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Global value chain

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In development studies, the global value chain (GVC) describes the people and activities involved in the production of a good or service and its supply, distribution, and post-sales activities (also known as the supply chain) when activities must be coordinated across geographies. GVC is similar to Industry Level Value Chain but encompasses operations at the global level.

The concept of a value chain has been used to analyze international trade in global value chains and comprises “the full range of activities that are required to bring a product from its conception, through its design, its sourced raw materials and intermediate inputs, its marketing, its distribution and its support to the final consumer”.[1]

In development

The first references to the GVC concept date from the mid-1990s and were enthusiastic about the upgrading prospects for developing countries that joined them. In his early work based on research on East Asian garment firms, the pioneer in value chain analysis, Gary Gereffi, describes a process of almost ‘natural’ learning and upgrading for the firms that joined GVCs.[2] This echoed the ‘export-led’ discourse of the World Bank in the ‘East Asian Miracle’ report based on the East Asian ‘Tigers’ success.

This encouraged the World Bank and other leading institutions to encourage developing firms to develop their indigenous capabilities through a process of upgrading technical capabilities to meet global standards with leading multinational enterprises (MNE) playing a key role in helping local firms through transfer of new technology, skills and knowledge.

Wider adoption of open source hardware technology used for digital fabrication such as 3D printers like the RepRap has the potential to partially reverse the trend towards global specialization of production systems into elements that may be geographically dispersed and closer to the end users (localization) and thus disrupt global value chains.[3]

Analytical framework

Global value chains are networks of production and trade across countries. The study of global value chains requires inevitably a trade theory that can treat input trade. However, mainstream trade theories (Heckshcer-Ohlin-Samuelson model and New trade theory and New new trade theory) are only concerned with final goods. It needs a New new new trade theory.[4] Escaith and Miroudot estimates that the Ricardian trade model in its extended form has "the advantage" of being better suited to the analysis of global value chains.[5]

The lack of appropriate tool of analysis, the studies of GVCs have been conducted mainly by sociologists like Gary Gereffi [6] and management science researchers.[7][full citation needed] See for a genealogy Jennifer Bair (2009).[8] Studies by means of global Input-Output Table is starting.[9][10]

Development and upgrading

GVCs become a major topic in development economics especially for middle-income countries, because the "upgrading" within GVCs became the crucial condition for the sustained growth of those countries.[11][12]

GVC analysis views “upgrading” as a continuum starting with “process upgrading” (e.g. a producer adopts better technology to improve efficiency), then moves on to “product upgrading” where the quality or functionality of the product is upgraded by using higher quality material or a better quality management system (QMS), and then on to “functional upgrading” in which the firm begins to design its own product and develops marketing and branding capabilities and begins to supply to end markets/customers directly - often by targeting geographies or customers (which are not served by its existing multinational clients). Subsequently, the process of upgrading might also cover inter-sectoral upgrading.[13]

This upgrading process in GVCs has been challenged by other researchers – some of whom argue that insertion in global value chains does not always lead to upgrading. Some authors[14] argue that the expected upgrading process might not hold for all types of upgrading. Specifically they argue upgrading into design, marketing and branding might be hindered by exporting under certain conditions because MNEs have no interest in transferring these core skills to their suppliers thus preventing them from accessing global markets (except as a supplier) for first world customer.

Current research on governance and its impact from a development perspective

There are motivations behind renewed interest in global value chains and the opportunities that they may present for countries in South Asia. A 2013 report found that looking at the production chain, rather than the individual stages of production, is more helpful. Individual donors with their own priorities and expertise cannot be expected to provide comprehensive response to the needs identified, not to mention the legal responsibilities of many specialist agencies. The research suggests they adjust their priorities and modalities to the way production chains operate, and to coordinate with other donors to cover all trade needs. It calls for donors and governments to work together to assess how aid flows may affect power relationships.[15]

In his 1994 paper, Gereffi identified two major types of governance. The first were buyer-driven chains, where the lead firms are final buyers such as retail chains and branded product producers such as non-durable final consumer products (e.g., clothing, footwear and food). The second governance type identified by Gereffi were producer-driven chains. Here the technological competences of the lead firms (generally upstream in the chain) defined the chain's competitiveness.

Current research suggests that GVCs exhibit a variety of characteristics and impact communities in a variety of ways. In a paper that emerged from the deliberations of the GVC Initiative,[16] five GVC governance patterns were identified:

  • Hierarchical chains represent the fully internalised operations of vertically integrated firms.
  • Quasi-hierarchical (or captive chains) involve suppliers or intermediate customers with low levels of capabilities, who require high levels of support and are the subject of well-developed supply chain management from lead firms (often called the chain governor).
  • Relational and modular chain governance exhibit durable relations between lead firms and their suppliers and customers in the chain, but with low levels of chain governance often because the main suppliers in the chain possess their own unique competences (and/or infrastructure) and can operate independently of the lead firm.
  • Market chains represent the classic arms length relationships found in many commodity markets.

As capabilities in many low- and middle-income economies have grown, chain governance has tended to move away from quasi-hierarchical models toward modular type as this form of governance reduces the costs of supply chain management and allows chain governors to maintain a healthy level of competition in their supply chains. However, whilst it maintains short-term competition in the supply chain, it has allowed some leading intermediaries to develop considerable functional competences (e.g., design and branding). In the long term these have the potential to emerge as competitors to their original chain governor (Kaplinski, 2010).[17] Other study outlines the initiative to promote inclusive GVC,[18] three GVC patterns were identified:

The theoretical concepts often considered firms as operating in a single value chain (with a single customer). Whilst this was often the case in quasi-hierarchical chains (with considerable customer power) it has become apparent that some firms operate in multiple value chains (subject to multiple forms of governance) and serve both national and international markets and that this plays a role in the development of firm capabilities (Navas-Aleman, 2011;[19] UNCTAD, 2013).[20] The recent trend in GVC research shows exploration of issue emerging from the interaction of different stakeholders from within and outside the GVC structures and their effects on the sustainability of the GVCs. For examples, the local governance institutions and production firms [21].

See also

Summary of Unctad report: global value chains and development

In 2013, UNCTAD published two reports on GVCs and their contribution to development. They concluded [20] that:

  • GVCs make a significant contribution to international development. Value-added trade contributes about 30% to the GDP of developing countries, significantly more than it does in developed countries (18%) furthermore the level of participation in GVCs is associated with stronger levels of GDP per capita growth. GVCs thus have a direct impact on the economy, employment and income and create opportunities for development. They can also be an important mechanism for developing countries to enhance productive capacity, by increasing the rate of adoption of technology and through workforce skill development, thus building the foundations for long-term industrial upgrading.
  • However, there are limitations to the GVC approach. Their contribution to the growth may be limited if the work done in-country is relatively low value adding (i.e. contributes only a small part of the total value added for the product or service). In addition there is no automatic process that guarantees diffusion of technology, skill-building and upgrading. Developing countries thus face the risk of operating in permanently low value-added activities. Finally, there are potential negative impacts on the environment and social conditions, including: poor workplace conditions, occupational safety and health, and job security. The relative ease with which the Value Chain Governors can relocate their production (often to lower cost countries) also create additional risks.
  • Countries need to carefully assess the pros and cons of GVC participation and the costs and benefits of proactive policies to promote GVCs or GVC-led development strategies. Promoting GVC participation implies targeting specific GVC segments and GVC participation can only form one part of a country's overall development strategy.
  • Before promoting GVC participation, policymakers should evaluate their countries’ trade profiles and industrial capabilities in order to select strategic GVC development paths. Achieving upgrading opportunities through CVCs requires a structured approach that includes:
    • embedding GVCs in industrial development policies (e.g. targeting GVC tasks and activities);
    • enabling GVC growth by providing the right framework conditions for trade and FDI and by putting in place the needed infrastructure; and
    • developing firm capabilities and training the local workforce.

Gender and global value chains

Gender plays a prominent role in global value chains, because it influences consumption patterns within the United States, and thus affects production on a larger scale. In turn, specific roles within the value chain are also determined by gender, making gender a key component in the process as well. Far more women than men are found in the informal sector, as self-employed workers or subcontractors, while specific jobs and broader fields of work differ between men and women.[22]

Women in global value chains

Within the global value chains, it is often women who work in the weakest or most disadvantaged chains.[23][24][25][26]

Carr et al. argue that “the vast majority of subcontract workers or industrial homeworkers, who earn some of the lowest wages worldwide, are women.”

Sustainability and global value chains

Sustainability is an increasingly important factor in global value chains, and there is a growing need to evaluate their performance based on social and environmental impact, as well as economic. Initiatives such as The United Nations Sustainable Development Goals encourage sustainable practices through its 17-goal blueprint, but there are few enforced policies which address sustainability with the urgency required to protect natural resources and reduce the impacts of climate change on a global scale. Sustainability efforts in global value chains are often voluntary steps taken in the private sector, such as the use of sustainability standards and certifications, and ecolabels, but they can sometimes lack evidence of measurable sustainable impacts. For example, some ecolabels seek to address issues such as poverty. Yet in some cases, even if producers meet ecolabel standards, the burden of certification costs can end up reducing the overall income for these producers. [27] The measurement of sustainability in global value chains requires a multifaceted assessment which includes environmental, social and economic impacts, and it must also be standardized enough to be compared in order to generate sufficient learning and for scalability. Technologies that make these types of measurements are becoming both more available and essential for the public and private sector sustainability efforts. [28] Besides, the recent finding shows that the local realities like governance system and institutions also play a significant role in economic sustainability of the global value chains. [29]

Negative impacts of global value chains

Global supply chain management is facing the increasing difficulty in predicting demand variability in different areas. In addition, managing the production and transportation of goods over large distances to meet the peak demand represents another challenge[30].

Integrating global value chains requires all actors to adapt to technological changes, which is capital-intensive. Therefore, it is safe to say that this trend significantly benefits developed countries rather than developing countries.[31]

Shifting of production base by the lead firm raises the challenges of sustainability for the local firms (economy) and the labor (society). [32]

References

  1. ^ "Concept & Tools - Global Value Chains". Globalvaluechains.org. Retrieved 19 April 2018.
  2. ^ Gereffi, G., (1994). The Organisation of Buyer-Driven Global Commodity Chains: How US Retailers Shape Overseas Production Networks. In G. Gereffi, and M. Korzeniewicz (Eds), Commodity Chains and Global Capitalism. Westport, CT: Praeger.
  3. ^ André O. Laplume; Bent Petersen; Joshua M. Pearce (2016). "Global value chains from a 3D printing perspective". Journal of International Business Studies. 47 (5): 595–609. doi:10.1057/jibs.2015.47. S2CID 54936808.
  4. ^ Inomata, S. (2017). "Chapter 1: Analytical frameworks for global value chains: An overview (The global value chain paradigm: New-New-New Trade Theory?)" (PDF). Global Value Chain Development Report 2017: Measuring and Analyzing the Impact of GVCs on Economic Development. p. 15. ISBN 978-92-870-4125-8.
  5. ^ Escaith, H.; Miroudot, S. (2016). Industry-level competitiveness and Inefficiency spillovers in global value chains (PDF). 24th International Input-Output Conference 4-8 July 2016, Seoul, Korea.
  6. ^ Gary Gereffi (2018). Global Value Chains and Development. Cambridge and New York: Cambridge University Press.
  7. ^ Sturgeon and Kawakami
  8. ^ Jennifer Bair (2009) Global Commodity Chains: Genealogy and Review. In J. Bair (Ed.) Frontiers of Commodity Chain Research. Stanford University Press, Stanford: California.
  9. ^ H. Escaith and S. Inomata (2013) Global Value Chains in East Asia: The Role of Industrial Networks and Trade Policies. In D. Elms and P. Low (Eds.) Global Value Chains in a Changing World, WTO, Geneva.
  10. ^ H. Escaith (2014) Mapping Global Value Chains and Measuring Trade in Tasks. B. Ferrarini and D. Hummels Asia and Global Production Networks: Implications for Trade, Incomes and Economic Vulnerability. Mandaluyong, Philippines and Cheltenham, UKK: Asian Development Bank and Edward Elgar Publishing.
  11. ^ Keun Lee (2016) Economic Catch-Up and Technological Leapfrogging: The Path to Development and Macroeconomic Stability in Korea. Edward Elgar, Cheltenham: UK and Northermpsuon: Mass. Keun Lee (2019) The Art of Economic Catch-Up: Barrieres, Detours and Leapfrogging. Cambridge University Press.
  12. ^ Lee, Keun; Szapiro, Marina; Mao, Zhuqing (14 October 2017). "From Global Value Chains (GVC) to Innovation Systems for Local Value Chains and Knowledge Creation". The European Journal of Development Research. 30 (3): 424–441. doi:10.1057/s41287-017-0111-6. S2CID 158736538.
  13. ^ Humphrey, J., and H. Schmitz. 2004. "Chain Governance and Upgrading: Taking Stock". in Local Enterprises in the Global Economy, edited by H. Schmitz, 349–82. Cheltenham: Edward Elgar.
  14. ^ Humphrey, J. and Schmitz, H. (2000). Governance and Upgrading: Linking Industrial Cluster and Global Value Chain. IDS Working Paper 120, Institute of Development Studies, University of Sussex, Brighton.
  15. ^ Jodie Keane (2013). "Aid for trade and Global Value Chains: Issues for South Asia" (PDF). Policy Brief. No. 26. SAWTEE. Retrieved 19 April 2018 – via Sawtee.org.
  16. ^ Gary Gereffi, John Humphrey, and Timothy Sturgeon, “The governance of global value chains,” Review of International Political Economy, vol. 12, no. 1, 2005
  17. ^ Kaplinsky, R. (2010), The Role of Standards in Global Value Chains and their Impact on Economic and Social Upgrading, Policy Research Paper 5396, World Bank
  18. ^ A.H. Pratono, “Cross-cultural collaboration for inclusive global value chain: a case study of rattan industry,” International Journal of Emerging Markets, vol. 12, no. 1, 2005
  19. ^ Navas-Aleman, L. (2011). "The Impact of Operating in Multiple Value Chains for Upgrading: The Case of the Brazilian Furniture and Footwear Industries". World Development. 39 (8): 1386–1397. doi:10.1016/j.worlddev.2010.12.016.
  20. ^ a b World Investment Report 2013: Global Value Chains: Investment and Trade for Development (PDF). Switzerland: United Nations. 2013. ISBN 978-92-1-112868-0. Retrieved 19 April 2018 – via Unctad.org.
  21. ^ Asghar, Ali; Kalim, Rukhsana (2019-12-30). "The Role of Institutions in the Economic Sustainability of Global Value Chains: A Transcendental Phenomenological Analysis of Pakistani Apparel Industry". Journal of Applied Economics and Business Studies. 3 (1): 1–14. doi:10.34260/jaebs.311. ISSN 2523-2614.
  22. ^ Carr, Marilyn; Chen, Martha Alter; Tate, Jane (200). "Globalization and Home-Based Workers". Feminist Economics. 6 (3): 123–42. doi:10.1080/135457000750020164. S2CID 58932976.
  23. ^ Watson, Bruce (23 January 2015). "Economic Inequality for Women Costs $9tn Globally, study finds". The Guardian.
  24. ^ Sassen, Saskia (1998). Globalization and Its Discontents. New Press.
  25. ^ Natsuda, Kaoru; Goto, Kenta; Thoburn, John (2010). "Challenges To The Cambodian Garment Industry In The Global Garment Value Chain". European Journal of Development Research. 22 (4): 469–493. doi:10.1057/ejdr.2010.21. S2CID 153349052.
  26. ^ Barrientos, Stephanie (22 May 2009). "Gender, Flexibility and Global Value Chain". IDS Bulletin (32): 83–93.
  27. ^ "Meeting Sustainability Goals: Voluntary Sustainability Standards and the Role of the Government". Pacific Institute. Retrieved 2020-08-07.
  28. ^ Giovannucci, Daniele; Hansmann, Berthold; Palekhov, Dmitry; Schmidt, Michael (2019), Schmidt, Michael; Giovannucci, Daniele; Palekhov, Dmitry; Hansmann, Berthold (eds.), "The Editors Review of Evidence and Perspectives on Sustainable Global Value Chains", Sustainable Global Value Chains, Natural Resource Management in Transition, Cham: Springer International Publishing, pp. 1–15, doi:10.1007/978-3-319-14877-9_1, ISBN 978-3-319-14877-9
  29. ^ Asghar, Ali; Kalim, Rukhsana (2019-12-30). "The Role of Institutions in the Economic Sustainability of Global Value Chains: A Transcendental Phenomenological Analysis of Pakistani Apparel Industry". Journal of Applied Economics and Business Studies. 3 (1): 1–14. doi:10.34260/jaebs.311. ISSN 2523-2614.
  30. ^ "What are the biggest challenges of managing global supply chains?". Trade Ready. 2017-03-31. Retrieved 2019-04-09.
  31. ^ "The impact of global value chains on rich and poor countries". Brookings. 2017-07-11. Retrieved 2019-04-09.
  32. ^ Asghar, Ali; Kalim, Rukhsana (2019-12-30). "The Role of Institutions in the Economic Sustainability of Global Value Chains: A Transcendental Phenomenological Analysis of Pakistani Apparel Industry". Journal of Applied Economics and Business Studies. 3 (1): 1–14. doi:10.34260/jaebs.311. ISSN 2523-2614.
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