User:Motivation413/Educational legacy

Educational Legacy refers to the consequences of curriculum, policy and/or theory on educational systems in particular societies and/or among specific groups Every society has some form of an educational system influenced by a contribution of thought and/or initiative (Calhoun 327 ). Still very few educational systems operate in a similar way (Spindler 14). "Different nations have different views as to the norms that apply to themselves" (Heilbroner and Thurow:193) The main function of education (link) as a cultural process (inline citation Quillen: 2) is to help socialize and initiate the younger generation to become productive citizens in their society (Quillen 3). Education systems are modeled after what is most valued in a society (Quillen 2 ). In most cases, knowledge, skills, and other abilities highly favored in a society ( Quillen: 2) become "legitimate competencies" through the process of institutionalizing (inline citation Bourdieu 49). Educational legacy aids in this process (Calhoun and Ianni 1-8). In contemporary practice, many social scientist (link) use educational legacy as a perspective for understanding current conditions of global educational systems (Spindler; 191-200). Educational legacy can be survived from several factors including social science theorist, policies by leaders (inline citation: Turnbull), political and/or social movements ( Cheney 2002), and religious ideology (King 75-105).

Theorist

Moral education and educational Legacy

Emile Durkheim advocated for moral education to be incorporated into education systems.(inline citation hall). He emphasized the importance of integrating a civic education curriculum for students in order for society to function undisturbed (Hall). Durkheim believed there are moral facts (link morality) provided by society and these facts must be taught to young children (inline citation Dill 225). Durkheim further theorized society is "organic" ( hall 255) with its own rules, ideas, sentiments and character. Individuals should be taught, in Durkheim's view, how this organic system works in order to become functioning individuals in society. In his view, society is the highest authority and individuals must learn how to abide by the agenda of society (Dill: 235). Durkheim based this type of education on a "rational, secular model" (inline citation Dill) that could remain separate from religious irrational model but still maintain a spirituality conducive to the workings of society. His philosophy of a civic education is still present in the education system of France.

Cultural capital and educational legacy

Pierre Bourdieu notion of cultural capital implicitly critiques Durkheim's assertion of an organic society and the function of education systems (hall 256). Bourdieu's idea of the "social world" (Bourdieu46) is the setting where people use their skills, networks, power knowledge and values to "pursue their interest" ( Wilk and Cligget 184) for power and superiority. In his view it is the dominant bourgeois class that establishes the desired living standard and the means to attain this standard (bourdieu41). According to Bourdieu, economic capital is disguised as cultural capital where "belief is imposed" through education systems to the younger generation in a society (Bourdeiu 50). Processes are developed that aid in the development and maintenance of cultural capital (Quillen 3). Cultural capital is an investment of time and resources into the establishment of knowledge, skills, and abilities for scholastic and academic achievement (Inline citation Bourdieu 48). The structure of education systems are endlessly redesigned to ensure that certain knowledge is imposed and delivered to meet the desirable behavior of society (Quillen 2). Additionally Bourdieu challenges the premise that success and failure is based on the scholastic aptitude of students in a particular society. (inline citation Bourdieu 50). "The culture of poverty" (link) (Leacock 242) framework gained popularity and was used as an explanation for why children from low income or poor communities performed poorly in school( Leacock 243) . Bourdieu argued against this idea by adding that educational systems “perpetuate cultural capital as legitimate competence”(Bourdieu 1986,47). Bourdieu asserts that cultural capital is unequally distributed among individual students and when students enter into educational systems what level of capital they possess determines if they will be successful (Bourdieu 48). Institutionalizing cultural capital allows individuals to get ahead in the education system (educational attainment) in order to gain economic prosperity and upward social mobility (Bourdieu 46) . The changes in education systems assist in maintaining the legitimacy of homogeneous knowledge (inline citation Quillen 2). Presently Bourdieu's concept is often used as an analytical framework into the inequalities among student performances in schools (inline citiation McQuillan 59-81).

The impact of educational legacy on educational systems

The legacy of unequal schooling in the United States

After the South lost the Civil War in the United States, this region maintained the theory of white supremacy in society (inline citation Butchart 35). Many White people of the south were against the educational attainment for black children and used intimidation and violence to prevent the schooling of these individuals (Butchart 24) . Others would refuse to allow land for black schools resulting in limited venues of education for black children (Butchart 24). Still black community schools were opened and black teachers taught the younger generation with the objective of transmitting a knowledge to help succeed as newly freed individuals (White 270). These schools would receive less funding than white schools (Butchart 39). It wasn’t until 1890 when this practice of unequal distribution of economic capital towards schools would become legislated that would begin that would officially begin the legacy of unequal schooling in the United States (Butchart 35).

Plessy v. Ferguson mandated legalized segregation in public institutions, influencing the structure of educational institutions in the United States ( Kozol 34). Under this ruling, it was declared that separate meant equal, and black and white people in the United States were to maintain separate facilities and institutions from each other( Kozol 34 ).  Economic support continued to be unequally distributed between white and black schools (Butchart 35).  Separate but equal legacy resulted in both lack of resources, and the inability for social mobility of the subordinate group (White, 270). 

Brown vs. Board of education repealed the doctrine separate but equal by declaring separate is unequal ( Kimball 282). This judges did not use the justification of unequal facilities and institutions as a basis for the ruling, rather it was based on the mental health and social well being of black students (Kimball 282) This ruling ordered for the desegregation and integration of schools "with all deliberate speed" (inline citations Judge Wallace (link) 282). As a result of desegregation, many black schools were closed and black teachers and principals lost their jobs (inline citation Mead 294). Once integration was imposed, cultural capital was lost through the lost of the black intellectual teaching and/or socialization the black student inline citation White 270).

Current conditions of the educational systems in the United States include a large achievement gap among white, black and Hispanic students (Kozol 280-282), a large population of black students in special education programs, and a larger drop out rate for black and Hispanic students ( Kozol 155-156 ). Presently there is an emphases on equal educational opportunity where policies developed are aimed to closing the achievement gap and increasing retention rates ( Kozol 395 ).

Indigenous education and the legacy of assimilation policy

The education systems of indigenous peoples, specifically in Australia, New Zealand and the United States, has been heavily influenced by cultural assimilation imposed by British and United States colonizers (Havighurst 130). Education systems for indigenous peoples were built on the premise that these groups will unite with the governing group in order to learn how to participate in the new dominant society (Havighurst:131). This premise was extended further by the idea not preserving any indigenous knowledge because it was not valuable and the Anglo knowledge was the most desirable (Havighurst 130). Boarding schools to teach indigenous children the values, knowledge and skills of the dominant group and reservation camps were created to house indigenous groups (Havighurst 130). It was assumed that these skills will assist in the transition of indigenous population into mainstream society (inline citation Havighurst 131). Some indigenous individuals successfully assimilated into mainstream culture (Havighurst 134). The individuals who were unsuccessful became poor and uneducated (Havighurst 135). Presently there is an emphasis on self-determination through schooling (Havighurst 143). The Indian Self-Determination and Educational Assistance Act (link) was a policy introduced in the United States in 1975 (Manuelito 73). This idea develops from a framework of cultural pluralism in order to counterbalance the legacy of assimilation policy and practices (inline citation Havighust:134). Indigenous knowledge about he environment is being recognized as valuable and is incorporated into the curriculum of some educational systems ( Medicine 284). Currently there are some challenges in the different ways groups view schooling. (Manuelito 84). After conducting research in a Navajo community, Kathryn Manuelito found that "the inclusion of Indigenous epistemologies in public education can only strengthen the development of self-determination, empowering Natives and non-Natives alike" (84 Manuelito).

Political or social movements

Education in Uganda has been transformed since pre-colonial times to the present day due to various changes in the social and political environment (inline citation Cheney). During pre-colonial times, education focused on manual labor and production of goods that were of immediate use for the society (inline citation Cheney 76). Uganda comprised of several tribes who knew of their history not through schoolbooks but from their own family oral history of ancestors, beliefs and customs ( Cheney 77). The arrival of missionary schools and western schooling from the British transformed educational philosophy and policy for individuals in Uganda (Leacock: 239). Missionary schools focused more on academic training in literacy and arithmetic than agriculture (Cheney 80). These schools brought the educational philosophy of the British into the education system of Uganda (Cheney 80) . This resulted in more job seekers than those who could create jobs for the economy ( Cheney 81). The value of education also changed with the appearance of the British, where education in the formalized fashion was held in higher esteem. Tribes began to disappear as the missionaries pushed for a Ugandan national identity (Cheney 79). Many individuals of Uganda began to desire the more formalized British education they had, the better chance of achieving a high living standard and "material success" (Leacock 241) (Cheney 80). In the 1960's African nationals educated in the British formalized system and world organizations began to encourage a "education for national development" philosophy (Cheney 82) for African nations (Leacock 240). As individuals and groups prepared for independence from the British, they began to realize the need for diverse industries to exist (Cheney 81). There was a movement towards job creators in order for national development and pride to be sustained (Leacock 239). Civil war in Uganda challenged the education system in several ways (Cheney 82). When Idi Amin came into power in the early 1970's (Cheney 5), the curriculum of education system was revised (Cheney 82) and economic policy by Amin affected education systems and professional (Cheney 5). Intellectualism was frowned upon while the spirit for a national identity was encouraged (inline citation Cheney 82). Many stores owned by foreign national became nationalized while the desirable ethnic groups maintained stability. In addition many children were recruited as soldiers and some schools were used as hubs for soldiers (Cheney 82). Presently, the Ugandan education system emphasizes national identity and political socialization (Cheney 98). Western-style education is still being questioned as a legitimate competence as parents are concerned that the "school does not properly prepare them(children) for life's realities (Cheney 83). There has also been some concerns that educational materials in Uganda "are still constructed in terms of Western models that are inadequate not only for African children, but for children generally" (Leacock 246).

Religious theology

Hutterities: (see full article) The Hutterities are a Western cultural group who migrated to North America from European nations due to persecution of their religious beliefs (Spindler; 185). They maintain a commune with an emphasis of enculturation of the younger generation (King 78). The Hutterities developed separate colonies, apart from mainstream society, and maintain their cultural capital, belief system, language, and identity through the education system ( Spindler 185 ). They can trace their ancestor back to several generations assisting in the maintenance of their own cultural capital (King 83). Education serves as the most crucial institution for development and survival for the younger generation (Spindler 97-107). According to the field research conducted by George and Louise Spindler( Spindler 185-187), the Hutterities priority on religious instruction and basic academic skills including reading, writing and arithmetic ensures a students success in adult life. Children attend school from the age of 3 until the age of 16. This is when the young adult will depart from the education system and enters into mandatory labor ( King :101). In order to comply with the law for children to attend a licensed school (king:102) the Hutterities send their children to a public school during their school aged years while attending a Hutterian German school after school and on Saturdays (king 102). In some cases the Hutterian have taken over some schools in order to satisfy the requirements of the state and maintain their customs and knowledge (King 102).

The legacy of Milton Hershey School (Full article link)

The Hershey Industrial School (now currently known as the Milton Hershey School) established 100 years ago in Pennsylvania boast of legacy of success for impoverished children (kemmery 2010). The boarding school offers "education, recreation, food, housing, clothing, medical and dental care all free of charge"(Kemmery 48). The original emphasis on the school was agriculture due to the location and the environmental setting (Kemmery 2010). Other trade programs were gradually introduced to prepare students for "society transitioning "(Kemmery 48). The curriculum of the school has gone through several changes to reflect the changing times, attitude and values of people in society (Kemmery 49). The Milton Hershey School now offers a curriculum mixed with vocational and academic training with the philosophy to train the younger generation for a "post secondary setting" (kemmery 49). The school, originally for white orphan boys, is now coed with a diverse group of students (Kemmery 49). Programs at the school adjusted to meet the needs of a diverse population entering (Kemmery 49). As a result health occupation, technology and communication programs were included (Kemmery 49). The Milton Hershey School continues to serve youth who are disadvantaged (Kemmery 48)

The importance of

Researchers, policy makers, and social scientist analyze policies and determine the long term-effects it may have on the current conditions of educational systems in assorted nations (Turnbull 99-114). Educational anthropologists seek to discover several solutions to problems that exist in education systems (Quillen 1). Every society has an education system that serves as a transmission of knowledge and culture (Spindler 2000: 56). According to educational anthropologist George Spindler (2000; 5) “The schools are constructed out of demographics and cultures of the past, and are created in every society to ensure the continuance of the status quo". Educational regimes have a legacy that shows it is not just historical forces that set education on a specific trajectory (Quillen 25). Educational legacy helps to "establish a context for the study of education" adds Calhoun, (Calhoun: 328) since education systems fluctuate and change frequently (Calhoun 339).

References

Bourdieu, Pierre. 1986. The Forms of Capital In Handbook in Theory and Research for the Sociology of Education. New York, Greenwood, 241-258

Bowman, Mary Jean. 1986. On Economics. In The contributions of the Social Sciences to Educational Policy and Practice:1965-1985. California. McCutchan Publishing Corporation. Ppg 199-216.

Butchart, Ronald. 2010. Black hope, White power: emancipation, reconstructions and the legacy of unequal schooling in the US south, 1861-1880, Paedagogica Historica, 46:1,33-50.

Cheney, Kristen. 2007. Pillars of the Nation: Child Citizens and Ugandan National Development. Chicago. The University of Chicago Press.

Dill, Jeffery S. 2007. Durkheim and Dewy and the challenge of contemporary moral education. Journal of Moral Education 36(2) Ppg 221-237

Erickson, Frederick D. and Gary Bekker. 1986. On Anthropology. In The Contributions of the Social Sciences to Educational Policy and Practice 1965-1985. California. McCutchan Publishing Coroporation Ppg. 163-182.

Hall, W.D. 1994. The Educational Legacy of Durkheim. Oxford Review of Education. 20 (2) Ppg. 253-257.

Havighusrt, Robert. 1976. Contributions of Anthropology to Cultural Pluralism. : Three case studies: Australia, New Zealand, and the United States. In the Anthropological Study of Education. Ed. Craig J. Calhoun and Francis A. Ianni. Aldine, Chicago. Mouton Publishers: The Hague. Ppg. 127-146

Heilbroner, Robert and Lester Thurow. 1982. Economics Explained: everything you need to know about how the economy works and where it's going. New York City. Touchstone.

Kemmery, Robert. 2010. A CTE Legacy Built on Chocalate: Milton Hersey School's 100 years. American College of Physicians. W. a c t e o n l l n e . o r g.

King, Michael J. 1976. Patterns of Enculturation in Communal Society. In The Anthropological study of Education. Ed. Craig Calhoun and Francis Ianni. Paris. Mouton Publishers.

Kozol, Jonathan. 2005. The Shame of a Nation: The Restoration of Apartheid schooling in America. New York. Crown Publishing group.

McQuillan, Patrick

       1998. Educational opportunity in an urban American high school: a cultural analysis. New York. New york press

Manuelito, Kathryn 2005. The role of education in American Indian self-determination: Lessons from the Ramah Navajo Community School. Anthropology and Education Quarterly. 36 (1) ppg. 73-87.

Spindler, George. 2000. Why have Minority Groups in North America been disadvantaged by their schools.? In Fifty Years of Anthropology and Education: A Spindler Anthology. New Jersey. Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Publishers. Ppg. 127-140.

Turnbull, Brenda. 1986. Federal and State Policy. In The contributions of the social sciences to educational policy and practice:1965-1985. California. McCutchan Publishing Corporation. Ppg. 99-114.

Wilk, Richard R and Lisa C Cliggett. 2007. Economies and cultures: Foundations of Economic Anthropology. 2ed. Boulder Co. Westview Press.

White, Monica. 2002. Paradise Lost? Teacher's perspective on the Use of Cultural Capital in the segregated schools of New Orleans, Louisiana. The Journal of African American History. 87 ppg. 269-281.

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