Operation Grandslam

This article is about the United Nations offensive against the State of Katanga. For other uses, see Operation Grand Slam (disambiguation).

Operation Grandslam
Part of the Congo Crisis
File:UN inspects Katanga Harvard Airplane Wreckage at Kolwezi, Congo 1963.jpg UN troops at the ruined Kolwezi airfield after the operation
Date 28 December 1962 – 15 January 1963 Location State of Katanga Result Decisive ONUC victory Katangese secession formally ended on 17 January Katanga insurgency begins Territorial changes Katanga reintegrated into the Republic of the Congo
Belligerents
ONUC Supported by: Republic of the Congo	Katanga  Supported by: Portuguese Angola South Africa Northern Rhodesia
Commanders and leaders
U Thant Dewan Prem Chand Reginald Noronha	Moise Tshombe  Norbert Moke  Jeremiah Puren
Strength
Unknown	14,000–17,000 gendarmes
Casualties and losses
11 killed 49+ wounded 7 fighter aircraft damaged 1 reconnaissance aircraft damaged	50+ killed Several dozen aircraft destroyed
There were no confirmed reports of civilian casualties during the operation, but statistics are ultimately unknown.

Operation Grandslam or Operation Grand Slam was an offensive action undertaken by United Nations peacekeeping forces against the gendarmerie of the State of Katanga, a secessionist state from the Republic of the Congo.

The United Nations had tried on multiple occasions to reconcile the government of the Congo with the State of Katanga, which had declared independence under Moïse Tshombe with Belgian support in 1960. Though initially limiting its actions, the United Nations Operation in the Congo became increasingly impatient towards Katanga and Tshombe and was drawing up plans to resolve the situation through force. Tshombe continuously violated agreements he had made with the United Nations and the Congolese government by building up his forces and bringing foreign mercenaries into the conflict. The situation came to a breaking point in December 1962 when Katangese gendarmes brazenly attacked peacekeeping forces in Katanga, causing United Nations Secretary General U Thant to authorize a retaliatory offensive to decisively eliminate secessionist opposition.

Reinforced by recently amassed air power, United Nations peacekeepers successfully completed the first phase of the operation, securing the Katangese capital, Élisabethville, and destroying much of the Katangese Air Force by the end of the year. In early January the United Nations forces turned their attention towards remaining strongholds in southern Katanga. Indian peacekeepers surpassed their orders and crossed the Lufira River ahead of schedule, generating panic behind the Katangese lines and causing an incident among United Nations leadership. Tshombe, realizing that his position was untenable, sued for peace. On 17 January 1963, he signed an instrument of surrender and declared the Katangese secession to be over. The central government subsequently reorganized the provincial administration of Katanga to weaken its political structure. Tshombe initially participated but feared his arrest and fled to Europe.

Many Katangese gendarmes and their mercenary leaders, acting under orders from Tshombe, evacuated to Angola to reorganize. In 1964, Tshombe was welcomed back to the Congo and made prime minister. He immediately called upon his forces to suppress communists revolts in the east and center of the country. This they successfully accomplished, but Tshombe was dismissed from his post in 1965, ultimately losing complete contact with them following his imprisonment in Algeria in 1967. Relations between the new central government and the gendarmes soured, and following an unsuccessful mutiny they returned to Angola. Insurgent activities aimed at Katangese secession continued by them and successor organizations until late 2016.

Background

Following the Republic of the Congo's independence from Belgium in 1960, the country fell into disorder as the army mutinied. Shortly thereafter South Kasai and the State of Katanga declared independence from the central government. The latter contained the vast majority of the Congo's valuable mineral resources, attracting a significant amount of mining activity under Belgian rule. Many Katangese thought that they were entitled to the revenue generated through the lucrative industry, and feared that under the new central government it would be distributed among the Congo's poorer provinces. Resulting nativist politics with support from the Belgian government and private interests such as the Union Minière du Haut Katanga (UMHK) precipitated the Katangese secession.

The deposition (and eventual murder) of the first Congolese prime minister caused further issues in the country, resulting in the declaration of a "Free Republic of the Congo" by the end of the year. In order to prevent a complete collapse of order within the country, the United Nations (UN) established a major peacekeeping mission, the United Nations Operation in the Congo (known under its French acronym as ONUC). Initially, ONUC limited its actions to ensuring the safety of Congolese citizens and foreign nationals and withheld from acting against the secessionist states. However, almost immediately the UN ran into trouble in Katanga. The state's leader and head of the locally entrenched Confédération des associations tribales du Katanga (CONAKAT), Moïse Tshombe, at first banned the UN from entering his territory and then greatly limited their peacekeeping efforts. Further issues derived from peacekeepers' efforts to deport foreign mercenaries, many of whom were employed by Katanga.

In order to secure their own positions in Katanga and eliminate the mercenaries, UN forces launched Operation Rumpunch and Operation Morthor. The former, though limited in scope, was largely successful, but the latter was fought to a stalemate. Though UN Official Conor Cruise O'Brien had announced as it was underway that, "The secession of Katanga has ended," this statement was quickly realized to be premature.

In December 1961 the UN initiated Operation Unokat. Tshombe was then forced to enter serious negotiations with Congolese Prime Minister Cyrille Adoula. On 21 December 1961 Tshombe signed the Kitona Declaration, an agreement whereby he would recognize the authority of the central government and work to reintegrate Katanga into the Republic. However, Tshombe subsequently deferred to the Katangese Parliament and put off any action of reconciliation. In January 1962 the Free Republic of the Congo was finally subdued and the UN was able to refocus its efforts on ending the Katangese secession. By then contact between the central government and Katanga had broken down, and ONUC intelligence reports indicated that the latter was rebuilding its forces.

UN Secretary General Thant

In August United Nations Secretary General U Thant drew up a "Plan for National Reconciliation" by which Katanga would rejoin a federalized Congo. Adoula and Tshombe both accepted the proposal. Thant was wary of Tshombe's delaying tactics and applied increasing political pressure on the Katangese government to abide by the plan's timetable. The outbreak of the Sino-Indian War in October raised the possibility of all Indian troops potentially being withdrawn from ONUC, putting pressure on UN officials to quickly resolve the secession. Still doubting the likelihood of a peaceful resolution of the situation, Thant sent Ralph Bunche to Léopoldville. There, Bunch worked with local UN Mission Chief Robert Gardiner and UN Force Commander Sean MacEoin to create a plan to achieve freedom of movement for ONUC personnel and eliminate the foreign mercenaries. By then it was obvious that Tshombe did not intend on rejoining the Congo; there were 300–500 mercenaries in Katanga (as many as there had been before previous UN operations) and new airfields and defensive positions were being constructed. ONUC personnel and even diplomatic staff faced increasing harassment at the hands of Katangese forces.

On 11 December Paul-Henri Spaak declared that the Belgian government would support the UN or the Congolese government should they end the Katangese secession through force.

Prelude

On 24 December 1962 Katangese forces openly attacked Ethiopian troops. That same day a UN observation helicopter was fired upon and forced to land. One of the crew was mortally wounded while the rest were captured and beaten. UN troops strictly limited their responses to self-defense, but the attacks continued. On 27 December, in response to the increasing Katangese hostility, the ONUC Air Division issued Fighter Operations Order 16, directing UN aircraft to retaliate against Katangese aircraft mounting any attack (including against non-UN targets) and to shoot down any others deemed to be carrying "visible offensive weapons, such as bombs or rockets".

Tshombe ordered his troops to cease firing, but he was ignored. Radio intercepts revealed that General Norbert Moke, the commander of the Katangese Gendarmerie, had ordered the Katangese Air Force to bomb the Élisabethville airport on the night of 29 December. Lieutenant General Dewan Prem Chand convinced Thant to authorize a strong, decisive offensive to preemptively eliminate Katangese forces.

Operation

First phase

The first phase of Operation Grandslam commenced on 28 December, 1962 to "restore the security of ONUC troops in the Élisabethville area and their freedom of movement by clearing the gendarmerie road-blocks from which fire had been directed at United Nations troops." The operation involved troops from Ethiopia, Ghana, India, Ireland, Sweden, and Tunisia. The initial attacks triggered the flight of 50,000 refugees, many towards the Rhodesian border, though most would quickly return. In the first day, UN forces killed 50 Katangese gendarmes before securing downtown Élisabethville, the local Gendarmerie headquarters, and the radio station. Thant informed the UN Force Commander in the Congo that napalm was to be prohibited from use in combat.

File:J-29 Tunnan in UN service.jpg

UN J-29 Tunnan jet in the Congo

Early on 29 December, the ONUC Air Division organized a surprise assault on the Kolwezi airfield. The Swedish Saab 29 Tunnan (J-29) fighter jets strafed with their 20mm cannons, as their 13.5mm rockets were inoperable in the overcast skies. Five fuel dumps and the local administrative building were destroyed. Anti-aircraft fire damaged three UN planes, but attacks nonetheless continued throughout the day and were extended to other Katangese airfields. Three further UN reconnaissance missions resulted in the destruction of six Katangese aircraft on the ground and one unconfirmed kill in the air. Most of the Katangese Air Force remained grounded, as Jeremiah Puren, the commander of the force, feared his planes would perform poorly against the faster J-29 jets. Ethiopian units seized several gendarmerie roadblocks, while in the north Ghanaian and Swedish forces captured Kamina. Kipushi fell to Irish soldiers. By 30 December, all the objectives for the first phase of Operation Grandslam had been accomplished. General Prem Chand received a congratulatory telegram from Thant for the progress of UN forces.

Second phase

File:UN Armoured Convoy in the Congo, 1963.jpg

Armoured vehicles of the Irish 38th Battalion on the roadway between Elisabethville and Kipushi on 3 January

The second and final phase of Grandslam involved UN advances on Jadotville and Kolwezi, the remaining strongholds of the Katangese Gendarmerie. Pleased with the success of operations in Élisabethville, Prem Chand saw to immediately carry forward. On 31 December the 4th Madras battalion and members of the Rajputana Rifles moved out of Élisabethville for the Lufira River. The next day they encountered several foreign mercenaries and in the ensuing gun battle four peacekeepers were killed. Two captured mercenaries revealed that confusion and desertion were occurring among the Katangese forces. Altogether the Indian forces faced unexpectedly light resistance and reached east bank of the Lufira on 3 January.

File:UN forces at the Lufira River.jpg

UN soldiers at the destroyed bridge over the Lufira River on the way between Elizabethville and Jadotville

The main bridge over the Lufira to Jadotville had been destroyed after the local mercenary commander blew up a truck parked halfway across it. Most of the mercenaries then promptly deserted. The UN troops stopped to await the arrival of American bridging equipment. However, 7 miles (11 km) upstream they discovered a sabotaged rail bridge that was still passable on foot. Brigadier General Reginald Noronha, the local commander, seized the opportunity and ordered the bridge to be secured. The Rajputana infantry crossed the bridge and swiftly neutralized Katangese opposition on the far side of the river. Meanwhile, the Madras battalion located a raft and, with the assistance of a Sikorsky helicopter, managed to bring over most of their vehicles and heavy equipment. Not wanting to remain at an exposed bridgehead, Noronha had his troops occupy Jadotville. Norbert Moke had attempted to organize a defense of the town, but Katangese forces were in disarray, being completely caught off-guard by the UN troops' advance. The Indian soldiers faced no resistance and were welcomed by the local inhabitants. Only when Noronha was in the town did he make contact with the UN headquarters.

By 4 January 1963, the ONUC Air Division had conducted 76 air sorties, while active patrolling by the J-29 jets had cutoff Katanga from support in Portuguese Angola and Southern Africa.

On 8 January, Tshombe appeared in Élisabethville. That same day Prime Minister Adoula received a letter from the chiefs of the most prominent Kantangan tribes pledging allegiance to the Congolese government and calling for Tshombe's arrest. The following day Tshombe was briefly detained by UN soldiers, but he was released so he could meet his political associate, Godefroid Munongo, and several of his ministers in Mokambo. It is alleged that along the way Tshombe urged his supporters to resist UN forces, but it meant little as Mokambo and Bakania were soon occupied. He expressed his willingness to negotiate with the central government, but warned that any advance on Kolwezi would result in the enactment of a scorched earth policy. On 10 January, UN troops seized an abandoned Gendarmerie base and secured the Shinkolobwe mine. Tshombe fled to Northern Rhodesia on a Rhodesian Air Force plane and made his way to Kolwezi, the only significant location that remained under Katangese control.

Meanwhile, mercenaries in the city had taken Tshombe's threats about a scorched earth policy seriously and had planted explosives on all nearby bridges, the Nzilo Dam (which provided most of Katanga's electricity), and most of the UMHK mining facilities. When Tshombe arrived on 12 January, he was informed by UMHK officials that they had negotiated a tax deal with the central government and were withdrawing their support for secession. They asked him to not spread the news, fearing the mercenaries would feel betrayed and destroy their facilities as revenge. Realizing in a final meeting in Kolwezi that the situation was grim, Colonel Bob Denard suggested that before fleeing the mercenaries should destroy the Nzilo Dam to make a political statement. Tshombe, knowing that the UMHK would disapprove, told him that such an action would be "criminally irresponsible." Company representatives met with Brigadier General Noronha to discuss the best way for UN troops to enter Kolwezi without causing collateral damage. General Noke vainly attempted to organize the 140 mercenaries and 2,000 gendarmes under his command to prepare a final defence of the city. His efforts, undermined by the force's low morale and a lack of discipline, were further hampered by an influx of refugees. Tshombe ordered the Katangese garrison of Baudouinville to surrender to besieging UN and Armée Nationale Congolaise (ANC) forces. Instead, they and most of the population deserted the city while a handful of gendarmes near Kongolo laid down their arms to Nigerian and Malaysian soldiers. On 14 January, Indian troops found the last intact bridge into the Kolwezi. After a brief fight with gendarmes and mercenaries they secured it and crossed over, stopping at the outskirts to await further instruction.

On 15 January, Tshombe sent a formal message to Thant, "I am ready to proclaim immediately before the world that the Katanga's secession is ended." Munongo fled Kolwezi and angrily declared that he would continue the campaign from Rhodeisa, though he soon returned. Tshombe offered to return to Élisabethville to oversee the implementation of Thant's proposal for reunification if Prime Minister Adoula granted amnesty to himself and his government. At a press conference, Adoula accepted Tshombe's proposition and announced that what remained of the Katangese Gendarmerie would be integrated into the ANC.

Aftermath and analyses

File:UN inspects Katanga Vampire Airplane Wreckage at Kolwezi, Congo 1963.jpg

A UN peacekeeper inspects the ruins of a Katangese Air Force Vampire jet at Kolwezi airfield

Late in the afternoon of 17 January, Tshombe and Munongo met with UN officials in Élisabethville to finalize negotiations. It concluded with Tshombe signing a formal instrument of surrender with General Prem Chand officially ending the Katangese secession. Four days later he peacefully received UN troops in Kolwezi.

Casualties and damages

11 UN peacekeepers were killed during the operation. Of those, 7 were from the Indian Independent Brigade, which also suffered 49 wounded. A total of seven UN fighter aircraft and a single reconnaissance aircraft were damaged by fire from the ground. In return, the Katangese Air Force had lost dozens of its Harvards, Magisters, and de Havilland Vampires, most while on the ground. All Katangese aircraft, except for one or two Harvards, were recorded as destroyed by UN forces at the conclusion of Grandslam. A subsequent investigation by a UN intelligence team found that 15 aircraft had been hidden at Angolan airfields for use, in the words of captured Belgian mercenaries, "in the next fight for Katanga's secession". The operation also cut short a delivery of Cavalier Mustangs which Tshombe had purchased and had been expected to arrive sometime in January. The UN was also able to confirm that Katanga had been able to acquire their aircraft with the knowledge and assistance of the governments of Portuguese Angola, South Africa, and Northern Rhodesia.

ONUC communications breakdown

The unexpected advance of the Indian forces under Brigadier General Noronha into Jadotville on 3 January had created considerable international controversy and embarrassed Secretary General Thant. Noronha had clearly exceeded his initial orders by seizing a bridge and crossing over the Lufira River. A UN spokesperson acknowledged that from a military stand point the operation had been "brilliantly executed" but stated that the UN regretted the "serious breakdown in effective communication and coordination between United Nations Headquarters and the Léopoldville office." The following week Bunche investigated the incident. In his official report he concluded, "I have found beyond doubt that it is our machinery, that is at fault, far more than the individuals."

Fate of Katanga

Tshombe and all of his ministers remained in Katanga immediately following the conclusion of hostilities. He promised on CONAKAT's behalf to support the reunification of the Congo. As per the central government's decision, Katanga was divided into two provinces: North Katanga and South Katanga. Tshombe protested the "Balkanization" of the province, but cooperated and established his own provincial government in South Katanga by April. His rivalry with Association Générale des Baluba de Katanga (BALUBAKAT) leader Jason Sendwe, a northern Katangese politician, led to ethnic violence in Jadotville in which an estimated 74 people were killed. The following month ANC soldiers raided his residence on accusations that he was maintaining a private militia. Later, the central government seized documents revealing his continued contacts with foreign mercenaries. Fearing arrest and claiming political persecution, Tshombe fled to Paris, France in June, eventually settling in Madrid, Spain. From there he developed plans with his Gendarmerie commanders for a return to power, further complicating the central government's efforts to absorb the force.

Halfway through the year South Katanga was further divided into the provinces of Katanga Oriental and Lualaba (also known as the new South Katanga). Though they were opposed to such divisions, many Katangese leaders from the secession joined the new provincial governments. A new constitutional commission was established, and in March 1964 it was recommended that the Congo switch from its parliamentary system to a presidential model of government.

In June 1964, following the withdrawal of ONUC, the communist Kwilu and Simba rebellions overwhelmed the ANC in eastern and central Congo. The weak central government was unable to effectively deal with the problem, so President Joseph Kasa-Vubu dismissed Prime Minister Adoula and requested Tshombe to replace him. Tshombe arrived in the capital on 24 June and assumed the premiership on 9 July. The insurgencies were successfully quelled with the use of former gendarmes and mercenaries, but in October 1965 Kasa-Vubu dismissed Tshombe. In November, Colonel Joseph-Desiré Mobutu seized power in a coup and Tshombe returned to exile in Spain. Though he had designs on a return to power, Tshombe was imprisoned in Algeria in 1967 and remained there until his death.

Fate of Katanga's military

On 8 February 1963, General Norbert Moke and several of his officers pledged their allegiance to Congolese President Joseph Kasa-Vubu. In spite of the amnesty and incorporation of Katangese forces into the ANC, many gendarmes remained in hiding, occasionally clashing with government forces. Of the 14,000–17,000 gendarmes, approximately 8,000 remained unaccounted for.

During the meeting in Kolwezi, Tshombe had ordered that all remaining Katangese armed forces were to withdraw to Portuguese Angola. Jean Schramme was appointed to be commander of an army in exile, while Jeremiah Puren was ordered to evacuate what remained of the Katangese Air Force, along with necessary military equipment and the Katangese treasury. This accomplished via air and railway. Rhodesian operatives assisted in smuggling the gold reserves out of the country. The last of Schramme's mercenaries and gendarmes were evacuated on 25 January. Other gendarmes spent the remainder of 1963 in Northern Rhodesia.

Throughout 1963 gendarmes steadily crossed into Angola. Portuguese colonial authorities, eager to assist the anticommunist Katangese, organized them in "refugee" camps. By 1964, two of the four camps had become dedicated training facilities. Mercenaries traveled from Katanga to Angola via Rhodesia to relay messages between Tshombe, the gendarmes, and the mercenaries, with logistical support from Southern Rhodesia. Around April, Tshombe appeared to have remobilized his forces. Immediately after becoming prime minister in June, he ordered the exiled Katangese to return to the Congo and mobilized some of those that had been in hiding so that they could suppress the Kwilu and Simba rebels. They were utilized successfully against the insurgencies, and following Tshombe's ousting from power they retained significant political distance from Mobutu's regime. Relations between the two parties quickly worsened, culminating in a bloody mutiny in July 1966.

Following their defeat, straggling gendarmes retreated back into Angola. Tshombe began planning to use them to stage an invasion of the Congo, but this was cut short by his imprisonment in 1967. They reconstituted themselves as the Front de Libération Nationale Congolaise and made two attempts retake Katanga in the 1970s. Both failed, but secessionist insurgency activity continued, principally by the Mai-Mai Kata Katanga. Many Katangese people hoped the UN would, in light of their role in ending the original secession, help resolve the situation. Their activities subsided after their leader and many of his forces surrendered in October 2016 to seek a peaceful solution.

References

• Boulden, Jane (2001). Peace Enforcement: The United Nations Experience in Congo, Somalia, and Bosnia (illustrated ed.). Greenwood Publishing Group. ISBN 9780275969066. {{cite book}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)
• Briscoe, N. (2003). Britain and UN Peacekeeping: 1948–67 (illustrated ed.). Springer. ISBN 9780230005730. {{cite book}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)
• Chakravorty, B. (1995). Stories of Heroism: PVC & MVC Winners (illustrated ed.). Allied Publishers. ISBN 9788170235163. {{cite book}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)
• Dorn, A. Walter (2016). Air Power in UN Operations: Wings for Peace. Military Strategy and Operational Art. Routledge. ISBN 9781317183396. {{cite book}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)
• Kennes, Erik; Larmer, Miles (2016). The Katangese Gendarmes and War in Central Africa: Fighting Their Way Home. Indiana University Press. ISBN 9780253021502. {{cite book}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)
• Meisler, Stanley (2011). United Nations: A History (revised ed.). Grove Press. ISBN 9780802194992. {{cite book}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)
• Mockaitis, Thomas R. (1999). Peace Operations and Intrastate Conflict: The Sword Or the Olive Branch? (illustrated ed.). Greenwood Publishing Group. ISBN 9780275961732. {{cite book}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)
• Murphy, Philip, ed. (2005). British Documents on the End of Empire: Central Africa, Part I. Vol. 9. The Stationery Office. ISBN 9780112905868. {{cite book}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)
• O'Ballance, Edgar (1999). The Congo-Zaire Experience, 1960–98 (illustrated ed.). Springer. ISBN 9780230286481. {{cite book}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)
• Othen, Christopher (2015). Katanga 1960–63: Mercenaries, Spies and the African Nation that Waged War on the World (illustrated ed.). The History Press. ISBN 9780750965804. {{cite book}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)
• Packham, Eric S. (1996). Freedom and Anarchy (illustrated ed.). Nova Publishers. ISBN 9781560722328. {{cite book}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)
• Thant, (U) (1978). View from the UN. Doubleday. ISBN 9780385115414. {{cite book}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)
• United Press International (9 January 1963). "Congo War At an End –Tshombe". The Desert Sun. Élisabethville. p. 2. OCLC 26432381. {{cite news}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)