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Neuro-linguistic programming

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Neuro-linguistic programming (NLP) is a set of techniques or rituals and beliefs that adherents use primarily as an approach to psychotherapy, healing, communication and personal development.

NLP was proposed in 1973 by Richard Bandler and John Grinder as a set of models and principles to describe the relationship between mind (neuro) and language (linguistic, both verbal and non-verbal) and how their interaction might be organized (programming) to affect an individual's mind, body and behavior. It is described by the original developers as "therapeutic magic" and "the study of the structure of subjective experience" [1][2]. It is predicated upon the assumption that all behaviors have a practically determinable structure [3][4]

NLP is based on New Age beliefs in unlimited potential and the access to subconscious engrams [5] [6][5]Cite error: A <ref> tag is missing the closing </ref> (see the help page).[7], and body language cues derived from the observation of “therapeutic wizards” [8]. Techniques include behavior change, transforming beliefs, and treatment of traumas through techniques such as reframing [9][8] and "meta modeling" [3] proposed for exploring the personal limits of belief as expressed in language. NLP has been applied to a number of fields such as sales, psychotherapy, communication, education, coaching, sport, business management, interpersonal relationships, seduction, occult and spirituality.

Scientists such as [10][11][1][12] have criticised NLP in scientific research reviews which conclude that its magical theories [1][13]are scientifically unsupported and it has failed to show its claimed efficacy in controlled studies. Several reviews [12][14][15][6]have characterized NLP as pseudoscientific and [13]mass-marketed psychobabble. NLP is identified by [16][17][18] as a dubious therapy and a cult [19][13] described by Winkin [20] as charlatanry and fraudulent [16] and is promoted in the same mold as Dianetics and Scientology[12][15][10]. Beyerstein (1990 p.30), Lilienfeld (2003 p.133), and Eisner [13] report that there is much concern about government and business organizations being duped into adopting NLP and other non-supported therapies due to lack of scientific awareness.

Overview

Professor Hunt, a sociologist, characterizes [21] NLP as a development with implied religiosity in the healing/self-development field and states that NLP is “an alternative to Scientology". Hunt (2003 p195) states “While not an alternative religion per se” NLP can be seen as “similar to new religions of eastern origin that trace themselves back through a progression of gurus, and to esoteric movements claiming the authority of authenticity through their descent from previous movements"

New Age author, Kelly (1990p25)[22] and Beyerstein (1990p25) characterize NLP as a New Age development. Devilly, professor of psychology (2005p441) considers NLP to be classed as an alphabet or power therapy similar to Thought Field Therapy or Eye Movement Desensitization and Reprocessing, Emotional Freedom Technique and Traumatic Incident Reduction.

NLP Principles

Foundational assumptions

Distinct from its formal presuppositions, NLP incorporates a variety of foundational assumptions that precede the presuppositions. These are:

  1. There is a mind-body connection [23] [24]
  2. The mind is broadly composed of a conscious and a subconscious (or unconscious) component [3].
  3. A person's experience of the world is processed and organized exclusively in terms of the five senses [3][2]
  4. Physiology, sensory representation ("submodality") and emotion comprise internal state [25] .
  5. Behavior is the result of systematically ordered sequences of sensory representations ("strategies") [8][2]
  6. All behavior occurs in the context of internal state [25] .
  7. Internal state mediates experience and influences or determines behavior [25] .
  8. Internal state and strategy — hence behavior — have a discernible and communicable structure [2] [25] .
  9. People exhibit their internal state in their language (verbal and non-verbal) [25] .
  10. Since behavior and its substrates — internal state and strategy — can be codified, a person's skill can be reproduced in another person [2]
  11. Behavior is learned [2]
  12. Direct and objective knowledge of the (external) world is not possible (you create your own reality [26][3][3][2]

Presuppositional beliefs

The presuppositional beliefs (Bodenhammer 2001.p63) or presuppositions of NLP are sometimes described as an epistemology [3][2][23][24][27]. A presupposition (linguistic term) is a background belief that is treated by the NLP practitioner "as if"[28][3] it were literally true.

The fundamental presuppositions in NLP include:

  • The map is not the territory This is often stated as "you create your own reality".
  • Complex system|Life and 'Mind' are Systemic Processes

These presuppositional beliefs are considered groundbreaking by NLP proponents because of a contradiction with the modern scientific Aristotelian view that reality can be objectively measured [8][23][10], and the psychoanalyst view is that the presuppositions upon which NLP are founded are not valid [29],

The other commonly related presuppositional beliefs are derived from the these two fundamental presuppositions [25] . Some researchers [30][31] consider the NLP presuppositional beliefs of unlimited resource and the positive intention behind every behaviour to be ultimately spiritual in nature.

Modeling and Theory

Modeling

NLP modeling is a method that is promoted for duplicating behaviour, expertise or excellence, or reproducing "magic" abilities of experts [3]. It is considered by Grinder to be at the heart of NLP [32]. It can be thought of as the process of discovering relevant distinctions within these experiential components, as well as sequencing these components, aiming to achieve a specific result. NLP proponents claim that it is used to discover and codify patterns of excellence as demonstrated consistently by top performers in any field [24]. For example, Dilts [33] states that psychic states of consciousness can be modelled by changing the sense sequence (instead of getting feelings from what you see, generate images from what you feel). NLP modeling has also been applied to clinical conditions, such as the "skill" of schizophrenia [8][9][23] and notable people of whom we have only writings, such as Jesus of Nazareth and Sherlock Holmes [34]. It has been argued that modeling from writings is unverifiable (both within and outside NLP).

Theory

Dilts [33] says that "NLP is theoretically rooted in neurology, psychophysiology, linguistics, cybernetics and communication theory". Others say it is not based on theory, it is based on modeling (and Richard Bandler states that he does not "do theory" [35] [36]). Singer [35] states that "the process involves pretending that a model works, trying it, then if you don’t get results, discard it and try something else". Dilts et al. [2] state that NLP is more interested in what works than what is true.

According to (????) an NLP practitioner may, after observing a person's behaviours, develop a theory of what a person is doing. When they have observed a pattern in a person's behaviour, this could be considered their theory. NLP trainers says not to let a pre-existing "general" theory or belief affect the observation of what is actually going on now. Singer (1996) says that NLP proponents make hypotheses and propose armchair theories [35]. For example, NLP assumes that all human behaviour is neurological, and all human behaviour is based on the 5 senses, rather than attitudes, reason, emotions, mind, morals or ego [35]. According to research reviews (Beyerstein 1990), the main tenets of NLP has been found to be conceptually erroneous and false.

Meaning of "Neuro"
File:Engram Trace and NLP V-K Circuit3.JPG
Explaining the neuro in NLP in relation to V-K modalities(click to enlarge)

All NLP literature refers to the altering of one's neurology through the neural pathways of the senses and the neural circuits of the brain. Most current NLP literature mentions no more than the reprogramming of mental habits and associations. However, the Engram[37] is used within NLP to explain how NLP works [7] [5][6]. Practitioners such as Derks, Singer, and Goldblatt theorize that NLP processes can be explained through the neurological concepts of programming and reprogramming engrams [37]. Within NLP, Engrams are proposed "to give a patterned response which has been stabilized at the level of unconscious competence" [37]

Brain lateralization

Hemispheric differences (brain lateralization) is used to support assumptions in NLP. Robert Dilts propose eye movements (and sometimes gestures) correspond to visual/auditory/kinesthetic representations systems and to the specific regions in the brain [3][2][38]. For example, the left side is said to be more logical/analytical than the right side, which is said to be more creative/imaginative [39] or that regions of the brain are specialised for certain functions such as mathematics or language [3][40].

NLP Models

Aside from the fundamental Metamodel, Milton Model, and Representational Systems, NLP proponents also proposed methods for belief change, meta programs, the George A. Miller's T.O.T.E. model. Longstanding practitioners Robert Dilts and Judith Delozier claim that the SMART model, amongst others are also part of NLP[25] .

Background

One of the earliest influences on NLP were General Semantics (Alfred Korzybski) as a new perspective for looking at the world which included a kind of mental hygiene. This was a departure from the Aristotelian concepts of modern science and objective reality, and it influenced notions of programming the mind. Korzybski General semantics influenced several schools of thought, leading to a viable human potential industry and associations with emerging New Age thinking. By the late 1960s, self-help organizations such as EST, Dianetics, and Scientology had become financially successful. The Esalen human potential seminars in California began to attract people, such as the therapist and dianetics proponent Fritz Perls [41], as well as Gregory Bateson, Virginia Satir, and Milton H. Erickson.

While at Kresge College, University of California, Santa Cruz, John Grinder then an Assistant Professor of linguistics was invited by Richard Bandler, then a fourth year undergraduate student to visit his Gestalt therapy group [24]. Between 1973-1979, under the mentorship of Gregory Bateson, the co-founders collaborated, and published several books including The Structure of Magic Volumes I & II (1975, 1975a), Changing with families and Patterns of the Hypnotic Techniques of Milton H. Erickson, Volumes I & II (1977, 1978) based on the patterns of Fritz Perls, Virginia Satir, Milton H. Erickson[24].

The practice of neuro-linguistic programming attracted mostly therapists at first although it eventually attracted business people, sales people, artists, and "new-agers" [42]. As it expanded, Leslie Cameron-Bandler, Judith DeLozier, Stephen Gilligan, Robert Dilts, and David Gordon (Therapeutic Metaphors, 1978) made further contributions to NLP and the seminars of Bandler and Grinder were transcribed by Steve Andreas into a book, Frogs into Princes. This was published in 1979 and drove the demand for seminars which in turn became successful human potential attractions [43].

Since the mid 1990s NLP has become more widespread, and following the example of Richard Bandler (who attempted legal action to claim the bulk of the field as his own personal intellectual and commercial property because he could not resolve the dispute through the use of NLP [44]. The dispute between Bandler and Grinder over trademarks and copyright was resolved in court of California in 2000 who deemed NLP a generic term [24] [44].


Common NLP patterns/rituals

Meta model and Milton model

The meta model of NLP is a set of thirteen language patterns [3] developed from their observations of Virginia Satir and Fritz Perls, and is proposed as an information gathering tool, and to challenge (theoretical) distortions, generalizations or deletions in the speaker's language [3]. The meta model can be reduced to the asking "What specifically", or "How specifically?" to clarify the thinking of a client (or unspecified syntactic elements) [45]

The meta model involves the identification of the abandoned theoretical concepts of Chomsky's transformational grammar [3][24]. These are distortions, generalizations, and deletions. However, in contrast with Chomsky's abandoned theory and with linguistics theory, distortions, generalizations and deletions are considered by Bandler and Grinder (1975a) to be universally applicable to every language, and are applied directly as a prescription from untested theory to empirically untested application [5].

The inverse of the meta model is the Milton model [46][39] a collection of "artfully vague" language patterns [9] elicited from the work of Milton H. Erickson. It is said that the use of non-specific language patterns can allow the client to make their own meaning for what is being said.

NLP Representational Systems

Eye accessing cues, body cues

File:NLP neural elicitation2.JPG
Eye accessing cues of NLP (for a normally organized right-hander)

A core NLP training exercise involves learning to calibrate eye movements patterns with internal representations [8][25] . [24]. According to NLP developers, this core tenet loosely relates to the VAK guidelines below. See chart [2][40][25]:

  • Visual: eyes up to left or right according to dominant hemisphere access; high or shallow breathing; muscle tension in neck; high pitched/nasal voice tone; phrases such as “I can imagine the big picture”.
  • Auditory: eyes left or right; even breathing from diaphragm; even or rhythmic muscle tension; clear midrange voice tone, sometimes tapping or whistling; phrases such as “Let's tone down the discussion”.
  • Kinesthetic: eyes down left or right; belly breathing and sighing; relaxed musculature; slow voice tone with long pauses; phrases such as “I can grasp a hold of it”

According to Dilts [33] and Lewis and Pucelik (1990 p.51) a person’s body type corresponds to their thinking style and their body type will be shaped by their thinking style. A tense thin body with protruding eyes, protruding chin, stiff jerky movements, tight lips and nasal speech are characteristic of a visually oriented person. A full soft body, big soft lips, and slow speech is characteristic of a kinesthetic person, and an auditory person is somewhere in between. NLP theory explains these breathing and mental processing according to the varying levels of chemical composition in the blood that affects the brain, and “Visual” people tend to be fast visual thinkers and can seem untrustworthy to “kinesthetic” thinkers because thinking by feeling is inherently slow [2]. It is further claimed that matching VAK predicates can build rapport with individuals. Some authors [47][48] use internal Verbal/Auditory/Kinesthetic strategies in order to categorize people within a thinking strategies or learning styles framework for instance, that there exist visual, kinesthetic or auditory types of manager. According to Menon (1997 p.27) the representational systems in NLP have a mystical origin and correspond with the vedic occult elements of air/fire (most people), water and earth (VAK).

B.A.G.E.L. Model

The B.A.G.E.L. Model specifies the five elements (in mnemonic form) that purportedly comprise the behavioral cues that indicate an individual's internal processes. The B.A.G.E.L. Model is predicated on the notion that internal processes are subjectively represented in sensory terms: visually, auditory, kinesthetically and least likely, olfactory and gustatory.

  1. Body posture (eg. leaning back, head upwards and shallow breathing indicates visual representation)
  2. Accessing cues (eg. fluctuating voice tone and tempo indicates auditory representation)
  3. Gestures (eg. gesturing below the neck indicates kinesthetic representation)
  4. Eye movements (See Eye accessing cues and the representational systems below)
  5. Language patterns (specifically sensory based, eg. "I see!", "Sounds right!" or "I feel that...")[2][25] .[38]

Other NLP patterns/rituals

  • Meta model:,Representational systems:, The milton model See below.
  • Circle of Excellence: Standing in an imaginary magic circle, filling it with symbols and archetypes of choice, in order to banish negativity and enhance positive thinking for use in any NLP situation [49][50]
  • Perceptual positions: A situation is considered from different points of view of those involved, typically 1.self, 2.other, 3.a neutral observer, 4. a god's eye view [23] [25].
  • Dilts' Neurological Levels of Learning: Categorisation of information into a hierarchies consisting of environment, behavior, competency, belief/value, identity and or spirituality (purpose) [25]. Sometimes associated with the chakras with spirit linked to the crown chakra.
  • The Swish Pattern: Repetitively pushing away negative mental imagery and pulling forward positive imagery using body language and saying "SWISSSHHH" in order to affect a behavior change [50] [51][24]
  • Visual / Kinesthetic dissociation: Imagining floating back and out of the body in order to diss-associate with a negative experience. [8][52][53]
  • Rapport: Mirroring or copying somebody's body language, and representational language (VAK) in an attempt to gain trust and directly influence their subconscious mind (Bandler et al 1977p10).
  • Submodality modification: Deliberately changing the size, brightness, movement of internal images in an attempt to alter the impact of those images [51] [54]

NLP Applied to other fields

Much of NLP is now largely targeted for niche markets (particularly commercialized, cut down or self-help usage), and may be more controversial or esoteric, sometimes charismatically or evangelistically taught [13]. Some of the original developers, notably Richard Bandler and the stage hypnotist Paul McKenna, have encouraged these trends and the resulting fragmentation and move towards "pop NLP" has discredited the subject in the eyes of many people [44].

NLP is sometimes applied to coaching and for personal or business development, including motivational communication and systems thinking [55]. NLP is often promoted as large group seminars, similar to or in combination with Landmark Forum seminars [56].

Some of these involve day long, or several day periods of large group awareness activities including the introduction of authority figure guest speakers and promotion of New Age products. For example, Anthony Robbins promotes NLP as a "systemic approach for change" through his seminars [57], and other products. NLP trainers and consultants are now applying NLP rituals and techniques in some HR application areas.

NLP "Therapy"

Dilts [25]and Grinder (1999) have proposed that healing is facilitated by 1; Ritual 2; Prayer, and 3; Relationship to an authority or guardian angel. They propose that this applies equally throughout every healing situation. "Experts such as Beyerstein (1990p31) and [58] consider NLP to be a fringe or alternative therapy . Although studies on NLP have failed to support its claimed effectiveness [35], NLP is used, or suggested as an approach, by a few mental health bodies, including the National Phobics Society of Great Britain [59], MIND [60] , [61], the British Stammering Association [62], the Center for Development & Disability at the University of New Mexico Center for autism [63],[64]. Around 1978, NLP practitioner certification was set up as a 20 day program with the aim of training therapists to apply NLP as an adjunct to their professional qualifications. In Europe, the European NLP therapy association has been promoting their training in line with European therapy standards. The Handbook of Cognitive-Behavioral Therapies [65] and others classify NLP as a "dubious therapy".

New Age

Sociologists such as Hunt [21] and Partridge (2000 p.45) Wuthnow (p.75) Kelly (1990 p.25), class NLP as a New Age development, and part of the foundation of the New Age. This is partly due to related New Age notions that were common at the time of development, such as Dianetics promoted by Perls, the human potential theorist. According to Dilts [25], Grinder developed NLP rituals from the shamanic teachings of Carlos Castaneda, such as the the NLP double induction process, and perceptual positions, designed to move attention or energy to other realities.

Despite the lack of empirical evidence, NLP adherents continue to believe in its efficacy for personal and spiritual growth, and as such, NLP has been called a New Alternative Religion and an alternative version of Scientology [21], though its religiosity is more implied and less organized than Scientology.

Cult characteristics

NLP is sometimes referred to in scientific research reviews as a cult [66][67]. Others have described it as a psychocult [68][69], and in research it is often considered to be akin to a cult [70][71][72][13][1]. The German educational ministry banned the use of NLP in education and stated that it has a close similarity to Scientology [14].

Similar to other pseudoscientific subjects such as Dianetics (Scientology) and EST (Landmark)[15], NLP is adopted as a pretext for applying ritual, authority control, dissociation, reduced rationalization, and social pressure to obtain compliance from the cult's victim or to induce dependence on the cult [70]. According to Devilly (2005 [73] p.441) it is common for pseudoscientific developments to set up a granfalloon in order to promote in-group rituals and jargon, and to attack critics. Thus, although NLP is ineffective for its stated purposes, it is used as a fake science in a similar way to other psuedoscientific therapies such as primal scream therapy, EST[56] and Dianetics.

Questionable applications

Currently, there is criticism from psychotherapists about the promotion of NLP and other dubious therapies within psychotherapy associations [12][13]. NLP certification for therapists in general still does not require any professional qualifications [13].

Singer 1996 criticises Dilts for presenting the healing patterns of Jesus of Nazareth
  • Human resources: As with other pseudoscientific subjects, human resource experts such as Von Bergen et al (1997) consider NLP to be inappropriate for management and human resource training [16]. NLP has been found to be most ineffective concerning influence/persuasion and modeling of skills [36]. There is a general view that NLP is dubious and is not to be taken seriously in a business context [74][75]. Within management training there have also been complaints towards NLP concerning undue and forced adoption of fundamental beliefs tantamount to a forced religious conversion.[67]

Many such courses appear to depend more upon charismatic appeal, wish-fulfillment, quick fixes, and lack of critical faculty, than actual quantifiable results, and so are often considered pseudoscience. The original fad of NLP has undergone further controversy and abandonment since the further realization that it is simply a fad and a cult, and the divorce of Tony Robbins despite his commercial promotion of "Perfect Marriage" counseling has led to a great deal of disenchantment from his own followers (Salerno 2005). The various claims NLP proponents make have no clinical support and are grossly missleading [13]

  • NLP and education: Although Winkin [76] says NLP has no reliable neuroscience foundation, it is sometimes considered as part of "accelerated learning" or "brain based learning"[17][18]PDF[77]. Beyerstein (1990, p.30) states that a method should be supported using controlled studies before it is applied in education.
  • Cosmetic effect claims: NLP is applied to breast enhancement and penis enlargement. For example, the NLP practitioner, Goodman [19] sells NLP audio recordings of the NLP swish pattern for enlarging penis size. Eisner (2000 p150) states that if these miraculous effects are true, then why have they not been properly documented, nor presented to the scientific community? [13]
  • Occult and New Age practices: Winkin (1990p45) states that with its promotion with Tai Chi, Meditation, and Dianetics (Scientology), NLP is in the margins of contemporary obscurantism. NLP is often criticised as being a dubious new age therapy. Practitioners sometimes attempt to model spiritual experiences, which inherently, are lacking in scientific support. NLP's new age background often leads to it being sold in combination with shamanic methods of magic such as those by (by Richard Bandler) or Huna (by Tad James).

Alternate brands

Individual trainers have often introduced or idiosyncratically developed their own methods, concepts and labels, branding them under the "NLP" name [78]:

  • John Grinder teaches New Code of NLP
  • Anthony Robbins teaches NAC (Neuro Associative ConditioningTM)
  • Michael Hall teaches Neuro-SemanticsTM
  • Tad James teaches Advanced Neuro DynamicsTM & Time Line TherapyTM
  • Richard Bandler himself now teaches his own offshoot of NLP, called DHE (Design Human EngineeringTM)
  • Margo Anand promotes a form of NLP called SkyDancing TantraTM

Criticism

Sanghera (2005[79]) states that "critics say NLP is simply a half-baked conflation of pop psychology and pseudoscience that uses jargon to disguise the fact that it is based on a set of banal, if not incorrect, presuppositions". NLP has been criticized by clinical psychologists, management scholars, linguists, psychotherapists and cult awareness groups, concerning ineffectiveness, pseudoscientific explanation of linguistics and neurology, ethically questionable, cult-like characteristics, and promotion by exaggerated claims.

Ethical concerns

Ethical concerns of NLP’s encouragement towards manipulation have been raised. As such, NLP is seen as encouraging people to find more ways to manipulate individuals against their will within seduction, sales and business settings. NLP book titles include "The Unfair Advantage: Sell with NLP" and “NLP the New Art and Science of Getting What You Want”.

The therapy and coaching fields require an ethical code of conduct (eg: Psychotherapy and Counseling Federation of Australia Ethical Guidelines). It has been found that NLP certified practitioners often show a weak grasp of ethics [74].

In addition, Beyerstein (1999 p.26) states that "ethical standards bodies and other professional associations state that unless a technique, process, drug, or surgical procedure can meet requirements of clinical tests, it is ethically questionable to offer it to the public, especially if money is to change hands". NLP is also criticised for unethically encouraging the belief in non existent maladies and insecurities by otherwise normal individuals[44].

NLP has also been described as a commercial cult, and has been criticised within the business sector for being coercive, including undue and forced adoption of fundamental beliefs and intense confrontational psychological techniques, tantamount to forced religious conversion [67]. Its various forms, such as those promoted by Grinder, and Tony Robbins are said to be ill conceived and coercive in some business settings [74].

Scientific analysis

NLP has been empirically tested over many years and many of its models and methods have been found to be largely ineffective [35]. p 175.

In relation to current understanding of neurology and perception, NLP is in error [80], and instead of being grounded in contemporary, scientifically derived neurological theory, NLP is based on outdated metaphors of brain functioning and is laced with numerous factual errors [36].

The 1988 US National Committee (a board of 14 prepared scientific experts) report found that "Individually, and as a group, these studies fail to provide an empirical base of support for NLP assumptions...or NLP effectiveness. The committee cannot recommend the employment of such an unvalidated technique"[36]. In addition, Edgar Johnson, technical director of the Army Research Institute heading the NLP focused Project Jedi stated that "Lots of data shows that NLP doesn't work"[81]. NLP has failed to yield convincing evidence for the NLP model, and failed to provide evidence for its effectiveness [66].

The conjecture that a person has a preferred representational system (PRS), which is observed in the choice of words, has been found to be false according to rigorous research reviews [66][82]. The assertion that a person has a PRS which can be determined by the direction of eye movements found even less support [66][82].

A single critique by Einspruch and Forman (1985) stated that Sharpley's[83] review of NLP contained methodological errors. However, Sharpley refuted this and provided further experimental evidence to demonstrate that NLP is ineffective and in error in both method and model[1].

Von Bergen et al (1997 page 291) state that NLP does not stand up to scientific scrutiny. Thus, objective empirical studies [66][80][84] and review papers [36][82] have consistently shown NLP to be ineffective and reviews or meta-analysis have given NLP a conclusively negative assessment, and the reiterated statement is that there is no neuro-scientific basis for any of NLP's claims, or any scientific support for its claimed efficacy [1][6][35][13].

Efran and Lukens (1990 p.122) state that the original interest in NLP turned to dissolusionment after the research and now it is rarely even mentioned in psychotherapy [85]. NLP proponents have provided not one iota of scientific support for their claims, and as such NLP is considered inappropriate for thorough clinical studies [13].

Devilly [73] states that controlled studies shed such a poor light on NLP and those promoting the intervention made such extreme and changeable claims that that researchers found it unwise to test the theory any further. NLP is no longer as prevalent as it was in the 1970s or 1980s, but is still practiced in small pockets: The science has come and gone, yet the belief still remains and some people still enroll.

Beyerstein states that NLP is a pseudoscientific fringe therapy (Beyerstein 1990 page31), and explains that bogus therapies can be explained by the placebo effect, social pressure, superficial symptomatic rather than core treatment (1997p20) , and overestimating some apparent successes while ignoring, downplaying, or explaining away failures." In Brianscams, Beyerstein states that when the New Age brain manipulators such as NLP are challenged, critics typically encounter anecdotes and user testimonials where there ought to be rigorous pre-and post treatment comparisons (Beyerstein 1990 page33).

False claims to science

Critics say that NLP often associates itself with "science of communication" [39] in order to raise its own prestige [10]. Anthropologist Winkin [76] considers such promotion to be intellectually fraudulent [76] and compares [76] NLP's association with Science to astrology's association to astronomy[76].

As with any other science, theory is central to behavioral science. However, Gregory Bateson in page ix of the Structure of Magic Volume I claims that, "The behavioral sciences, and especially psychiatry, have always avoided theory..." [3]. The co-originators have also stated, "We are not psychologists, and we're also not theologians or theoreticians" [8]. However, proponents claim that the Milton model is based on the behavioral patterns of Milton H. Erickson and that if these patterns can be 'formalized it will make a solid foundation for a science of communication' (1977 p.81) yet Grinder & Bostic St Clair (2001) say that "the coding phase of NLP modeling is at present an art"[24].

Singer (1996 p172) states that none of the NLP developers have done any research to "prove" their models correct though NLP promoters and advertisers continue to call the originators scientists and use such terms as science, technology and hi-tech psychology in describing NLP. Advertising bodies in the UK have asked for NLP proponents to avoid promoting NLP as a new science [20].

Psycholinguist Willem Levelt states that (translated into English) "NLP is not informed about linguistics literature, it is based on vague insights that were out of date long ago, their linguistics concepts are not properly construed or are mere fabrications, and conclusions are based upon the wrong premises. NLP theory and practice has nothing to do with neuroscientific insights or linguistics, nor with informatics or theories of programming" [6][5].

Pseudoscience

Winkin 1990 and Beyerstein 1990 associate NLP with the classic pseudoscience of phrenology

NLP has been classed as a pseudoscientific self help development [5] [15][12][6], in the same mold as EST (Landmark Forum) and Dianetics(Scientology). Self-help critic Salerno [44] associates NLP with pseudoscience, and has criticized its promotion as self-help. Psychologists such as Singer [10] and management experts such as Von Bergen (1997) have criticized its use within management and human resources developments.

Numerous extraordinary and unsupported claims have been made by some NLP promoters. There have been claims that the heightening of perception using NLP can allow a novice martial artist to beat an expert [86], and that it is possible to develop photographic memory through the use of NLP [3].

Historically, NLP has many pseudoscientific associations such as the explicit and implicit erroneous adherence to the subconscious engram concept [87], claims to rapid cures and treatment of traumas, the use of popular new age myths such as unlimited potential, left/right brain simplicities, past life regression, and the use marketing/recruitment models similar to that of Dianetics (Scientology) and other cults [88].

Pseudoscience is prone to certain fallacies and characteristics. These can be; Overgeneral predictions, pseudoscientific experimentation, dogmatic adherence or recycling of un-validated claims [89][90].

Lilienfeld (2003page8) states "the characteristics of pseudoscience are more specifically shown thus" (eg);

  • "The use of obscurantist language" (eg meta programs, parapragmatics, sub-modalities etc)
  • "The absence of connectivity" [5]
  • "Over-reliance on testimonial and anecdotal evidence" [91]
  • "An overuse of ad hoc hypotheses and reversed burden of proof designed to immunize claims from falsification" [10]
  • "Emphasis on confirmation rather than refutation (eg reliance on asking how rather than why)"
  • "Absence of boundary conditions"
  • "The mantra of holism and eclecticism designed to immunize from verifiable efficacy" [12](Claiming that NLP is unmeasurable due to too many factors or to simplistically “do what works”[13].
  • "Evasion of peer review" (If claims were true, why were they not properly documented and presented to the scientific community?) [13]
  • "Reversed burden of proof (away from those making claim (NLP promoters), and towards those testing the claim (Scientists))".


Pseudoscientific arguments tend to contain several or all of these factors, as can be seen in this example [21] that shows ad hoc hypotheses and holistic argument as an attempt to explain away the negative findings, and an emphasis on confirmation and reversed burden of proof etc.

Critics point of that NLP is based on outdated metaphors of brain functioning and is laced with numerous factual errors [36]. Modern neuroscience indicates that NLP's notions of neurology are erroneous and pseudoscientific in regards to: left/right brain hemispheric differences [88][25] .[6], the association of eye movements or body gestures to brain hemispheres, and in the universal division of humanity to 40% visual, 40% auditory and 20% kinesthetic [22], in the adherence of NLP to positive/negative and psychic out of body energy [88]. Professor Robert Carrol [78] states that it is impossible to determine a "correct" NLP model. NLP is also based on some of Freud's most flawed and pseudoscientific thinking that has been rejected by the mainstream psychology community for decades[13].

See also

Developers

(*)Grinder & Bandler are considered the co-creators/co-originators of NLP.

Notes and references

  1. ^ a b c d e f Sharpley C.F. (1987). "Research Findings on Neuro-linguistic Programming: Non supportive Data or an Untestable Theory". Communication and Cognition. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 1987 Vol. 34, No. 1: 103–107, 105.
  2. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m Dilts, Robert B, Grinder, John, Bandler, Richard & DeLozier, Judith A. (1980). [. Neuro-Linguistic Programming: Volume I - The Study of the Structure of Subjective Experience]. Meta Publications, 1980. . pp. pp.3-4, 6, 14, 17. . {{cite book}}: |pages= has extra text (help); Check |url= value (help)CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) Cite error: The named reference "nlpvol1" was defined multiple times with different content (see the help page).
  3. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p Bandler, Richard & John Grinder (1975a). [- The Structure of Magic I: A Book About Language and Therapy]. Palo Alto, CA: Science & Behavior Books. pp. -. -. {{cite book}}: Check |url= value (help)
  4. ^ [1].
  5. ^ a b c d e f g Levelt, Williem. "Hoedt u voor Neuro-Linguïstisch Programmeren [Beware of neuro-linguistic programming]". Skepter 9(3), Sept. 1996 Intermediair 17 Nov pp113. Retrieved .. {{cite web}}: Check date values in: |accessdate= (help)
  6. ^ a b c d e f g Drenth, J.D. (2003). "Growing anti-intellectualism in Europe; a menace to science" (PDF). ALLEA Annual Report. -: -.
  7. ^ a b [2]
  8. ^ a b c d e f g h Bandler, Richard & John Grinder (1979). [- Frogs into Princes: Neuro Linguistic Programming]. Moab, UT: Real People Press. pp. p.15, 24, 30, 45, 52. -. {{cite book}}: |pages= has extra text (help); Check |url= value (help)
  9. ^ a b c Bandler, Richard & John Grinder (1983). [- Reframing: Neurolinguistic programming and the transformation of meaning]. Moab, UT: Real People Press. pp. appendix II, p.171. -. {{cite book}}: Check |url= value (help)
  10. ^ a b c d e f Singer, Margaret & Janja Lalich (1999). unknown. -. -. {{cite book}}: Cite uses generic title (help)
  11. ^ Heap, M. (1988). Neuro-linguistic programming, In M. Heap (Ed.) Hypnosis: Current Clinical, Experimental and Forensic Practices. London: Croom Helm, pp 268-280.
  12. ^ a b c d e f Scott O. Lilienfeld, Steven Jay Lynn, and Jeffrey M. Lohr (2003). [http:// Science and Pseudoscience in Clinical Psychology]. Guilford Press, New York. {{cite book}}: Check |url= value (help)CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  13. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o Eisner, D. A. (2000). The death of psychotherapy: From Freud to alien abductions. Westport, CT: Praeger. pp. p.158. -. {{cite book}}: |pages= has extra text (help)]
  14. ^ Cite error: The named reference helisch was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
  15. ^ a b c Williams, W F. general editor. (2000) Encyclopedia of pseudoscience: From alien abductions to Zone Therapy, Publisher: Facts On File, New York.
  16. ^ a b Heap 1991 unknown title
  17. ^ Morgan, Dylan A (1993). "Scientific Assessment of NLP (a review of Heap's 1988 conclusions)". Journal of the National Council for Psychotherapy & Hypnotherapy Register. Spring 1993: -.
  18. ^ Dryden. W. 2001 Reason to Change: Rational Emotive Behaviour Therapy (REBT) Brunner-Routledge 0415229804
  19. ^ (Elich et al 1985 p.625)
  20. ^ Winkin Y 1990 Eléments pour un procès de la P.N.L. , MédiAnalyses, no. 7, septembre, 1990, pp. 43-50.
  21. ^ a b c Hunt, Stephen J. (2003) A Sociological Introduction, London: Ashgate p.195 ISBN 0754634094
  22. ^ Kelly (1990 p.25)
  23. ^ a b c d e Grinder, John & Judith DeLozier (1987). Turtles All the Way Down: Prerequisites to Personal Genius. Scots Valley, CA: Grinder & Associates. p. pp.xx,xxi,xix,62,197. ISBN 1555520227.
  24. ^ a b c d e f g h i j Grinder, John & Carmen Bostic St Clair (2001.). Whispering in the Wind. CA: J & C Enterprises. pp. 127, 171, 222, ch.3, Appendix. -. {{cite book}}: Check date values in: |year= (help)CS1 maint: year (link)
  25. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o Dilts, Robert B, DeLozier, Judith A (2000). "Encyclopedia of Systemic Neuro-Linguistic Programming and NLP New Coding". NLP Univsersity Press. pp. p.75, 383, 729, 938–943, 1003, 1300, 1303. ISBN 0970154003. {{cite web}}: |pages= has extra text (help)CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) Cite error: The named reference "diltsdelozier2000" was defined multiple times with different content (see the help page).
  26. ^ Alder H. (1994) The Right Brain Manager: How to Use the Power of Your Mind to Achieve Personal and Professional Success Piatkus Books ISBN 0749913495 p.65))
  27. ^ Malloy, T. E., Bostic St Clair, C. & Grinder, J. (2005). "Steps to an ecology of emergence" (PDF). Cybernetics & Human Knowing. Vol. 11, no. 3: 102-119. {{cite journal}}: |volume= has extra text (help)CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  28. ^ Vaihinger, H. "The Philosophy of "As If." (originally published, 1924)". Routledge, Kegan and Paul Ltd, London, England. -. Retrieved -. {{cite web}}: Check date values in: |accessdate= (help)
  29. ^ Strean, H. (1995) Psychoanalytic Theory. Kegan Page Publishers
  30. ^ Wrycza,P. (1995) NLP World Volume 2 No 1 Maps Beyond the Mind: NLP and spirituality p.62
  31. ^ Wuthnow (1994 p157)
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  33. ^ a b c p.12 Cite error: The named reference "dilts83" was defined multiple times with different content (see the help page).
  34. ^ Cognitive Patterns of Jesus of Nazareth, Robert B Dilts. Ben Lomond, CA: Dynamic Learning Publications, 1992.
  35. ^ a b c d e f g (1996 p.172)
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  39. ^ a b c Bandler, Richard, John Grinder, Judith Delozier (1977). [- Patterns of the Hypnotic Techniques of Milton H. Erickson, M.D. Volume II]. Cupertino, CA: Meta Publications. pp. p.10, 81, 87. -. {{cite book}}: |pages= has extra text (help); Check |url= value (help)CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  40. ^ a b O'Connor, Joseph & Ian McDermott (1996). Principles of NLP. London, UK: Thorsons. ISBN 0722531958.
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  45. ^ Grinder, John, Michael (1988). Precision. Scots Valley, CA: Grinder & Associates.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  46. ^ Bandler, Richard & John Grinder (1976). [- Patterns of the Hypnotic Techniques of Milton H. Erickson, M.D. Volume I]. Cupertino, CA: Meta Publications. p. 9. -. {{cite book}}: Check |url= value (help)
  47. ^ Bradbury, A. (1997). [- NLP for business success]. Kogan Page. pp. -. -. {{cite book}}: Check |url= value (help)
  48. ^ Molden D. (2000) NLP Business Masterclass. Financial Times Prentice Hall ISBN 0273650165
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  51. ^ a b Bandler, Richard (1985). [- Using your brain - for a change]. Palo Alto, CA: Science & Behavior Books. pp. -. -. {{cite book}}: Check |url= value (help)
  52. ^ Cite error: The named reference einspruch was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
  53. ^ </ref name=cancer>[3]
  54. ^ Steve & Connirae Andreas. 1987 http://www.achievingexcellence.com/p-ch_and4.html. Retrieved .. {{cite web}}: |url= missing title (help); Check date values in: |accessdate= (help)
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  72. ^ Tippet, Gary (3 Apr 1994). "Inside the cults of mind control". Melbourne, Australia: Sunday Age.
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  79. ^ Look into my eyes and tell me I'm learning not to be a loser, Financial Times, London (UK), Sanghera. [url=http://news.ft.com/cms/s/770f7e96-15cd-11da-8085-00000e2511c8.html]
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  90. ^ Paine, Michael. "Baloney Detection Kit". Operation Clambake. Retrieved .. {{cite web}}: Check date values in: |accessdate= (help)
  91. ^ Krugman, Kirsch, Wickless, Milling, Golicz, & Toth (1985). Neuro-linguistic programming treatment for anxiety: Magic or myth? Journal of Consulting & Clinical Psychology. Vol 53(4), 526-530.
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