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New eugenics

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New eugenics, also known as liberal eugenics (a term coined by bioethicist Nicholas Agar[1]), is used to describe those who advocate enhancing human characteristics and capacities through the use of reproductive and human genetic engineering. Those who advocate new eugenics generally think selecting or altering embryos should be left to the preferences of parents, rather than the state.[2]

History

Liberal eugenics, or new eugenics, is often distinguished from early 20th century eugenics in its emphasis on informed parental choice rather than coercive government control.[3]

Eugenics is sometimes broken into the categories of positive eugenics (encouraging reproduction among the designated "fit") and negative eugenics (discouraging reproduction among those designated "unfit"). Another distinction is between coercive eugenics and non-coercive eugenics. Bioethicists often consider coercive eugenics harder to justify than non-coercive eugenics, though both come in a matter of degree. For example, laws forbidding cousin marriage are coercive but widely considered justifiable. Whereas forced sterilization of those deemed unfit is a form of coercive eugenics that is much more controversial.[4]

New Eugenics practices

New eugenics generally supports genetic modification or genetic selection of individuals for traits that are likely to improve human welfare. The underlying idea is to improve the genetic basis of future generations and reduce incidence of genetic diseases and other undesirable traits. Some of the practices included in new eugenics are: pre-implantation diagnosis and embryo selection,[5] selective breeding,[6] and human enhancement through the use of genetic technologies,[7] such as embryo engineering or gene therapy.[8][9]

Ethics

New eugenics places more emphasis on parental autonomy than older versions of eugenics, and it often emphasizes providing access for all parents to genetic enhancement technologies in order to minimize unfair inequalities. Arguments used in favor of new eugenics include that parents usually have better information and incentives than bureaucrats in making reproductive decisions. Arguments against new eugenics stress that individual parents sometimes make irresponsible reproductive choices that other people bear the costs of, and that parents may place too much focus on their own children's prospects without thinking about the broader social patters that emerge when each parent chooses their children's traits for their own reasons.[10]

Criticism

Critics of new eugenics include Dov Fox, who argues that it may involve what he considers to be some illiberal infringements on parental choice, since sometimes governments are more likely to determine that some parents make poor reproductive choices.[11]

The United Nations International Bioethics Committee wrote that new eugenics should not be confused with the ethical problems of the 20th century eugenics movements. Regardless, they have stated that it is still problematic as it challenges the idea of human equality and opens up new ways of discrimination and stigmatization against those who do not want or cannot afford the enhancements.[12]

References

  1. ^ Agar, Nicholas (2004). Liberal Eugenics: In Defence of Human Enhancement. ISBN 1-4051-2390-7. {{cite book}}: Unknown parameter |name-list-format= ignored (|name-list-style= suggested) (help)
  2. ^ Anomaly, Jonathan (July 2018). "Defending eugenics: From cryptic choice to conscious selection". Monash Bioethics Review. 35 (1–4): 24–35. doi:10.1007/s40592-018-0081-2. ISSN 1321-2753. PMC 6096849. PMID 29804244.
  3. ^ Cavaliere, Giuli (2018). "Looking into the shadow: the eugenics argument in debates on reproductive technologies and practices". Monash Bioethics Review. 36: 1–22. doi:10.1007/s40592-018-0086-x.
  4. ^ Buchanan, Allen (2011). Better than Human: The Prospect and Perils of Enhancing Ourselves. ISBN 9780190664046. {{cite book}}: Unknown parameter |name-list-format= ignored (|name-list-style= suggested) (help)
  5. ^ King, D. S. (1999-04-01). "Preimplantation genetic diagnosis and the 'new' eugenics". Journal of Medical Ethics. 25 (2): 176–182. doi:10.1136/jme.25.2.176. ISSN 0306-6800. PMC 479204. PMID 10226925.
  6. ^ Hoffman, Allison K (2017-12-01). "Review of The New Eugenics: Selective Breeding in an Era of Reproductive Technologies". Journal of Law and the Biosciences. 4 (3): 671–677. doi:10.1093/jlb/lsx025. ISSN 2053-9711. PMC 5965496.
  7. ^ Vizcarrondo, Felipe E. (August 2014). "Human Enhancement: The New Eugenics". The Linacre Quarterly. 81 (3): 239–243. doi:10.1179/2050854914Y.0000000021. ISSN 0024-3639. PMC 4135459. PMID 25249705.
  8. ^ King DS (April 1999). "Preimplantation genetic diagnosis and the 'new' eugenics". Journal of Medical Ethics. 25 (2): 176–82. doi:10.1136/jme.25.2.176. PMC 479204. PMID 10226925.
  9. ^ "Regulating Eugenics". Harvard Law Review. 2008. Retrieved May 2, 2015.
  10. ^ Galton, DJ (2005-01-01). "Eugenics: some lessons from the past". Reproductive BioMedicine Online. 10: 133–136. doi:10.1016/S1472-6483(10)62222-5. ISSN 1472-6483.
  11. ^ Fox, Dov (2007). "The Illiberality of Liberal Eugenics". SSRN 1072104. {{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help); Unknown parameter |name-list-format= ignored (|name-list-style= suggested) (help)
  12. ^ "Report of the IBC on Updating Its Reflection on the Human Genome and Human Rights" (PDF). International Bioethics Committee. October 2, 2015. Retrieved October 22, 2015. The goal of enhancing individuals and the human species by engineering the genes related to some characteristics and traits is not to be confused with the barbarous projects of eugenics that planned the simple elimination of human beings considered as 'imperfect' on an ideological basis. However, it impinges upon the principle of respect for human dignity in several ways. It weakens the idea that the differences among human beings, regardless of the measure of their endowment, are exactly what the recognition of their equality presupposes and therefore protects. It introduces the risk of new forms of discrimination and stigmatization for those who cannot afford such enhancement or simply do not want to resort to it. The arguments that have been produced in favour of the so-called liberal eugenics do not trump the indication to apply the limit of medical reasons also in this case.

Further reading

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