Martyr

Historically, a martyr (from Greek martys for "witness") was considered to be a person who died for their religious faith, typically by being tortured to death.

Christian martyrs in the first three centuries A.D. were crucified in the same manner as Roman political prisoners or eaten by lions as a circus spectacle. They are recognized as martyrs because they have preferred to die rather than renounce their Christian faith, usually by making a sacrifice to a pagan deity. Many church historians believe that there were more Christian martyrs in the 20th century than in the first 19 centuries combined.

The term has since been used metaphorically for people killed in a historical struggle for some cause, such as Steve Biko or Rachel Corrie, or those whose deaths served to galvanize a particular movement, such as Matthew Shepard.

In the 20th century, many Muslims called suicide bombers belonging to Islamist and Palestinian nationalist groups "martyrs". Such usage is seen by some as controversial (the actual percentage is still disputed), the Arab word "shaheed" has been sometimes used since in English it carries no obvious emotional baggage.

A person who was expelled from school for his or her religious beliefs may be called a school martyr, no matter whether the cause for expulsion is student's religious beliefs or those of his or her parents.

Hero or villain?

The term "martyr" is in some ways semantically interchangeable with "hero" — both are almost always controversial. The phrase 'one man's hero is another's criminal' is a simple way of expressing this disparity. Warriors throughout history returning from battle are typically revered for "heroism" and "bravery". In recent history, those that commit criminal acts during war run the risk of military courts martial. In all cultures, war dead are considered to be in some sense "martyrs." This is true of U.S. soldiers killed in foreign military operations — the U.S. President commonly refers to "their sacrifice" as being "for the cause of freedom." The actual word "martyr" is not used, however.