playing style, plus useful section on qin sources
Christopher Evan's Chinese Guqin Christopher Evan's site explains Chinese music theory, notation and technique as well as note position diagrams
Julian Joseph's Guqin Site A site mainly about Julian's dapu of the Shiyixian Guan Qinpu [Qin Tablature of the House of Eleven-strings] plus several unabridged lists of commercial qin recordings
Yugu Zhai Qinpu Jim Binkley's translation of the qin construction manual with links to other sources. Includes a qin FAQ section and pictures of his 'blue qin' made by himself
Live Online Guqin Concert Watch the Live Online Guqin Concert of 2003, plus some information about the players and programme
Choi Fook Kee 蔡福記 Hong Kong based qin maker, Choi Fook Kee's site, with many examples of the qins he has made, with text to Qin Fu, in Chinese only
Digital Guqin Interactive art research-creation studio Shuen-git Chow heads the on-going "Digital Guqin Interactive art research-creation studio", first experimental results with team members of master guqin players and software developer. Qin players: Teo Kheng Chong, Wang Duo, software developer Etienne Durand

Sites dealing with qin notation and tablature

Chinese Guqin and Notation Very detailed and well illustrated site explaining fingering techniques, including sections on structure, forms and various information
Jieshi Diao Youlan Manuscript View the original Tang Jieshi Diao Youlan manuscript kept at the National Museum in Japan here
'Qin' notation web generator Detailed and very interesting site on qin notation and a program to enter it

Sites with a little information on Qin

UNESCO Proclaimation of Guqin as a Masterpiece of Oral and Intangible Heritage of Humanity
Stephen Dydo's Site Has pictures of Stephen's qin construction as well as information of his other past-times besides qin
Kaneko Koto Sangen Gakki Ten かねこ琴三絃楽器店 A Japanese instrument maker's site showing a selection of curious photos of Japanese qin (called Shichigenkin 七絃琴) construction process in Japan

Sites with music samples

Listen to Qin Music page from John Thompson site
Qin mp3s halfway down the page, from Jim Binkley's site
Listen Room from the NAGA site

Footnotes

^ http://www.silkqin.com/11misc/lute.htm John Thompson's explanation that 'zither' is more organologically correct, and that Van Gulik's idea that the general public associates the term 'lute' as a literati instrument is not generally true as they associate the lute more with a pear-shaped instrument.
^ Yin, Wei. Zhongguo Qinshi Yanyi 【中國琴史演義】. Pages 1-10.
^ http://www.chineseculture.net/guqin/newsletters/0908tangqinyaji/index.htm Wang Fei's site has pictures of said qin and Li Xiangting's comments.
^ http://www.unesco.org/culture/intangible-heritage/masterpiece.php?id=65&lg=en UNESCO's official proclaimation.
^ Herdan, Innes (trans.). 300 Tang Poems【英譯唐詩三百首】. Pages 128-129, 560-563 and 590-591.
^ Zhou, Zi'an. Wuzhi Zhai Qinpu 【五知齋琴譜】. Volume 1, folio 1, leaf <gold> 18-28.
^ Wu, Jinglüe and Wenguang. Yushan Wushi Qinpu【虞山吳氏琴譜】 The Qin Music Repertoire of the Wu Family. Pages 507-526.
^ Wang, Binglu. Mei'an Qinpu 【楳盦琴譜】. Volume 1 leaves 18-24.
^ Yao, Bingyan and Huang, Shuzhi. Tangdai Chen Zhuo Lun Guqin Zhifa: Yao Bingyan Qinxue Zhu Shu zhi Yi 【唐代陳拙論古琴指法‧姚丙炎琴學著述之一】.
^ Zhu, Quan. Shenqi Mipu 【神奇秘譜】.
^ Zha, Fuxi. Cunjian Guqin Qupu Jilan 【存見古琴曲譜輯覽】. Pages 3-44.
^ Gong, Yi. Guqin Yanzhoufa 【古琴演奏法】. Pages 38-42.
^ http://web.pdx.edu/~candy/qin/index.html Explains the origins and usage of the new notation program.
^ http://www.chineseculture.net/guqin/newsletter/qinexamlist.html A list of Guqin pieces for the Guqin certificate examinations in China. It lists the pieces by grade which is useful tool for the learner of qin.
^ http://www.silkqin.com/08anal/dapu.htm A description of dapu by John Thompson.
^ Chu, Fengjie. Yugu Zhai Qinpu【與古齋琴譜】 Volume 2 Chapter 2.
^ abid Volume 3 Chapter 7.
^ http://www.silkqin.com/03qobj/silk.htm About the properties of silk and it's use in strings for the qin.
^ Gong, Yi. Guqin Yanzhoufa 【古琴演奏法】. Page 11 and 13.
^ Dr. L. Wieger, S. J. Chinese Characters: Their origin, etymology, history, classification and signification. A thorough study from Chinese documents. Pages 701, 758-759.
^ Li, Xiangting. Guqin Shiyong Jiaocheng 【古琴實用教程】. Page 105.
^ Lieberman, Fredric. A Chinese Zither Tutor: The Mei-an Ch'in-p'u. Pages 29-34.
^ Yang, Zongji. Qinxue Congshu 【琴學叢書】. Volume 8, folio 2, leaves 18-21.
^ http://www.ukchinesemusic.com/londonyoulanqin/yaji_20040905.htm A summary of Yip Mingwei's talk on 'Nurturing Life', describing her views about prolonged vibrato, et al.
^ Zhou, Zi'an. Wuzhi Zhai Qinpu 【五知齋琴譜】. Volume 1, folio 2, leaf 10.