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Third Servile War

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Third Servile War
Part of the Servile Wars

Italia and surrounding territory, 218 BC
Date73 to 71 BC
Location
Italia
Result Decisive Roman victory
Belligerents
Army of escaped slaves Roman Republic
Commanders and leaders
Crixus†,
Oenomaus†,
Spartacus† (presumed dead, body never found),
Castus†,
Gannicus†		 Gaius Claudius Glaber,
Publius Varinius,
Gnaeus Clodianus,
Lucius Gellius Publicola,
Gaius Cassius Longinus,
Gnaeus Manlius,
Marcus Licinius Crassus,
Gnaeus Pompeius Magnus,
Marcus Terentius Varro Lucullus,
Lucius Quinctius,
Gnaeus Tremellius Scrofa.
Strength
120,000 escaped slaves and gladiators, including non-combatants. Total number of combatants unknown. 3,000+ militia,
8 Roman Legions (40,000-50,000 men),
12,000+ - organization unknown.
Casualties and losses
Almost all killed in action, or crucified. Unspecified but heavy.
50, 1,000, or 4,000 lost through decimation.

The Third Servile War, also called the Gladiator War and The War of Spartacus by Plutarch, was the last of a series of unrelated and unsuccessful slave rebellions against the Roman Republic, known collectively as the Servile Wars. The Third Servile War was the only one to directly threaten the Roman heartland of Italia and was doubly alarming to the Roman people due to the repeated successes the rapidly growing band of rebel slaves had against the Roman army between 73 and 71 BC. The rebellion was finally crushed in 71 BC through the concentrated military effort of a single commander, Marcus Licinius Crassus, although the rebellion would continue to have indirect effects on the political history of Rome for years to come.

Between 73 and 71 BC, a band of escaped slaves — originally a small cadre of approximately 70 escaped gladiators which grew into a band of over 120,000 men, women and children — wandered throughout and raided the Roman province of Italia with relative impunity under the guidance of several leaders, including the famous gladiator-general Spartacus. The able-bodied adults of this band were a surprisingly effective armed force that repeatedly showed they could withstand the Roman military, from the local Campanian patrols, to the Roman militia, and to trained Roman legions under consular command. Plutarch described the actions of the slaves as an attempt by Roman slaves to escape their masters and flee through Cisalpine Gaul, while Appian and Florus depicted the revolt as a civil war in which the slaves waged a campaign to capture the city of Rome itself.

The Roman Senate's growing alarm about the continued military successes of this band, and about their depredations against Roman towns and the countryside, eventually led to Rome fielding an army of eight legions under the harsh but effective leadership of Marcus Licinius Crassus. The war ended in 71 BC when, after a long and bitter fighting retreat before the legions of Crassus, and the realization that the legions of Gnaeus Pompeius Magnus and Marcus Terentius Varro Lucullus were moving in to entrap them, the armies of Spartacus launched their full strength against Crassus' legions and were utterly destroyed.

While Spartacus' war is noteworthy in its own right, the Third Servile War was significant to the larger history of ancient Rome mostly by the effect it had on the careers of Pompey and Crassus. The two generals used their success in putting down the rebellion to further their political careers, using their public acclaim, and the implied threat of their legions, to sway the consular elections of 70 BC in their favor. Their actions as Consuls greatly furthered the subversion of Roman political institutions, and contributed to the eventual transition of the Roman Republic into the Roman Empire.

Slavery in the Roman republic

Further information: Slavery in antiquity, First Servile War, and Second Servile War

Through varying degrees in Roman history, the existence of a pool of inexpensive labor in the form of slaves was an important factor in the Roman economy. Slaves were acquired for the Roman workforce through a variety of means, including purchase from foreign merchants and the enslavement of foreign populations through military conquest.[1] With Rome's heavy involvement in wars of conquest in the first and second centuries BC, tens if not hundreds of thousands of slaves were imported into the Roman economy at a time.[2] While there was limited use for slaves as servants, craftsmen, and personal attendants, vast numbers of slaves were used to work in the mines, and the agricultural lands of Sicily and southern Italia.[3]

Slaves, for the most part, were treated harshly and oppressively in Roman society. Under Roman law, a slave was not considered a person, but property. Owners could abuse, injure, or even kill their own slaves with no legal consequences. While there were many grades and types of slaves, the lowest — and most populous — grades who worked in the fields and mines were subject to a life of hard physical labor.[4]

This high concentration and oppressive treatment of the slave population led to rebellions. In 135 BC and 104 BC the First and Second Servile wars had erupted in Sicily, where small bands of rebels found tens of thousands of willing followers wishing to escape the oppressive life of a Roman slave. While these had been considered serious civil disturbances by the Roman Senate, taking years and direct military intervention to quell, they had never been considered a serious threat to the Republic. The Roman heartland of Italia had never seen a slave uprising, nor had slaves ever been seen as a potential threat to the city of Rome. That would all change with the Third Servile War.

The rebellion begins (73 BC)

The Capuan revolt

The Gladiator Mosaic at the Galleria Borghese

In the Roman Republic of the first century BC, gladiatorial games were one of the more popular forms of entertainment. In order to supply gladiators for the contests, several training schools, or ludi, were established throughout Italia. In these schools, prisoners of war and condemned criminals — who were considered slaves — were taught the skills required to fight to the death in gladiatorial games.[5] In 73 BC, a group of some 200 gladiators in the Capuan school owned by Lentulus Batiatus plotted an escape. When their plot was betrayed, a force of about 70 men seized implements from the kitchen ("choppers and spits"), fought their way free from the school, and seized several wagons of gladiatorial weapons and armor.[6]

Once free, the escaped gladiators chose leaders from their number, selecting two Gallic slaves — Crixus and Oenomaus — and Spartacus, who was said to be a Thracian auxiliary from the Roman legions condemned into slavery for desertion.[7] There is some question as to Spartacus's nationality, however, as "Thraces" were a type of gladiator in Rome.[8]

These escaped slaves were able to defeat a small force of troops sent after them from Capua, and equip themselves with captured military equipment as well as their gladiatorial weapons.[9] Sources are somewhat contradictory on the order of events immediately following the escape, but they generally agree that this band of escaped gladiators plundered the region surrounding Capua, recruited many other slaves into their ranks, and eventually retired to a more defensible position on Mount Vesuvius.[10]

Defeat of the praetorian armies

File:3rd Servile initial.gif
Initial movements of Roman and Slave forces from the Capuan revolt up to and including the winter of 73 BC.

As the revolt and raids were occurring in Campania — which was a vacation region of the rich and influential in Rome, and the location of many estates — the revolt quickly came to the attention of Roman authorities. However, it took Rome some time to realize the scale of the problem, viewing the slave revolt as more of a major crime wave than as an armed rebellion.

A Roman praetor, Gaius Claudius Glaber, was dispatched to deal with the problem, gathering a force of 3,000 men, not as legions, but as a militia "picked up in haste and at random, for the Romans did not consider this a war yet, but a raid, something like an attack of robbery."[11] Glaber's forces besieged the slaves on Mount Vesuvius, blocking the only known way down off the mountain. With the slaves thus contained, Glaber was content to wait until starvation forced the slaves to surrender.

While the slaves were not a professional army, and lacked military training, Spartacus' forces displayed ingenuity in their use of available local materials, and in the use of clever unorthodox tactics when facing the disciplined Roman armies.[12]

In response to Glaber's siege, Spartacus' men made ropes and ladders from vines and trees growing on the slopes of Vesuvius and used them to rappel down the cliffs on the opposite side of the mountain from Glaber's forces. They moved around the base of Vesuvius, outflanked the army, and annihilated Glaber's forces.[13]

A second expedition, under the praetor Publius Varinius, was then dispatched against Spartacus. For some reason, Varinius seems to have split his forces under the command of his subordinates Furius and Cossinius. Plutarch mentions that Furius commanded some 2,000 men, but neither the strength of the remaining forces, nor whether the expedition was composed of militia or legions, appears to be known. These forces were also defeated by the army of escaped slaves, Cossinius killed, Varinius nearly captured, and the equipment of the armies seized by the slaves.[14] With these successes, more and more slaves flocked to the Spartacan forces, as well as "many of the herdsmen and shepherds of the region", swelling their ranks to some 70,000.[15] The rebel slaves spent the winter of 73 BC arming and equipping their new recruits, and expanding their raiding territory to include the towns of Nola, Nuceria, Thurii and Metapontum.[16]

The victories of the rebel slaves did not come without cost, however. Sometime during these events, or possibly during some of the winter raids in late 73 BC, Oenomaus was lost — presumably in battle — and is not mentioned further in the histories.[17]

Motivation and leadership of the escaped slaves

Spartacus, by Denis Foyatier, c. 1830, displayed at the Louvre. An example of a modern heroic depiction of Spartacus.

By the end of 73 BC, Spartacus and Crixus were in command of a large group of armed men with a proven ability to withstand Roman armies. What they intended to do with this force is somewhat difficult for modern readers to determine. As the Third Servile War was ultimately an unsuccessful rebellion, no first hand account of the slaves' motives and goals exists, and both Roman and modern historians propose contradictory theories.

Many popular modern accounts of the war claim that there was a factional split in the escaped slaves between those under Spartacus, who wished to escape over the Alps to freedom, and those under Crixus, who wished to stay in southern Italia in order to continue raiding and plundering. This appears to be an interpretation of events based on the following: the regions that Florus lists as being raided by the slaves include Thurii and Metapontum, which are geographically distant from Nola and Nuceria. This indicates the existence of two groups: Lucius Gellius Publicola eventually attacked Crixus and a group of some 30,000 followers who are described as being separate from the main group under Spartacus;[18] and, Plutarch describes the desire of some of the escaped slaves to plunder Italia, rather than escape over the Alps.[19] While this factional split is not contradicted by classical sources, there does not seem to be any direct evidence to support it.

Fictional accounts — such as Stanley Kubrick's 1960 film Spartacus — sometimes portray Spartacus as an ancient Roman freedom fighter, struggling to change a corrupt Roman society and to end the Roman institution of slavery. Again, while this is not contradicted by classical historians, no historical account mentions that at any time was it a goal of the rebel slaves to end slavery in the Republic, nor do any of Spartacus's actions seem specifically aimed at ending slavery.

Even classical historians, who were writing only years after the events themselves, seem to be divided as to what the motives of Spartacus were. Appian and Florus write that he intended to march on Rome itself[20] — although this may simply have been a reflection of Roman fears, and if this was the case it was a goal he apparently later abandoned — while Plutarch writes that Spartacus merely wished to escape northwards into Cisalpine Gaul and disperse his men back to their homes.[19]

It is not certain that the slaves were a homogenous group under the leadership of Spartacus. While this is the unspoken assumption of the Roman historians, this may be the Romans projecting their own hierarchical view of military power and responsibility on the ad-hoc organization of the slaves. Certainly other slave leaders are mentioned — Crixus, Oenomaus, Gannicus, and Castus — and we cannot tell from the historical evidence whether these were aides, subordinates, or even equals leading groups of their own travelling in convoy with Spartacus' people.

Defeat of the consular armies (72 BC)

In the spring of 72 BC, the escaped slaves left their winter encampments and began to move northwards towards Cisalpine Gaul.

The Senate, alarmed by the size of the revolt and the defeat of the praetorian armies of Glaber and Varinius, dispatched a pair of consular legions under the command of Lucius Gellius Publicola and Gnaeus Cornelius Lentulus Clodianus.[21] Initially, the consular armies were successful. Gellius engaged a group of about 30,000 slaves, under command of Crixus, near Mount Garganus and killed two -thirds of the rebels, including Crixus himself.[22]

At this point in the history, there is a divergence in the classical sources as to the course of events which cannot be reconciled until the entry of Marcus Licinius Crassus into the war. The two most comprehensive (extant) histories of the war by Appian and Plutarch detail very different events, although it is possible that both are abridgements of earlier (and presumably more complete) histories of Livy and Sallust that are lost to modern scholars.

Appian's history

File:3rd servile 72 appian.gif
The events of 72 BC, according to Appian's version of events.

According to Appian, the battle between Gellius' legions and Crixus' men near Mount Garganus was the beginning of a long and complex series of military maneuvers that almost resulted in the Spartacan forces directly assaulting the city of Rome itself.

After his victory over Crixus, Gellius moved northwards, following the main group of slaves under Spartacus who were heading for Cisalpine Gaul. The army of Lentulus was deployed to bar Spartacus' path, and the consuls hoped to trap the rebel slaves between them. Spartacus' army met Lentulus' legion, defeated it, turned, and destroyed Gellius' army, forcing the Roman legions to retreat in disarray.[23] Appian claims that Spartacus executed some 300 captured Roman soldiers to avenge the death of Crixus, forcing them to fight each other to the death as gladiators.[24] Following this victory, Spartacus pushed northwards with his followers (some 120,000) as fast as he could travel, "having burned all his useless material, killed all his prisoners, and butchered his pack-animals in order to expedite his movement".[23]

The defeated consular armies fell back to Rome to regroup while Spartacus' followers moved northward. The consuls again engaged Spartacus somewhere in the Picenum region, and once again were defeated.[23]

Appian claims that at this point Spartacus changed his intention of marching on Rome — implying this was Spartacus' goal following the confrontation in Picenum[25] — as "he did not consider himself ready as yet for that kind of a fight, as his whole force was not suitably armed, for no city had joined him, but only slaves, deserters, and riff-raff", and decided to withdraw into southern Italia once again. They seized the town of Thurii and the surrounding countryside, arming themselves, raiding the surrounding territories, trading plunder with merchants for bronze and iron (with which to manufacture more arms), and clashing occasionally with Roman forces which were invariably defeated.[26]

Plutarch's history

The events of 72 BC, according to Plutarch's version of events.

Plutarch's description of events differs significantly from that of Appian's.

According to Plutarch, after the battle between Gellius' legions and Crixus men (whom Plutarch describes as "Germans"[27]) near Mount Garganus, Spartacus' men engaged the legion commanded by Lentulus, defeated them, seized their supplies and equipment, and pushed directly into northern Italia. After this defeat, both consuls were relieved of command of their armies by the Roman Senate and recalled to Rome.[28] Plutarch does not mention Spartacus engaging Gellius' legion at all, nor of Spartacus facing the combined consular legions in Picenum.[27]

Plutarch then goes on to detail a conflict not mentioned in Appian's history. According to Plutarch, Spartacus' army continued northwards to the region around Mutina (modern Modena). There, a Roman army of some 10,000 soldiers, led by the governor of Cisalpine Gaul, Gaius Cassius Longinus attempted to bar Spartacus' progress and were also defeated.[29]

Plutarch makes no further mention of events until the initial confrontation between Marcus Licinius Crassus and Spartacus in the spring of 71 BC, omitting the march on Rome and the retreat to Thurii described by Appian.[28] However, as Plutarch describes Crassus forcing Spartacus' followers to retreat southwards from Picenum, one might infer that the rebel slaves approached Picenum from the south in early 71 BC, implying that they withdrew southwards from Mutina to winter in southern or central Italia.

Why they might do so, when there was apparently no reason for them not to escape over the Alps — Spartacus' goal according to Plutarch[30] — is not explained.

The war under Crassus (71 BC)

File:Crassus turns tide.gif
The events of early 71 BC. Marcus Licinius Crassus takes command of the Roman legions, confronts Spartacus, and forces the rebel slaves to retreat through Lucania to the straits near Messina. Plutarch claims this occurred in the Picenum region, while Appian places the initial battles between Crassus and Spartacus in the Samnium region.

Despite the contradictions in the classical sources regarding the events of 72 BC, there seems to be general agreement that Spartacus and his followers were in the south of Italia in early 71 BC.

Crassus takes command of the legions

The Senate, now alarmed at the apparently unstoppable rebellion occurring within Italia, gave the task of putting down the rebellion to Marcus Licinius Crassus. Crassus had been a praetor in 73 BC, and although he was known for his political connections and family, he had no reputation as a military commander.[28]

He was assigned six new legions in addition to the two formerly consular legions of Gellius and Lentulus, giving him an army of some 40,000-50,000 trained Roman soldiers.[31] Crassus treated his legions with harsh, even brutal, discipline, reviving the punishment of unit decimation within his army. Appian is uncertain whether he decimated the two consular legions for cowardice when he was appointed their commander, or whether he had his entire army decimated for a later defeat (an event in which up to 4,000 legionaries would have been executed).[32] Plutarch only mentions the decimation of 50 legionaries of one cohort as punishment after Mummius' defeat in the first confrontation between Crassus and Spartacus.[33] Regardless of what actually occurred, Crassus' treatment of his legions proved that "he was more dangerous to them than the enemy", and spurred them on to victory rather than running the risk of displeasing their commander. [32]

Crassus and Spartacus

When the forces of Spartacus moved northwards once again, Crassus deployed six of his legions on the borders of the region (Plutarch claims the initial battle between Crassus' legions and Spartacus' followers occurred near the Picenum region[28], Appian claims it occurred near the Samnium region[34]), and detached two legions under his legate, Mummius, to maneuver behind Spartacus, but gave them orders not to engage the rebels. When an opportunity presented itself, Mummius disobeyed, attacked the Spartacan forces, and was subsequently routed.[33] Despite this initial loss, Crassus' engaged Spartacus and defeated him, killing some 6,000 of the rebels.[34]

The tide seemed to have turned in the war. Crassus' legions were victorious in several engagements, killing thousands of the rebel slaves, and forcing Spartacus to retreat south through Lucania to the straits near Messina. According to Plutarch, Spartacus made a bargain with Cilician pirates to transport him and some 2,000 of his men to Sicily, where he intended to incite a slave revolt there and gather reinforcements. However, he was betrayed by the pirates, who took payment and then abandoned the rebel slaves.[33] Florus records that there were some attempts at raft and shipbuilding by the rebels as a means to escape, but these were eventually abandoned.[16]

Spartacus' forces then retreated towards Rhegium. Crassus' legions followed and upon arrival built fortifications across the isthmus at Rhegium, despite harassing raids from the rebel slaves. The rebels were under siege and cut off from their supplies.[35]

Reinforcement legions arrive; the end of the war

The last events of the war in 71 BC, where the army of Spartacus broke the siege by Crassus' legions and retreated toward the mountains near Petelia. Shows the initial skirmishes between elements of the two sides, the turn-about of the Spartacan forces for the final confrontation. Note the legions of Pompey moving in from the north to capture survivors.

At this time, the legions of Pompey were returning to Italia, having put down the rebellion of Quintus Sertorius in Hispania.

Sources disagree on whether Crassus had requested reinforcements, or whether the Senate simply took advantage of Pompey's return to Italia, but Pompey was ordered to bypass Rome and head south to aid Crassus.[36] The Senate also sent reinforcements under the command of "Lucullus", mistakenly thought by Appian to be Lucius Licinius Lucullus, commander of the forces engaged in the Third Mithridatic War at the time, but who appears to have been the proconsul of Macedonia Marcus Terentius Varro Lucullus, the former's younger brother.[37] With Pompey's legions marching out of the north, and Lucullus' troops landing in Brundisium, Crassus realized that if he did not put down the slave revolt quickly, credit for the war would go to the general who arrived with reinforcements, and thus he spurred his legions on to end the conflict quickly.[38]

Hearing of the approach of Pompey, Spartacus attempted to negotiate with Crassus to bring the conflict to a close before Roman reinforcements arrived.[39] When Crassus refused, a portion of Spartacus' forces broke out of confinement and fled toward the mountains west of Petelia (modern Strongoli) in Bruttium, with Crassus' legions in pursuit.[40] The legions managed to catch a portion of the rebels – under the command of Gannicus and Castus – separated from the main army, killing 12,300.[41] However, Crassus' legions also suffered losses, as some of the army of escaping slaves turned to meet the Roman forces under the command of a cavalry officer named Lucius Quinctius and the quaestor Gnaeus Tremellius Scrofa, routing them.[42] The rebel slaves were not, however, a professional army, and had reached their limit. They were unwilling to flee any further, and groups of men were breaking away from the main force to independently attack the oncoming legions of Crassus.[43] With discipline breaking down, Spartacus turned his forces around and brought his entire strength to bear on the oncoming legions. In this last stand, Spartacus' forces were finally routed completely, with the vast majority of them being killed on the battlefield.[44] The eventual fate of Spartacus himself is unknown, as his body was never found, but he is accounted by historians to have perished in battle along with his men.[45]

Aftermath (71-70 BC)

The Fall of Spartacus.

The rebellion of the Third Servile War had been utterly annihilated by Crassus.

Pompey's forces did not directly engage Spartacus' forces at any time, but his legions moving in from the north were able to capture some 5,000 rebels fleeing the battle, "all of whom he slew".[46] Because of this, Pompey sent a dispatch to the Senate, saying that while Crassus certainly had conquered the slaves in open battle, he himself had ended the war, thus claiming a large portion of the credit and earning the enmity of Crassus.[47]

While most of the rebel slaves had been killed on the battlefield, some 6,000 survivors had been captured by the legions of Crassus. All 6,000 were crucified along the road between Rome and Capua.[48]

Pompey and Crassus reaped political benefit for having put down the rebellion. Both Crassus and Pompey returned to Rome with their legions and refused to disband them, instead encamping them outside Rome[49]. Both men stood for the consulship of 70 BC, even though Pompey was ineligible to do so because of his age, nor had he ever served as praetor or quaestor.[50] Nonetheless, both men were elected consul for 70 BC[51], partly due to the implied threat of their armed legions encamped outside the city.[52]

References

Books

Classical works

Modern works

  • Bradley, Keith. Slavery and Rebellion in the Roman World. Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1989. ISBN 071346561X.
  • Broughton, T. Robert S. Magistrates of the Roman Republic, vol. 2. Cleveland: Case Western University Press, 1968.
  • Matyszak, Philip, The enemies of Rome, Thames & Hudson, 2004. ISBN 0-500-25124-X.
  • Strachan-Davidson, J. L. (ed.), Appian, Civil Wars: Book I, Oxford University Press, 1902 (repr. 1969).
  • Mommsen, Theodor, The History of Rome, Books I-V, project Gutenburg electronic edition, 2004. ISBN 0415149533.
  • William Smith, D.C.L., LL.D., A Dictionary of Greek and Roman Antiquities, John Murray, London, 1875.

Multimedia

Notes

  • References to the Mommsen text is based on the Project Gutenburg e-text edition of the books. References are therefore given in terms of line numbers within the text file, and not page numbers as would be the case with physical books.
  • References to "classical works" (Livy, Plutarch, Appian, etc.) are given in the traditional "Book:verse" format, rather than edition-specific page numbers.
  1. ^ Smith, A Dictionary of Greek and Roman Antiquities, "Servus", p.1038; details the legal and military means by which people were enslaved.
  2. ^ Smith, Greek and Roman Antiquities, p. 1040; Caesar, Commentarii de Bello Gallico, 1:33. Smith makes reference to 10,000 slaves being purchased from Cilician pirates, while Caesar gives a particular example of the enslavement of 53,000 captive Aduatuci by a Roman army.
  3. ^ Smith, Greek and Roman Antiquities, p. 1039; Livy, The History of Rome, 6:12
  4. ^ Smith, Greek and Roman Antiquities, p. 1026-1039 summarizes the complex body of Roman law pertaining to the legal status of slaves.
  5. ^ Mommsen,The History of Rome, 3233-3238.
  6. ^ Plutarch, Crassus, 8:1-2; Appian, Civil Wars, 1:116; Livy, Periochae, 95:2; Florus, Epitome, 2.8. Plutarch claims 78 escaped, Livy claims 74, Appian "about seventy", and Florus says "thirty or rather more men". "Choppers and spits" is from Life of Crassus.
  7. ^ Plutarch, Crassus, 8:2.
  8. ^ Smith, Greek and Roman Antiquities, p. 576.
  9. ^ Plutarch, Crassus, 9:1.
  10. ^ Appian, Civil Wars, 1:116; Florus, Epitome, 2.8; - Florus and Appian make the claim that the slaves withdrew to Vesuvius, while Plutarch only mentions "a hill" in the later account of Glaber's siege of the slave's encampment.
  11. ^ Appian, Civil Wars, 1:116.
  12. ^ Frontinus, Stratagems, I,V:20-22 and VII:6.
  13. ^ Plutarch, Crassus, 9:1-3; Frontinus, Stratagems, I,V:21; Appian, Civil Wars, 1:116; Broughton, Magistrates of the Roman Republic, p. 109. Note: Appian seems to combine the expeditions of Publius Varinius and Claudius Glaber, writing of a single praetorian military expedition under "Varinios Glabros", whose name seems to be a concatenation of Varinius' and Glaber's.
  14. ^ Plutarch, Crassus, 9:4-5; Livy, Periochae , 95; Appian, Civil Wars, 1:116; Sallust, Histories, 3:64-67.
  15. ^ Plutarch, Crassus, 9:3; Appian, Civil War, 1:116.
  16. ^ a b Florus, Epitome, 2.8.
  17. ^ Orosius, Histories 5.24.2; Bradley,Slavery and Rebellion, p.96.
  18. ^ Plutarch, Crassus, 9:7; Appian, Civil Wars, 1:117.
  19. ^ a b Plutarch, Crassus, 9:5-6.
  20. ^ Appian, Civil Wars, 1:117; Florus, Epitome, 2.8.
  21. ^ Appian, Civil Wars, 1:116-117; Plutarch, Crassus 9:6; Sallust, Histories, 3:64-67.
  22. ^ Appian, Civil Wars, 1:117; Plutarch, Crassus 9:7;Livy, Periochae 96. Livy reports that troops under the (former) praetor Quintus Arrius killed Crixus and 20,000 of his followers.
  23. ^ a b c Appian, Civil Wars, 1:117.
  24. ^ Appian, Civil war, 1.117; Florus, Epitome, 2.8; Bradley, Slavery and Rebellion, p.121; Smith, Greek and Roman Antiquities, "Gladiatores", p.574. - Note that gladiator contests as part of some funeral rituals in the Roman Republic were a high honor, according to Smith. This accords with Florus' passage "He also celebrated the obsequies of his officers who had fallen in battle with funerals like those of Roman generals, and ordered his captives to fight at their pyres".
  25. ^ Appian, Civil war, 1.117; Florus, Epitome, 2.8. Florus does not detail when and how Spartacus intended to march on Rome, but agrees this was Spartacus' ultimate goal.
  26. ^ Appian, Civil Wars, 1:117.
  27. ^ a b Plutarch, Crassus, 9:7.
  28. ^ a b c d Plutarch, Crassus 10:1;.
  29. ^ Bradley, Slavery and Rebellion, p. 96; Plutarch, Crassus 9:7; Livy, Periochae , 96:6. - Bradely identifies Gaius Cassius Longinus as the governor of Cisalpine Gaul at the time. Livy also identifies "Caius Cassius" and mentions his co-commander (or sub-commander?) "Cnaeus Manlius".
  30. ^ Plutarch, Crassus, 9:5.
  31. ^ Appian, Civil Wars, 1:118; Smith, A Dictionary of Greek and Roman Antiquities, p.494; Appian details the number of legions, while Smith discusses the size of the legions throughout the Roman civilization, stating that late republican legions varied from 5,000-6,200 men per legion.
  32. ^ a b Appian, Civil Wars, 1:118.
  33. ^ a b c Plutarch, Crassus, 10:1-3.
  34. ^ a b Appian, Civil Wars, 1:119.
  35. ^ Plutarch, Crassus, 10:4-5.
  36. ^ Contrast Plutarch, Crassus, 11:2 with Appian, Civil Wars, 1:119.
  37. ^ Strachan-Davidson on Appian. 1.120; Appian, Civil Wars, 1:120; Plutarch, Crassus, 11:2.
  38. ^ Appian, Civil Wars, 1:120; Plutarch, Crassus, 11:2.
  39. ^ Appian, Civil Wars, 1:120;.
  40. ^ Appian, Civil Wars, 1:120; Plutarch, Crassus, 10:6. No mention of the fate of the forces who did not break out of the siege is mentioned, although it is possible that these were the slaves under command of Gannicus and Castus mentioned later.
  41. ^ Plutarch, Crassus, 11:3; Livy, Periochae, 97:1. Plutarch gives the figure 12,300 rebels killed. Livy claims 35,000.
  42. ^ Bradley, Slavery and Rebellion. p. 97; Plutarch, Crassus, 11:4.
  43. ^ Plutarch, Crassus, 11:5;.
  44. ^ Appian, Civil Wars, 1:120; Plutarch, Crassus, 11:6-7 ; Livy, Periochae, 97.1. Livy claims some 60,000 rebel slaves killed in this final action.
  45. ^ Appian, Civil Wars, 1:120; Florus, Epitome, 2.8.
  46. ^ Matyszak, The Enemies of Rome p.133; Plutarch, Pompey, 21:2; Plutarch, Crassus 11.7.
  47. ^ Plutarch, Crassus, 11.7.
  48. ^ Appian, Civil Wars, 1.120.
  49. ^ Appian, Civil Wars, 1:116.
  50. ^ Appian, Civil Wars, 1:121.
  51. ^ Appian, Civil Wars, 1:121; Plutarch, Crassus, 12:2.
  52. ^ Fagan, The History of Ancient Rome; Appian, Civil Wars, 1:121.

Many of the primary source texts referenced in this article are available, in their entirety, online. Interested readers are urged to read the original historians to better understand this conflict.

Classical historical works

Works at LacusCurtius.

Works at Livius.org.

Works at The Internet Classics Archive.

Modern works

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