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Operation Catechism

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Operation Catechism
Part of World War II
Painting showing an overturned ship
The wreck of Tirpitz in June 1945
Date12 November 1944
Location
Tromsø, Norway
69°40′N 18°57′E / 69.667°N 18.950°E / 69.667; 18.950
Result British victory
Belligerents
 United Kingdom  Germany
Commanders and leaders
United Kingdom Willie Tait Nazi Germany Robert Weber
Strength
29 bombers 1 battleship
2 flak ships
Anti-aircraft batteries
Casualties and losses
1 aircraft 940–1,204 killed
1 battleship destroyed

Operation Catechism was a British air raid of World War II which resulted in the destruction of the German battleship Tirpitz. It was conducted on 12 November 1944 by 29 Royal Air Force heavy bombers, which targeted the battleship at an anchorage near the Norwegian town of Tromsø. She capsized after being struck by two bombs and damaged by the explosions of others nearby. Between 940 and 1,204 German sailors were killed. The British did not suffer any casualties.

The attack on 12 November marked the end of a long-running series of air and naval operations against Tirpitz which sought to eliminate the threat she posed to Allied shipping. The battleship had been moved to the Tromsø area in October 1944 after being crippled on 15 September during Operation Paravane. This attack had been carried out by the RAF's elite Nos. 9 and 617 Squadrons, who unsuccessfully attempted to strike Tirpitz again at Tromsø on 29 October during Operation Obviate. Operation Catechism re-used the plans developed for Operation Obviate, and was conducted by the same squadrons. The aircraft departed from bases in northern Scotland and, due to clear weather conditions, the Commonwealth airmen were able to accurately target and bomb the battleship. The bombers were unmolested by a unit of German fighter aircraft stationed near Tromsø, which failed to take off in time, and only one was significantly damaged by anti-aircraft artillery.

Tirpitz capsized within minutes of being hit. German rescuers picked up hundreds of her crew from the water, but few of those trapped within the hull were saved. Several German military personnel were convicted of dereliction of duty following the attack. The battleship's destruction was celebrated in the United Kingdom, as well as by Norwegian civilians.

Background

See also: List of Allied attacks on the German battleship Tirpitz

From early 1942, Tirpitz posed a significant threat to the Allied convoys transporting supplies through the Norwegian Sea to the Soviet Union. Stationed in fjords on the Norwegian coast, the battleship was capable of overwhelming the close-escort forces assigned to the Arctic convoys or breaking out into the North Atlantic.[1] To counter this threat, the Allies needed to keep a powerful force of warships with the British Home Fleet, and capital ships accompanied most convoys part of the way to the Soviet Union.[2][3]

class=notpageimage|
Northern Norway and nearby areas of Sweden, Finland and the Soviet Union

Tirpitz was repeatedly attacked by British forces. Royal Air Force (RAF) heavy bombers made four unsuccessful raids on the battleship between January and April 1942 while she was stationed at Fættenfjord.[4] From March 1943, Tirpitz was based at Kaafjord in the far north of Norway. During Operation Source on 22 September 1943, she was severely damaged by explosives placed on her hull by Royal Navy personnel who had used midget submarines to penetrate Kaafjord.[4][5] On 3 April 1944, aircraft flying from Royal Navy aircraft carriers attacked Tirpitz during Operation Tungsten and inflicted further damage.[6] A series of subsequent aircraft carrier attacks were unsuccessful, including Operation Mascot on 17 July and Operation Goodwood which was conducted between 22–29 August 1944.[7][8]

As it was believed that further aircraft carrier raids would be fruitless due to shortcomings with the Royal Navy's aircraft and their armament, responsibility for sinking Tirpitz was transferred to the RAF's Bomber Command.[9][10] On 15 September 1944, the elite Nos. 9 and 617 Squadrons attacked the battleship at Kaafjord during what was designated Operation Paravane. This operation employed Avro Lancaster heavy bombers armed with Tallboy heavy bombs and "Johnnie Walker" mines. Tirpitz was struck by a single Tallboy, which caused extensive damage to her bow and rendered her unfit for combat.[8]

As it was not possible to repair the battleship, Grand Admiral Karl Dönitz, the commander of the German Navy, ordered that she be transferred to near the northern Norwegian town of Tromsø and used as an immobile battery to defend the area from attack. Dönitz hoped that this would also convince the Allies that Tirpitz continued to pose a threat.[11][12] An anchorage was selected just off the coast of the island of Håkøya where it was believed the water was shallow enough to prevent the battleship from sinking if she was attacked again.[13][14] Tirpitz arrived there on 16 October.[15] The depth of water at the mooring was found to be greater than anticipated, leaving the battleship vulnerable to capsizing. Due to the space needed by the Tirpitz's torpedo nets, it was not possible to move her closer to shore.[16]

Nos. 9 and 617 Squadrons attacked Tirpitz on 29 October in what was designated Operation Obviate. As the Tromsø area was within range of RAF bases in northern Scotland if the Lancasters were modified, this attack was somewhat simpler to conduct than Operation Paravane. The bombers flew north over the Norwegian Sea, and met up over Torneträsk lake in Northern Sweden. While the weather had been clear for most of the flight, Tirpitz was covered by cloud shortly before the Lancasters reached the point where they were to release their Tallboy bombs. While 33 aircraft bombed, no hits were achieved. The battleship was slightly damaged by a near miss, however. One of the Lancasters made a forced landing in Sweden after being damaged by anti-aircraft gunfire, and the remainder returned to base.[17][18]

Preparations

British

Preparations for another attack on Tirpitz began shortly after Operation Obviate concluded. On 3 November, a report by the Royal Navy's Naval Intelligence Division judged that it remained necessary to attack Tirpitz in northern Norway as the battleship could potentially be repaired and made fully operational if she was left unmolested and able to reach a major base. As it would be difficult to target the battleship during the period of perpetual darkness during the northern winter, further attacks needed to be made within the 23 days before this commenced.[19] In preparation for another attack, two de Havilland Mosquito meteorological aircraft were stationed at RAF Sumburgh from 4 November, from where they conducted daily sorties to monitor weather conditions in the Tromsø area.[19][20]

No. 5 Group RAF directed on 3 November that the next attack on Tirpitz was to take place on 5 November, and would re-use the plans developed for Operation Obviate. The attack was designated Operation Catechism. On 4 November twenty No. 9 Squadron and nineteen No. 617 Squadron Lancasters were dispatched to airfields in northern Scotland in preparation for the attack. A gale warning was issued that night, however, and the attack was cancelled as a result on the morning of 5 November. Both squadrons returned to their home bases during the day.[19] The two squadrons were deployed again to Scotland on 7 November, but soon returned to their home bases when the attack was cancelled.[21]

On 10 November the Lancaster crews were briefed for another attack on Tirpitz. Both squadrons moved to northern Scotland on 11 November in response to meteorological reports which indicated that there would be clear weather over Tromsø for up to two days.[21][22]

German

Black and white aerial photograph showing a body of water with a large warship near the shore
Tirpitz at her mooring off the island of Håkøya in November 1944

Improvements to Tirpitz's defences were made following Operation Obviate. Additional anti-aircraft guns were emplaced around the Tromsø area and torpedo nets were laid around the battleship.[22] These augmented the protection offered by the anti-aircraft ships Nymphe and Thetis and several anti-aircraft batteries on the shore.[23] Dredging operations to reduce the water level below the battleship's hull began on 1 November. By 12 November these were half complete.[19] The smoke generators which had previously protected Tirpitz at Kaafjord were still being installed at the time of Operation Catechism and were not yet operational. In their place, seven fishing boats with smoke generators were stationed near the battleship; these were not capable of generating a smokescreen which could completely cover Tirpitz.[24] The battleship's crew continued regular training exercises, and remained concerned about further air attacks.[25] On 4 November Tirpitz's commanding officer Captain Wolf Junge departed. He was replaced by the executive officer, Captain Robert Weber.[26] Weber believed that the days would be short enough to prevent further air attacks within three weeks.[22]

A force of 38 fighters was transferred to Bardufoss after Operation Obviate to bolster the region's air defences.[27] These aircraft formed part of Jagdgeschwader 5 (JG 5), and were under the temporary command of Major Heinrich Ehrler. The unit had been evacuated from Kirkenes in the far northeastern region of Norway as Soviet forces advanced towards the town, and was disorganised at the time of Operation Catechism.[28] Most of the pilots at Bardufoss were inexperienced and ill-trained, and the unit had not been properly briefed on Tirpitz's presence in the area. Ehrler arrived at Bardufoss on 9 November en-route to Alta, and decided to remain at Bardufoss until the morning of 12 November to oversee an emergency training program for the fighter pilots.[24]

Attack

Departure

The decision to launch Operation Catechism was made in the early hours of 12 November. A weather forecast issued on the afternoon of 11 November judged that clouds might be encountered over northern Norway. One of the Mosquito meteorological aircraft flew over the area that evening, and its crew reported encountering patches of cloud when they returned to Scotland shortly after midnight on the night of 11/12 November.[21] Nevertheless, the commander of No. 5 Group, Air Commodore Ralph Cochrane, decided to attempt another attack in the hope that the bombers would encounter clear weather over Tromsø. The plan for this operation remained the same as that used in Operation Obviate, with the attack force to use identical routes.[29]

A total of 32 Lancasters were dispatched. No. 617 Squadron contributed 18, and No. 9 Squadron 13. As with Operations Paravane and Obviate, they were joined by a Lancaster fitted out as a film aircraft from No. 463 Squadron RAAF.[30] Seven No. 9 Squadron Lancasters, including that of its commanding officer Wing Commander James Bazin, were unable to participate, as they could not be cleared of snow and ice which had formed on them overnight in time.[31][29] The No. 617 Squadron aircraft took off between 02:59 and 3:25 am BST, and the No. 9 Squadron aircraft between 03:00 and 03:35 am BST.[32] The aircraft flown by No. 9 Squadron's deputy commander was among those able to take off, and he assumed command of the unit.[33]

As planned, the Lancasters flew north individually over the Norwegian Sea. As had also been the case during Operation Obviate, they crossed the Norwegian coast between the towns of Mosjøen and Namos where a gap in German radar coverage had been located. Several of the bombers flew too far to the north, however, and came within range of German radar stations.[34] The attack force rendezvoused over Torneträsk lake.[33][29] After making two orbits, No. 617 Squadron's commanding officer, Wing Commander "Willie" Tait fired a flare gun from his aircraft to signal the force to proceed to Tromsø.[32] Two No. 9 Squadron Lancasters failed to reach Torneträsk lake in time, and returned to base without attacking.[29][30]

Approach

The attack force proceeded north-west, towards Tromsø, and climbed to 14,000 feet (4,300 m) to clear the mountains along the border of Sweden and Norway. They were guided by radio homing signals transmitted by a Norwegian Milorg agent stationed near the border between the two countries.[35] By the time they reached the Tromsø area, each of the squadrons had formed up into loose formations.[36] No. 617 Squadron led the attack, followed by No. 9 Squadron. The Lancasters were grouped into "gaggles" of four to six aircraft and flew at altitudes of between 14,000 feet (4,300 m) and 15,000 feet (4,600 m).[30]

The German forces in the Tromsø area failed to adequately respond to multiple warnings of the approach of the British bombers. Between 7:39 am and 8:50 am local time (which was equivalent to BST) several reports of Lancasters in the area were received from observation posts. As the first aircraft to be spotted were flying east, it was thought that they might be headed to the Soviet Union. Tirpitz was not notified of the reports until 8:15 am, and most of the reports were not passed on to the JG 5 detachment at Bardufoss. Tirpitz's air raid siren was sounded at 8:51 am local time, and Weber informed her crew seven minutes later that an attack was possible.[37] At around 9:15 am local time Tirpitz contacted Bardufoss to request that fighters be dispatched to provide air cover. This was too late for any of the fighters to reach Tromsø before the bombers arrived.[38] Due to various delays, fighters only began taking off from Bardufoss at 9:25 am, and even then only a small number were sortied.[39]

Weather conditions over Tromsø continued to be clear when the attack force arrived in the area. Tait spotted Tirpitz from 20 miles (32 km) away, and later recalled that she was "lying squat and black among her torpedo nets like a spider in her web, silhouetted against the glittering blue and green waters of the fjord".[29]

Destruction of Tirpitz

Bombs exploding on and near Tirpitz during the attack

Tirpitz fired the first shots of the battle when she opened fire on the bombers with her main guns from a range of 5 miles (8.0 km). Other anti-aircraft guns also fired on the Lancasters, but did not disrupt them. No smokescreen was present as they flew north-west towards their bombing positions.[36]

The attack commenced at 9:41 am BST. Tait's aircraft was the first to drop its Tallboy, which hit Tirpitz. No. 617 Squadron completed its attack at 9:44 am BST with all aircraft bombing. No. 9 Squadron aircraft began dropping their Tallboys at 9:45 am BST. By this time the battleship was on fire and covered in smoke. The last bomb was released at 9:49 am BST.[40][41][42]

Tirpitz was rapidly destroyed. She was struck by two Tallboys which penetrated her armoured deck before exploding. This caused fires to break out throughout much of the ship and extensive flooding. Several other bombs exploded in the water near Tirpitz, and their explosions caused further flooding. These explosions also created large craters below the ship, and blew away much of the gravel which had been dumped beneath her.[43][44] Another Tallboy may have hit the side of the battleship but ricocheted off.[45]

After the first bomb struck his ship Weber ordered the crew to evacuate the armoured citadel and attempt to fight the flooding. While the battleship was listing 15 degrees, Weber expected that she would not sink as the water beneath the hull was too shallow. At 9:50 am the magazine for "Caesar" turret in the stern of the ship exploded, causing extensive damage. Tirpitz's list rapidly increased, and she was soon lying on her side. Weber then gave the order to abandon ship. The battleship continued to heel over further, and soon capsized. Almost 1,000 of her crew had either been killed by this time, or were trapped inside the hull.[43] The crews of the No. 463 Squadron film aircraft and several other Lancasters observed Tirpitz capsize, confirming that the battleship had been destroyed.[46] Just after 11:00 am BST a photo reconnaissance Mosquito overflew the Tromsø region, and took photographs of the wreck.[47]

Aftermath

Rescue efforts

Black and white aerial photograph showing an overturned ship
Tirpitz following Operation Catechism

The German forces in the Tromsø area endeavoured to rescue the surviving members of Tirpitz's crew. Within two hours, 596 had been rescued from the water.[44] Attempts were made to cut into the battleship's hull to rescue the sailors trapped within it. The German forces had few of the acetylene torches needed for this, however, and the local Norwegian civilians who owned torches hid them. Cutting continued for several days, when it was assessed that the oxygen supply inside the wreck would have been exhausted. Only 87 sailors were rescued. Estimates of the total number of sailors killed in the destruction vary, with the most common figures lying between 940 and 1,204.[48] Weber and all of his senior officers were among the dead.[49][50]

Many Norwegian civilians in Tromsø were pleased that Tirpitz had been destroyed, not least as it meant the end of an order requiring that they billet members of her crew. Several civilians who showed pleasure at the event in public were arrested by the Gestapo.[51] However, other Norwegians were saddened by the way in which the battleship's crew had died.[52]

Return to base

One of the No. 9 Squadron Lancasters was badly damaged by anti-aircraft gunfire and its pilot decided to attempt a crash-landing in Sweden. The crew were able to make contact by radio with Swedish military forces manning a small airfield at Naisjärv, who prepared it for the bomber. However, when one of its engines cut out while attempting to land, the pilot made a belly landing in a field near a village. None of the crew were injured, and all were interned by the Swedish Government.[53] They were later repatriated to the UK.[54]

The other Lancasters' return flights were complicated by adverse winds. Due to shortages of fuel, many had to divert to alternate airfields but all landed safely during the afternoon of 12 November.[51] Both squadrons returned to their home bases over the next two days. In the days after the attack the airmen received congratulations from King George VI, Prime Minister Winston Churchill, the War Cabinet and many others. They were also all granted a 48 hour period of leave.[47] The Air Ministry issued a communique announcing Tirpitz's destruction on 13 November, leading to celebratory stories in many newspapers the next day.[55]

Assessments

Black and white photo of two men wearing military uniforms standing on the overturned hull of a ship
Wing Commander Willie Tait (at left) and an Australian officer standing on the wreck of Tirpitz in late 1945

German

The loss of Tirpitz was a disaster for the German forces in northern Norway.[52] Major Ehrler and several other military personnel assigned to observer posts, anti-aircraft guns and ships were court martialled and imprisoned.[56] Ehrler was convicted in relation to leaving his unit's operations room under the command of a non-commissioned officer on 12 November. He was sentenced to three years imprisonment, but was released after a month and demoted. Ehrler was killed in combat on 4 April 1945.[57] Many commentators and members of JG 5 believe that he was treated as a scapegoat.[58] Dönitz ordered that an inquiry be held into why the battleship capsized. The inquiry concluded that "the actual depth of the prepared berth did not conform with the requirements and directions of the commander-in-chief".[59]

It is unclear why the fighters at Bardufoss failed to protect the battleship. Much of the relevant documentation failed to survive the war, and accounts from survivors are at times contradictory.[39] Historian John Sweetman has judged that this was ultimately the result of the order to intercept the bombers being issued too late and a lack of clear plans to coordinate the defence.[60] He attributed the former to delays in recognising that the bombers were headed for Tirpitz, as well as inefficient chains of communication which slowed the speed within which this information could be acted on; for instance, it was not possible for German naval personnel to pass information directly to their Luftwaffe equivalents, as messages had to be sent through single-service channels and could only be transmitted between services at relatively senior levels.[56]

British

The British military undertook several analyses of the attack. In December 1944, No. 5 Group's headquarters investigated the accuracy of the bombing. This analysis found that No. 617 Squadron's bombing had been much more accurate than that of No. 9 Squadron's, possibly due to the latter squadron's bombardiers inputting an inaccurate wind speed into their bombsights. The superior Stabilized Automatic Bomb Sight fitted to No. 617 Squadron's aircraft may have also contributed to the difference.[61]

Following the end of the war in Europe, an RAF team travelled to Norway on 21–22 May 1945 to investigate the causes of Tirpitz's sinking. During the trip they inspected the wreck of the battleship and interviewed key German officers. In their report, the team noted that the damage inflicted on Tirpitz during Operations Source and Paravane had never been fully repaired. The team concluded that the battleship had been directly hit by two Tallboys.[62] A team from the Royal Navy's Directorate of Naval Construction also inspected the wreck between 4 September and 14 October 1945 and interviewed witnesses of the attack. This team judged that a lack of watertight integrity resulting from flaws in Tirpitz's design and the watertight doors which divided compartments being left open as the crew evacuated led to the battleship rapidly capsizing.[63] Sweetman notes that "there was, thus, no single cause of Tirpitz's ultimate loss", as it resulted from the combination of two direct hits, the damage caused by five near misses and problems with the battleship's design.[64]

References

Citations

  1. ^ Ellis 1999, pp. 294–295.
  2. ^ Bennett 2012, p. 9.
  3. ^ Faulkner & Wilkinson 2012, p. 109.
  4. ^ a b Konstam 2018, p. 6.
  5. ^ Bennett 2012, pp. 13–14.
  6. ^ Bennett 2012, p. 15.
  7. ^ Konstam 2018, p. 7.
  8. ^ a b Bennett 2012, p. 19.
  9. ^ Roskill 1961, p. 161.
  10. ^ Sweetman 2000, pp. 85, 89.
  11. ^ Sweetman 2000, p. 121.
  12. ^ Bishop 2012, pp. 340–341.
  13. ^ Bishop 2012, p. 341.
  14. ^ Konstam 2018, p. 77.
  15. ^ Sweetman 2000, p. 123.
  16. ^ Sweetman 2000, p. 125.
  17. ^ Konstam 2018, pp. 80–82.
  18. ^ Sweetman 2000, pp. 132–134.
  19. ^ a b c d Sweetman 2000, p. 137.
  20. ^ Forsgren 2014, p. 123.
  21. ^ a b c Sweetman 2000, p. 138.
  22. ^ a b c Konstam 2018, p. 82.
  23. ^ Konstam 2018, p. 79.
  24. ^ a b Forsgren 2014, p. 126.
  25. ^ Forsgren 2014, p. 124.
  26. ^ Bishop 2012, p. 350.
  27. ^ Forsgren 2014, p. 122.
  28. ^ Zetterling & Tamelander 2009, p. 307.
  29. ^ a b c d e Bishop 2012, p. 352.
  30. ^ a b c Konstam 2018, p. 83.
  31. ^ Forsgren 2014, p. 125.
  32. ^ a b Sweetman 2000, p. 139.
  33. ^ a b Zetterling & Tamelander 2009, p. 305.
  34. ^ Zetterling & Tamelander 2009, pp. 298, 305.
  35. ^ Forsgren 2014, pp. 127–128.
  36. ^ a b Bishop 2012, p. 354.
  37. ^ Forsgren 2014, p. 128.
  38. ^ Forsgren 2014, p. 129.
  39. ^ a b Sweetman 2000, p. 157.
  40. ^ Bishop 2012, p. 355.
  41. ^ Konstam 2018, p. 84.
  42. ^ Sweetman 2000, p. 142.
  43. ^ a b Konstam 2018, p. 85.
  44. ^ a b Forsgren 2014, p. 136.
  45. ^ Sweetman 2000, p. 167.
  46. ^ Sweetman 2000, p. 140.
  47. ^ a b Sweetman 2000, p. 146.
  48. ^ Forsgren 2014, p. 137.
  49. ^ Bishop 2012, p. 362.
  50. ^ Sweetman 2000, p. 152.
  51. ^ a b Sweetman 2000, p. 145.
  52. ^ a b Forsgren 2014, p. 141.
  53. ^ Forsgren 2014, pp. 145–147.
  54. ^ Sweetman 2000, p. 144.
  55. ^ Sweetman 2000, p. 147.
  56. ^ a b Sweetman 2000, p. 160.
  57. ^ Sweetman 2000, pp. 156–157.
  58. ^ Sweetman 2000, p. 156.
  59. ^ Sweetman 2000, pp. 164–165.
  60. ^ Sweetman 2000, p. 159.
  61. ^ Sweetman 2000, pp. 150–151.
  62. ^ Sweetman 2000, pp. 165–167.
  63. ^ Sweetman 2000, pp. 167–168.
  64. ^ Sweetman 2000, p. 168.

Works consulted

Wikimedia Commons has media related to Operation Catechism.
  • Bennett, G.H. (2012). "Introduction". In Bennett, G.H. (ed.). Hunting Tirpitz: Naval Operations Against Bismarck's Sister Ship. Plymouth, Devon: University of Plymouth Press. pp. 7–25. ISBN 9781841023106. {{cite book}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)
  • Bishop, Patrick (2012). Target Tirpitz. London: Harper Press. ISBN 9780007431199. {{cite book}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)
  • Ellis, John (1999). One Day in a Very Long War: Wednesday 25th October 1944 (Pimlico ed.). London: Pimlico. ISBN 9780712674652. {{cite book}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)
  • Faulkner, Marcus; Wilkinson, Peter (2012). War at Sea: A Naval Atlas, 1939–1945. Annapolis, Maryland: Naval Institute Press. ISBN 9781591145608. {{cite book}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)
  • Forsgren, Jan (2014). Sinking the Beast: The RAF 1944 Lancaster Raids Against Tirpitz. Stroud, United Kingdom: Fonthill Media. ISBN 9781781553183. {{cite book}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)
  • Konstam, Angus (2018). Sink the Tirpitz 1942–44: The RAF and Fleet Air Arm Duel with Germany's Mighty Battleship. Oxford: Osprey Publishing. ISBN 9781472831590. {{cite book}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)
  • Roskill, S.W. (1961). The War at Sea 1939–1945. Volume III: The Offensive Part II. London: Her Majesty's Stationery Office. OCLC 59005418. {{cite book}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)
  • Sweetman, John (2000). Tirpitz: Hunting the Beast: Air Attacks on the German Battleship, 1940–44. Annapolis, Maryland: Naval Institute Press. ISBN 9781557508225. {{cite book}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)
  • Zetterling, Niklas; Tamelander, Michael (2009). Tirpitz: The Life and Death of Germany's Last Super Battleship. Philadelphia: Casemate. ISBN 9781935149187. {{cite book}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)

69°38′55″N 18°48′16″E / 69.64861°N 18.80444°E / 69.64861; 18.80444

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