Sipahi

Sipahi (Ottoman Turkish: سپاهی; also transliterated as Spahi, Sepahi, and Spakh; traditionally rendered as Spahia or Spahiu in Albanian, Σπαχής in Greek and Spahija - Cyrillic спахиjа, спахия — in Bosnian, Croatian, Serbian, Macedonian and Bulgarian) was the name of several Ottoman cavalry corps. In the form of "Spahi" it was the title given to several cavalry units serving in the French and Italian colonial armies during the nineteenth and twentieth centuries.

The name ultimately derives from the Persian سپاه (sepâh, meaning "army") and has the same root as the English term "sepoy".

Description

Sipahi refers to all mounted troops other than akıncıs and tribal horsemen in Ottoman army. The word was used almost synonymously with cavalry. The sipahis formed two distinct types of cavalry: feudal-like, provincial timarlı sipahi (timariots)which consisted most of the Ottoman army, and salaried, regular kapıkulu sipahi (sipahi of the Porte), which consisted cavalry part of the Ottoman household troops.

Timarli Sipahis

Timarli Sipahi (timariot) was the holder of a fief of land (تيمار tîmâr) granted directly by the Ottoman sultan or with his official permission by beylerbeys. He was entitled to all of the income from that land, in return for military service. The peasants on the land were subsequently attached thereto. Timarli Sipahis' status resembled that of the knights of medieval Europe. Unlike medieval knights, they weren't legally owners of their fiefs. The right to govern and collect taxes in a timar fief was merely given to a Timarli Sipahi by Ottoman State. And in return, tımarli sipahis were responsible for security of the people in their timar, enlisting and training "jebelu" soldiers for the army.

A tîmâr was the smallest unit of land held by a Sipahi, providing a yearly revenue of no more than 20,000 akçe, which was between two and four times what a teacher earned. A ziamet (زعامت) was a larger unit of land, yielding up to 100,000 akçe, and was owned by Sipahis of officer rank. A has (غاص) was the largest unit of land, giving revenues of more than 100,000 akçe, and was only held by the highest-ranking members of the military. A tîmâr Sipahi was obliged to provide the army with up to five retainers (jebelu), a ziamet Sipahi with up to twenty, and a has Sipahi with far more than twenty.

Jebelu means armed or armored, and those retainers (jebelu) expected to be mounted and fully equipped as Sipahi themselves. They were usually sons, brothers or nephews of the Sipahi and their position was probably more similar to squires than men at arms.

In contrast to Jannisaries, Timarli Sipahis were always exclusively ethnic Turks. Provinces that did not have a Turkish population, like the Arabian peninsula, did not have timarli sipahis. Kanunname-i Sipahi (Book of law of Sipahis), that was written in Mehmed II era, clearly states that every sipahi (kapıkulu or timarli) must be of Turkish ancestry. It is thought that this was a way to control and to separate two fundamental army divisions (jannisary and sipahi) completely from each other and alienating Turks from capitol city politics while maintaining a controlled Turkish elite of bureaucracy and nobility in Anatolia and Balkans, without the danger of creating rival Turkish dynasties to the Ottoman throne(which was a central reason of destruction for earlier Turkish states). This way, jannisaries who controlled the central bureaucracy of the empire and had a lot of political influence, and sipahis who controlled the provincial bureaucracy and had the power of the army, would always have rivalry and never could cooperate against the House of Osman.

In wartime, Timarli sipahis and their jebelus (retainers) were gathered under their alay (regiment) beys. Subsequently alay beys were gathered with their troops under sanjak (province) beys, and sanjak-beys gathered under beylerbeys. If a battle was fought to be in Europe, Rumeli (Balkan) Sipahis took the honorary right flank of Ottoman Army under Rumeli beylerbey, while Anatolian beylerbey with his Sipahis took the left flank. If battle was in Asia, positions were switched. This way, classical period Ottoman army's both flanks wholly consisted of timariot cavalry, while janissary infantry and artillery divisions consisted army's center.

Timarli Sipahis of Anatolia and Timarli Sipahis of Rumeli (Balkan) provinces had employed different equipments and tactics. Timarli Sipahis of Anatolia equipped and fought as classic horse archer style. They could shoot arrows back and forth while galloping. Yet they weren't nomadic cavalry and their status was similar to medium cavalry class. Balkan Timarli Sipahis donned chainmail, rode barded horses and carried lances. Though they also carried javelins as missile weapons to fend off chasing enemy cavalry, and fought as medium cavalry.

Timarli Sipahis of classical Ottoman period usually comprised the majority of the army and did the majority of the fighting on the battlefield. While infantry troops of the army's center maintained a static battle line, the cavalry flanks constituted its mobile hitting arm. During the battle, Timarli Sipahi tactics were used, opening the conflict with skirmishes and localized contacts with enemy cavalry. Regiments of Timarli Sipahis made charges against weaker or isolated units and whenever confronted with heavy cavalry, retreated back to main body of troops. During one regiment's retreat, other regiments of sipahis may have charged the chasing enemy's flanks. This way, they were trying to draw enemy cavalry away from infantry support, distort their cohesion, isolate and overwhelm them with numerical superiority. Anatolian Sipahis had the ability to harass and provoke opposing troops with arrow shots. More heavily equipped Balkan Sipahis were carried javelins for protection against closing enemy horsemen during their tactical retreats. This way, all cavalry flanks of Ottoman army fought a fluid, mounted warfare around center of the army which remained as a stable pivot.

Classical Ottoman period standard equipment of Rumeli (Balkan) Sipahis was round shield, lance, sword, javelins and plated chainmail. Their horses were barded. Standard equipment of Anatolian Sipahis at same era was round shield, composite Turkish bow, arrows, kilij (turkish sword) and leather or felt armor. Beside of those, Sipahis of both provinces equipped with bozdogan and şeşper maces, and aydogan, teber and sagir axes. Anatolian Sipahis sometimes also carried lances.

Kapikulu Sipahis

Kapikulu Sipahis (Sipahis of the Porte) were household cavalry troops of the Ottoman Palace. They were the cavalry equivalent of Janissary household infantry force. There was six divisions of Kapikulu Sipahis: The Sipahis, Silahtars, Right Ulufecis, Left Ulufecis, Right Garips and Left Garips. All of them got paid with quarterly salaries. The Sipahis and Silahtars were élite units within the six divisions.

Silahtars (which means weaponmasters) were chosen among the best warriors in Ottoman Empire. Any Ottoman soldier committed a significant deed in battlefield may have been promoted to Silahtar division. Although usually members of other mounted units, like Timarli Sipahis or other less prestigious four divisions of Kapikulu Sipahis promoted this way. Infantry soldiers had to enlist as serdengecti (literally means giver of his head) and survive suicide missions to join Silahtar division. If a janissary ever became a silahtar, other members of division with cavalry background despised him and former comrade janissaries considered him as traitor. Though the position and wealth of a silahtar was so attractive, janissaries and other soldiers still enlisted for suicide missions.

Commander of the Silahtar division was the Silahtar Agha. He was official weaponmaster of the palace and close personal aide of the sultan, who helps him to don his armor. He also was liaison officer who supervises the communication between the sultan and the Grand Vizier.

The Sipahi division was the most prestigious of six divisions. Traditionally, sons of Ottoman élite (sons of Vezirs, Pashas and Beys) were served in this unit. The Sipahis and Silahtars were granted timar fiefs near Istanbul, alongside their salaries. Ulufeci means salaried ones and members of two Ulufeci divisions wasn't granted with timar fiefs. Garip means poor ones because their equipment was lighter compared to other four divisions. They were also getting their payments as salaries.

Six divisions of Sipahis were Kapikulu cavalry as the way Janissaries were Kapikulu infantry. Kapikulu means slave of the Porte. Slaves of the Porte (Kapikullari) were legally slaves of Ottoman throne. They weren't literally slaves, though their legal status was different than other ottoman people. The Sultan had power to directly command execution of his slaves without any court verdict. On theory, Sultan hadn't this kind of power over other people, even simple peasants. If a freeman was promoted to one of Kapikulu Sipahi divisions, he considered automatically switched to kul (slave) status.

Equipment of Silahtar, Sipahi and Ulufeci divisions was plated mail, chainmail, round shield, sword, composite bow, arrows, lance, bozdogan mace and axe. Their equipment was similar to Rumeli (Balkan) provincial Timarli Sipahis, though they wore brilliant fabrics, prominent hats and bore ornamented polearms. Two Garip divisions was more lightly equipped.

In classical period Ottoman battle formation, Kapikulu Sipahis were positioned back of the army as rearguards. They acted as reserve cavalry and bodyguards of Ottoman sultan and vezirs. Their job included to join and reinforce Ottoman army's flanks which otherwise consisted entirely provincial timariot sipahis.

The Sipahis of the Porte (Kapikulu Sipahis) were originally founded during the reign of Murad I. Although the Sipahis of the Porte were originally recruited, like the Janissaries, using the devshirmeh system^[1], by the time of Sultan Mehmed II, their ranks were only chosen from among the ethnic Turks who owned land within imperial borders. The Sipahi eventually became the largest of the six divisions of the Ottoman cavalry. The duties of the Sipahis included riding with the sultan on parades and as a mounted bodyguard. Earlier times Silahtar division was accompanied sultan on parades, though The Sipahi division took their place because sons of Ottoman "aristocracy" exclusively joined this regiment. In times of peace, they were also responsible for the collection of taxes. The Sipahis, however, should not be confused with the Timariots, who were irregular cavalry organised along feudal lines and known as "sipahi"s colloquially. In fact, the two formations had very little in common.

Rivalry with the Janissary Corps

Since Kapikulu Sipahis were a cavalry regiment it was well known within the Ottoman military circles that they considered themselves a superior stock of soldiers than Janissaries, who were sons of Christian peasants from the Balkans (Rumelia), and were basically proud slaves bounded by various laws of the devşirme.

Whereas the Sipahis( both Tımarlı and Kapıkulu) were almost exclusively chosen amongst ethnic Turkic landowners, they made great strides of efforts to gain respect within the Ottoman Empire and their political reputation depended on the mistakes of the Janissary. That minor quarrels erupted between the two units is made evident with a Turkmen adage, still used today within Turkey, "Atlı er başkaldırmaz", which, referring to the unruly Janissaries, translates into, "Horsemen don't mutiny".

Towards the middle of the 16th century, the Janissaries had started to gain more importance in the army, though the Sipahis remained an important factor in the empire's bureucracy, economy and politics, and a crucial aspect of disciplined leadership within the army. As late as the 17th century, the Sipahis were, together with their rivals the Janissaries, the de facto rulers in the early years of sultan Murad IV's reign. In 1826, after an evident Janissary revolt the Sipahis played an important part in the disbandment of the Janissary corps. The Sultan received critical assistance from the loyalist Sipahi cavalry in order to forcefully dismiss the infuriated Janissaries.

Two years later, however, they shared a similar fate when Sultan Mahmud II revoked their privileges and dismissed them in favor of a more modern military structure. Unlike the Janissaries before them they retired honorably, peacefully, and without bloodshed into new Ottoman cavalry divisions who followed modern military tradition doctrines. Older sipahis were allowed to retire and keep their tımar lands until they die, and younger sipahis joined the Asakir-i Mansure-i Muhammediye army as cavalry.

Appearances in modern media

Sipahis are one of two unique units for the Ottoman Empire in Firaxis' Civilization V

(the other being their Jannisary rivals.)

Sipahis appear in The Creative Assembly's Empire: Total War as a heavy cavalry unit employed by the Ottoman Empire and other Islamic factions.
Sipahis appear in Ensemble Studio's Age of Empires III as a heavy cavalry unit unique to the Ottoman Empire.
Sipahis are employed by the Turks in Medieval II Total War in three different forms: Sipahis, mounted archers; Sipahi Lancers, heavy cavalry, and Dismounted Sipahi Lancers, heavy infantry.
The Sipahi is the unique unit for the Ottoman Empire in the computer game Civilization III.
The mercenaries in William Barton's novel When Heaven Fell are referred to as "Spahi." (Their ranks seem to use names from the Indian or Pakistani military.)
The Spahis are mentioned in the book The Count of Monte Cristo by Alexandre Dumas.
A Sipahi Jawshan is an armor set in Final Fantasy XI.

Colonial Spahis

During the colonial empires of France and Italy there were cavalry units of colonial troops called "Spahis", in reference to the Ottoman Sipahi. France used those cavalry troops (from Maroc and Algeria) successfully during WWI in Europe against Germany. Even in WWII French Spahis fought in Italian Libya conquering Fezzan in 1943 with general Leclerc.

Italian Spahis were native libyan cavalry troops who fought bravely during the conquest of Ethiopia in 1935/36 and against the Allies in the libyan desert in 1940-42.

Notes

^ Shaw 26

References

Shaw, Stanford J. History of the Ottoman Empire and Modern Turkey, Vol. 1.
"Empire of the Gazis: The Rise and Decline of the Ottoman Empire 1280–1808. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1976. ISBN 0-521-29163-1.

External links

[1] Shaw 26

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