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Mormon handcart pioneers

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A statue commemorating Mormon handcart pioneers

The Mormon handcart pioneers were participants in the westward migration of members of The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints who used handcarts to transport their supplies and belongings while walking from Iowa or Nebraska to Utah. The Mormon handcart movement began in 1856 and lasted until 1860.

Motivated to join their fellow Church members in avoiding persecution but lacking funds for full ox or horse teams, nearly 3,000 Mormon pioneers from England, Wales, and Scandinavia made the journey to Utah in 10 handcart companies. For two of them, the Willie and Martin handcart companies, the trek led to disaster after they started their journey dangerously late and were caught by heavy snow and bitterly cold temperatures in the Rocky Mountains of central Wyoming. Despite a dramatic rescue effort, more than 210 of the 980 pioneers in the two companies died along the way. "Many a father pulled his cart, with his little children on it, until the day preceding his death."[1]

Although fewer than ten percent of the 1847–68 Latter-day Saint emigrants made the journey west using handcarts, the handcart pioneers have become an important symbol in LDS culture, representing the faithfulness, courage, determination, and sacrifice of the pioneer generation. The handcart treks were a familiar theme in 19th century Mormon folk music and handcart pioneers continue to be recognized and honored in events such as Pioneer Day, Church pageants, and similar commemorations. The handcart movement has also been a theme in LDS fiction, such as Gerald Lund's historical novel, Fire of the Covenant, and Orson Scott Card's science-fiction short story, "West."

Background to the migration

Further information: Mormon pioneer

Since its founding in 1830, members of The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints were often harshly treated and persecuted by their neighbors, primarily due to their inclination toward social and political unity and their unorthodox religious beliefs. Violence directed against the Church, its members, and its leader, Joseph Smith, among other reasons, caused the body of the Church to move Ohio to Missouri, then to Illinois. Despite the frequent moves, Church members were unable to escape persecution, which culminated in the issuance of an extermination order against all Mormons living in the state by Missouri Governor Lilburn Boggs, the murder of Joseph Smith in 1844, and the burning of the Latter-day Saint temple in Nauvoo in 1846. Eventually, according to Church belief, God directed Brigham Young, Joseph Smith's successor as Church leader, to organize the church members and head west, beyond the western frontier of the United States.[2]

Need for handcart companies

Soon after the first Mormon pioneers reached Utah in 1847, the Church began encouraging its converts in the British Isles and Europe to emigrate to Utah. From 1849 to 1855 about 16,000 European Latter-day Saints traveled to Utah using conventional ox-and-wagon transportation. Although most of these emigrants paid their own expenses, the Church established the Perpetual Emigration Fund to provide financial assistance for poor Mormon emigrants.

When contributions and loan repayments to the Perpetual Emigration Fund dropped off in 1855 after a poor harvest in Utah, Brigham Young, the Church's President, decided to implement a plan of using handcarts to cut the costs of the migration. Many of the Latter-day Saints who remained in Europe were poor, so a low-cost means of transport was needed to allow large numbers of them to emigrate. Young also believed that the journey would be completed more quickly with handcarts than with oxen and wagons.[3]

Young proposed the new plan in a letter to Franklin D. Richards, President of the European Mission, in September 1855. His letter was published in the Millennial Star (the Church's England-based periodical) of December 22 1855 along with an editorial by Richards endorsing the project. The cost of the migration was expected to be reduced to two-thirds of the previous cost. The response was overwhelming—in 1856 the Perpetual Emigration Fund supported the travel of 2,012 European emigrants, compared with 1,161 the year before.[4]

Outfitting

Emigrants would depart from an English port (generally Liverpool) and travel by ship to New York or Boston. The emigrants would then travel by railroad to Iowa City, Iowa—the western terminus of the rail line—where they would be outfitted with handcarts and other supplies.

Built to Young's design, the handcarts resembled a large wheelbarrow, with two wheels five feet in diameter and a single axle four and 1/2 feet wide, weighing 60 pounds. Running along each side of the bed were seven-foot pull shafts ending with a three foot crossbar at the front. The crossbar allowed the carts to be pushed or pulled. Cargo was carried in a box about 3 feet by 4 feet (0.9 m by 1.2 m), with 8 inch (0.2 m) walls. The handcarts were designed to carry up to 500 pounds (227 kg) of supplies and luggage. Carts used in the first year's migration were made entirely of wood ("Iowa hickory or oak"); in later years a stronger design was substituted that included metal elements.[5]

The handcart companies were organized using the handcarts and sleeping tents as the primary units. Five persons were assigned per handcart, with each individual limited to 17 pounds (7.7 kg) of clothing and bedding. Each round tent, supported by a center pole, slept 20 occupants and was supervised by a tent captain. Five tents were supervised by the captain of a hundred. Provisions for each hundred emigrants were carried in an oxen drawn wagon, and were distributed by the tent captains.[6]

1856: First three companies

Pioneers crossing Platte River - forthcoming PBS documentary, Sweetwater Rescue - photo by Norman Bosworth

The first two ships departed England in late March and in mid-April and sailed to Boston. The emigrants spent several weeks in Iowa City, where they constructed their handcarts and were outfitted with supplies before beginning their trek of about 1,300 miles (2,093 km).

The emigrants from the first two ships, about 815 in number, were organized into the first three handcart companies, headed by captains Edmund Ellsworth, Daniel D. McArthur, and Edward Bunker, who were missionaries returning to their homes in Utah. The captains were experienced travelers who were familiar with the route. The companies also appointed sub-captains, who generally also were returning missionaries, for each 100 emigrants.[7]

Across Iowa they followed an existing road about 275 miles (443 km) to Council Bluffs a route that is close to current U.S. Route 6. After crossing the Missouri River, they paused for a few days at a Mormon outpost in Florence, Nebraska (modern-day Omaha) for repairs, before beginning the remaining 1,030-mile (1,658 km) journey along the Mormon Trail to Salt Lake City, Utah.[8]

The companies made good time and their trips were largely uneventful. Pushing and pulling handcarts was difficult work for many of the emigrants, a diverse group that included many children and a number of elderly individuals. Journals and recollections indicate that there were periods of illness and hunger. Several deaths occurred along the way; Hafen and Hafen's Handcarts to Zion list 13 deaths from the first company, 7 from the second, and "less than 7" from the third. Most companies traveling the Emigrant Trail suffered some loss of life. The first two companies arrived in Salt Lake City on September 26 and the third followed less than a week later. The first three companies were regarded to have demonstrated the feasibility of emigrating using handcarts.[9]

Handcart Company Captain Ship Arrived in Iowa City Departed Iowa City Departed Florence, Nebraska Number of individuals Number who died en route Arrived in Salt Lake City
First[10] Edmund Ellsworth Enoch Train, sailed March 23 1856 to Boston May 12 June 9 July 20 274 13 September 26
Second Daniel D. McArthur Enoch Train, sailed March 23 1856 to Boston;
S. Curling, sailed April 19 to Boston		 passengers from Enoch Train – May 12;
passengers from S. Curling – early June		 June 11 July 24 221 7 September 26
Third (Welsh) Edward Bunker S. Curling, sailed April 19 1856 to Boston early June June 23 July 30 320 < 7 October 2

1856: Willie and Martin handcart companies

Martin's Cove, Wyoming

The last two handcart companies of 1856 departed late from England. The ship, Thornton, carrying the emigrants who would become the Willie Company, did not leave England until May 4, and another three weeks passed before the Horizon, carrying the emigrants who would form the Martin Company, departed. The late departures may have been the result of the difficulties of dealing with the unexpected demand and in procuring ships, but the results would be tragic.[11]

Dealing with slow communication in the era before the transatlantic telegraph, the Church agents in Iowa City were not expecting the additional emigrants and had to make frantic preparations for their arrival. Critical weeks were spent hastily assembling the carts and outfitting the companies. When they reached Florence, repairs were required on the poorly built carts and additional time was lost.[12]

Prior to the Willie Company departing Florence, the company met to debate the wisdom of such a late departure. Because the emigrants were unfamiliar with the trail and the climate, they deferred to the returning missionaries and Church agents. One of the returning missionaries, Levi Savage, argued that such a late departure with a company consisting of elderly, women, and young children would lead to suffering, sickness, and death; he urged them to spend the winter in Nebraska. All of the other Church elders, however, argued that the trip should go forward, expressing optimism that the company would be protected by divine intervention. Some members of the company, perhaps as many as 100, decided to spend the winter in Florence or in Iowa, but the majority of the company, about 404 in number (including Savage) continued the journey west. The Willie Company left Florence on August 17 and the Martin Company left on August 27. Two ox-and-wagon trains, led by captains W.B. Hodgett and John A. Hunt, followed behind the Martin Company.[13]

Near Wood River, Nebraska, a nearby herd of bison caused the Willie Company's cattle to stampede, and nearly 30 cattle were lost. Left without enough cattle to pull all of the ox wagons, each handcart was required to take on an additional 100 pounds (45 kg) of flour.[14]

In early September Franklin D. Richards, returning from Europe where he had served as the Church's mission president, passed the emigrant companies. Richards and the 12 returning missionaries who accompanied him, traveling in carriages and light wagons pulled by horses and mules, pressed on to Utah to obtain assistance for the emigrants.[15]

In early October the two companies reached Fort Laramie, Wyoming, where they expected to be restocked with provisions, but no provisions were there for them. The companies had to cut back food rations, hoping that their supplies would last until help could be sent from Utah. To lighten their loads, the Martin Company cut the luggage allowance to 10 pounds (4.5 kg) per person, discarding clothing and blankets that would soon be desperately needed.[16]

On October 4 the Richards party reached Salt Lake City and conferred with president Brigham Young and other Church leaders. The next morning the Church was meeting in a general conference, where Young and the other speakers called on the Church members to provide wagons, mules, supplies, and teamsters for a rescue mission. On the morning of October 7 the first rescue party left Salt Lake City with 16 wagonloads of food and supplies pulled by 4-mule teams and 27 young men serving as teamsters and rescuers. They elected George D. Grant as their captain. Throughout October more wagon trains were assembled, and by the end of the month 250 relief wagons were on the road.[17]

Man pulling handcart through snow - forthcoming PBS documentary, Sweetwater Rescue - photo by Norman Bosworth

Meanwhile, the Willie and Martin companies were running out of food and encountering bitterly cold temperatures. On October 17 a severe snowstorm struck the region, halting the two companies and the relief party. The Willie Company was along the Sweetwater River approaching the Continental Divide. A scouting party sent ahead by the main rescue party found and greeted the emigrants, left them with a small amount of flour, encouraged them that rescue was near, and then rushed onward to try to locate the Martin Company.[18] The members of the Willie Company had just reached the end of their flour supplies. They began slaughtering the handful of broken-down cattle that still remained while their death toll mounted. On October 20 Captain Willie and Joseph Elder went ahead by mule through the snow to locate the supply train and inform them of the company's desperate situation. They arrived at the rescue party's campsite near South Pass that evening, and by the next evening the rescue party reached the Willie Company and provided them with food and assistance. Half of the rescue party remained to assist the Willie Company while the other half pressed forward to assist the Martin Company.[19]

On October 19, the Martin Company was about 125 miles (201 km) further east, making its last crossing of the North Platte River near present-day Casper, Wyoming. Many members of the Martin Company suffered from hypothermia or frostbite after wading through the frigid river. They set up camp at Red Bluffs, unable to continue forward through the snow. Meanwhile the original scouting party continued eastward until it reached a small vacant fort at Devil's Gate, where they had been instructed to wait for the rest of the rescue party if they had not found the Martin Company. When the main rescue party rejoined them, another scouting party was sent forward consisting of Joseph A. Young, Abel Garr, and Daniel Webster Jones. The Martin company remained in their camp at Red Bluffs for 9 days until the three scouts arrived on October 28. During those 9 days, 56 members of the company died. The scouts urged the emigrants to begin moving again. Three days later the rescue party arrived and led the Martin Company and the Hodgett and Hunt wagon companies on to Devil's Gate.[20]

Captain George D. Grant, who headed one of the rescue parties, reported to President Young:[21]

It is not of much use for me to attempt to give a description of the situation of these people, for this you will learn from [others]; but you can imagine between five and six hundred men, women and children, worn down by drawing hand carts through snow and mud; fainting by the wayside; falling, chilled by the cold; children crying, their limbs stiffened by cold, their feet bleeding and some of them bare to snow and frost. The sight is almost too much for the stoutest of us; but we go on doing all we can, not doubting nor despairing.

At Devil's Gate the rescue party unloaded the baggage carried in the wagons of the Hodgett and Hunt wagon companies that had been following the Martin Company so the wagons could be used to transport the weakest emigrants. A small group would remain at Devil's Gate over the winter to protect the property. Another blizzard struck the Martin Company on November 4, forcing them to halt for another five days at Martin's Cove, a few miles west of Devil's Gate.[22]

The rescue parties escorted the emigrants from both companies to Utah through more snow and severe weather while their members continued to suffer death from disease and exposure. The Willie Company arrived in Salt Lake City on November 9; 68 members of the company had lost their lives.[23]

Meanwhile, a backup relief party of 77 teams and wagons was making its way east to provide additional assistance to the Martin Company. Unfortunately, after passing Fort Bridger the leaders of the backup party concluded that the Martin Company must have wintered east of the Rockies, so they turned back. When word of the returning backup relief party was communicated to Young, he ordered the courier to return and tell them to turn back east and continue until they found the handcart company, but several days had been lost. On November 18 the backup party met the Martin Company with the greatly needed supplies. At last all the members of the handcart party were now able to ride in wagons. The 104 wagons carrying the Martin Company arrived in Salt Lake City on November 30; at least 145 members of the handcart company had lost their lives. Many of the survivors had to have fingers, toes, or limbs amputated due to severe frostbite.[24]

After the companies arrived in Utah, the residents generously opened their homes to the arriving emigrants, feeding and caring for them over the winter. The emigrants would eventually go on to Latter-day Saint settlements throughout Utah and the West.[25]

In May 2006, a panel of researchers at the annual conference of the Mormon History Association blamed the tragedy on a failure of leadership. Lyndia Carter, a trails historian, said Franklin D. Richards "was responsible, in my mind, for the late departure" because "he started the snowball down the slope" that eventually "added up to disaster." Howard Christy, professor emeritus at Brigham Young University, agreed that "leadership from the top, from the outset, was seriously short of the mark." Robert Briggs, an attorney, said "It's almost a foregone conclusion . . . there is evidence of negligence. With leaders all the way up to Brigham Young, there was mismanagement."[26] On the other hand, Rebecca Bartholomew and Leonard J. Arrington wrote, "Memories of what was perhaps the worst disaster in the history of western migration have been palliated by what could also be regarded as the most heroic rescue of the Mormon frontier."[27]

Handcart Company Captain Ship Arrived in Iowa City Departed Iowa City Departed Florence Number of individuals Number who died en route Arrived in Salt Lake City
Fourth or Willie Company[28] James G. Willie Thornton, sailed May 4 1856 to New York June 26 July 15 August 17 ~500 left Iowa City; 404 left Florence 68 November 9
Fifth or Martin Company Edward Martin Horizon, sailed May 25 1856 to Boston July 8 July 28 August 27 576 >145 November 30

1857–60: Last five companies

A number of lessons had been learned from the 1856 disaster that allowed the Church to continue the handcart system while avoiding another disaster. Never again would a handcart company depart Florence later than July 7. The construction of the handcarts was modified to strengthen them and reduce repairs. The handcarts would now be regularly greased. Arrangements would be made to replenish supplies along the route.[29]

By 1857 the Perpetual Emigration Fund was exhausted; almost all of the handcart emigrants that year and in subsequent years would have to pay their own way. Needless to say, there was a sharp drop-off in the number of emigrants. Nevertheless, two companies with about 480 emigrants made the trek. Both companies arrived in Salt Lake City by September 13. Perhaps the most notable incident was when a captain of the U.S. Army's Utah Expedition, on its way to Utah to confront Young and the Latter-day Saints, donated an ox to the hungry emigrants.[30]

With the uncertainty caused by the Utah War, the Church called off all European emigration for 1858. In 1859 one handcart company crossed the plains. The emigrants were now able to travel by rail to Saint Joseph, Missouri, after which they would travel by riverboat to Florence where they would be outfitted with handcarts and supplies. When the 1859 company reached Fort Laramie, they discovered their food was running dangerously short, so they cut back on rations. When they reached Devil's Gate the last flour was distributed. Some of the emigrants recalled an incident in which a group of rough mountain men fed the hungry emigrants. One of them then asked a young woman from the party to stay with him, which the tired woman agreed to do. (Another version of the story had two young women marrying two mountain men.) The hunger worsened when expected supplies were not available when they reached the Green River. Three days later wagons from Utah carrying provisions finally rescued the famished emigrants.[31]

The last two handcart companies made the journey in 1860, again following the route through St. Joseph. Although the journey continued to be difficult for the emigrants, these companies had relatively uneventful trips and experienced little loss of life.[32]

After 1860 handcarts were no longer used. The Church implemented a new system of emigration, in which wagon trains would travel east from Salt Lake City in the spring and return with emigrants in the summer. While the transcontinental railroad was being constructed, the railroad terminus gradually moved westward, shortening the trip.[33]

Handcart Company Captain Ship Arrived in Iowa City Departed Iowa City Departed Florence Number of individuals Number who died en route Arrived in Salt Lake City
Sixth Israel Evans George Washington, sailed March 27 1857 to Boston April 30 May 22 June 20 149 Unknown (>0)) September 11
Seventh (Scandinavian) Christian Christiansen L.N. Hvidt, sailed April 18 1857 from Copenhagen to Britain; Westmoreland, sailed April 25 to Philadelphia June 9 June 13 July 7 ~330 ~6 September 13
Eighth George Rowley William Tapscott, sailed April 11 1859 to New York - - June 9 235 ~5 September 4
Ninth Daniel Robinson Underwriter, sailed March 30 1860 to New York May 12 (Florence) - June 6 233 1 August 27
Tenth Oscar O. Stoddard William Tapscott, sailed May 11 1860 to New York July 1 (Florence) - July 6 124 0 September 24

Legacy

Handcart pioneers and the handcart movement are important parts of LDS culture, music and even fictional writings. Arthur King Peters described the importance of this part of Mormon history in Seven Trails West:[34]

This heroic episode of Mormon history exemplifies many of the enduring qualities of nascent Mormonism itself: thorough organization, iron discipline, unswerving devotion to a cause, and limitless self-sacrifice. . . . The true Mormon Trail was not on the prairie but in the spirit.

Wallace Stegner also praised the examples of those of the handcart companies, particularly in comparison to other pioneer parties:[35]

Perhaps their suffering seems less dramatic because the handcart pioneers bore it meekly, praising God, instead of fighting for life with the ferocity of animals and eating their dead to keep their own life beating, as both the Fremont and Donner parties did. . . . But if courage and endurance make a story, if humankindness and helpfulness and brotherly love in the midst of raw horror are worth recording, this half-forgotten episode of the Mormon migration is one of the great tales of the West and of America.

Reenactments

Reenactments, in which a group dressed in nineteenth century garb travels for one or more days pushing and pulling handcarts, have become a popular activity among LDS wards, youth groups, and families.[36] The reenactments have been lauded by LDS leaders; for example, M. Russell Ballard of the Quorum of the Twelve Apostles said, "Through music, drama, and stirring reenactments, we will be reminded of incredible pioneer journeys, both temporal and spiritual."[37] The reenactments have become so popular that the Bureau of Land Management is studying the impact on the trail and its environment, especially in the area around Rocky Ridge, Wyoming.[38] According to the Casper Star Tribune, the BLM has had to impose a fee to offset the costs of monitoring the impacts of reenactors and other campers on the trail.[39]

150th anniversary

A number of events have been held or are scheduled to commemorate the 150th anniversary of the 1856 handcart companies:

  • The 2006 conference of the Mormon History Association was held in Casper, Wyoming from May 25–May 28 and featured a specially commissioned concert opera by Harriet Petherick Bushman, "1856: Long Walk Home," as well as several research papers on the handcart trek.[40]
  • From June 9–June 11, a symposium and festival were held in Iowa City on the anniversary of the departure of the first company. Gordon B. Hinckley, the current President of The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints, spoke at the closing ceremony fireside.[41]
  • A musical called "1856", produced by Cory Ellsworth, a descendant of Edmund Ellsworth, was performed in Mesa, Arizona and Salt Lake City in July 2006.
  • Filmmaker Lee Groberg is filming a documentary for PBS, "The Sweetwater Rescue," which features reenactments of the rescue of the Willie and Martin companies; the one-hour film is expected to air in October.[42]
  • Brigham Young University has created a daily journal of the Willie Handcart Company on its Web site.[43]

See also

Prominent handcart pioneers

Prominent members of the rescue parties

Notes

  1. ^ Hafen and Hafen (1981), p. 102.
  2. ^ Allen and Leonard (1976), pp. 103-256.
  3. ^ Hafen and Hafen (1981), pp. 28-31.
  4. ^ Ibid., pp. 29-34, 46.
  5. ^ Ibid., pp. 53-55; Dekker (2006), p. 45.
  6. ^ Hafen and Hafen (1981), pp. 58-59, 157; Dekker (2006), p. 41.
  7. ^ Hafen and Hafen (1981), pp. 53-59.
  8. ^ Kimball (1979).
  9. ^ Hafen and Hafen (1981), pp. 59-79.
  10. ^ Source is Hafen and Hafen [1960] (1981), except for counts of emigrants and deaths for the Willie and Martin Companies.
  11. ^ Hafen and Hafen (1981), p. 91.
  12. ^ Ibid., pp. 92-94.
  13. ^ Ibid., pp. 96-97.
  14. ^ Ibid., p. 100.
  15. ^ Hafen and Hafen (1981), pp. 97-98, 119; Bartholomew and Arrington (1993), p. 5.
  16. ^ Hafen and Hafen (1981), pp. 101, 108; Bartholomew and Arrington (1993), pp. 3-4.
  17. ^ Hafen and Hafen (1981), pp. 119-125; Bartholomew and Arrington (1993), pp. 5-11.
  18. ^ The various sources disagree regarding the identities of the members of first "express team" that first met the Willie Company. Hafen and Hafen [1960] (1981), quoting emigrant John Chislett, name Joseph Young and Stephen Taylor. Jones (1890), a member of the rescue party, names Cyrus Wheelock and Stephen Taylor, and Bartholomew and Arrington (1992) name Joseph Young, Abel Garr, and Cyrus Wheelock.
  19. ^ Hafen and Hafen (1981), pp. 101-107, 126; Bartholomew and Arrington (1993), pp. 11-17.
  20. ^ Hafen and Hafen (1981), pp. 108-116, 126; Bartholomew and Arrington (1993), pp. 21-25.
  21. ^ Hafen and Hafen (1981), p.228
  22. ^ Hafen and Hafen (1981), pp. 132-134; Bartholomew and Arrington (1993), pp. 25-28.
  23. ^ Hafen and Hafen (1981), pp. 127-131; Bartholomew and Arrington (1993), pp. 17-19.
  24. ^ Hafen and Hafen (1981), pp. 134-138; Bartholomew and Arrington (1993), pp. 28-37.
  25. ^ Hafen and Hafen (1981), pp. 138-140; Bartholomew and Arrington (1993), pp. 39-42.
  26. ^ See Deseret News "Historians fault leaders in LDS handcart tragedy" May 27 2006.
  27. ^ Bartholomew and Arrington (1993), p. 44.
  28. ^ Source for counts of emigrants and deaths of Willie and Martin Companies is Christy (1992).
  29. ^ Hafen and Hafen (1981), pp. 143-144.
  30. ^ Ibid., pp. 153-164.
  31. ^ Ibid., pp. 165-178.
  32. ^ Ibid., pp. 179-190.
  33. ^ Ibid., pp. 191-192.
  34. ^ Peters (1996), p. 145.
  35. ^ Stegner (1956), p. 85.
  36. ^ For example, see San Diego Union-Tribune, Iowa City Press Citizen, and East Valley Tribune.
  37. ^ General Conference, April 1997, You have nothing to fear from the the journey.
  38. ^ See research by Cameron Leonard Aldridge.
  39. ^ Royster, Whitney (2004-09-01). "Enzi mulls Mormon Trail fees". Casper Star-Tribune. Retrieved 2006-08-14. {{cite web}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help)
  40. ^ See Mormon History Association.
  41. ^ See Pres. Hinckley to honor handcart pioneers, Carrie A. Moore, Deseret Morning News; Iowa City Commemoration; and President Hinckley pays tribute to handcart pioneers, KSL-TV.
  42. ^ See Deseret News: Documentary explores handcart tragedy.
  43. ^ See the Willie Handcart Company Chronology at BYU.edu.

References

  • Allen, James B. (1976). The Story of the Latter-day Saints. Deseret Book Company. ISBN 0877475946. {{cite book}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
  • Bartholomew, Rebecca (1993). Rescue of the 1856 Handcart Companies. Signature Books. ISBN 0941214044. {{cite book}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
  • Christy, Howard A. (1992). "Handcart Companies". In Daniel H. Ludlow (Ed.), (ed.). Encyclopedia of Mormonism, Vol 2. Macmillan Publishing Company. ISBN 002904040X.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: extra punctuation (link)
  • Dekker, Linda (July 2006). "Some Must Push and Some Must Pull". Ensign. 36 (7): 38–47.
  • Jones, Daniel W. (1890). Forty Years Among the Indians: A True Yet Thrilling Narrative of the Author's Experiences Among the Natives. Juvenile Instructor Office.
  • Hafen, LeRoy R. (1981) [1960]. Handcarts to Zion: the story of a unique western migration, 1856–1860: with contemporary journals, accounts, reports and rosters of members of the ten handcart companies. Arthur H. Clark Company. ISBN 0870620274. {{cite book}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
  • Kimball, Stanley B. (1979). Discovering Mormon Trails. Deseret Book Company.
  • Peters, Arthur King (1996). Seven Trails West. Abbeville Press. ISBN 1558597824. {{cite book}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help)
  • Slaughter, William (1997). Trail of Hope: The Story of the Mormon Trail. Salt Lake City: Deseret Book Company. ISBN 1573452513. {{cite book}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
  • Stegner, Wallace (1956). Ordeal by Handcart. Collier's Publishing.
  • Stegner, Wallace (1992). The Gathering of Zion. University of Nebraska Press. ISBN 0935704124.
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