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Male "silverback" gorillas are usually the alpha animal and may receive preferential treatment such as being groomed by other group members

In studies of social animals, the highest ranking individual of a dominance hierarchy is sometimes designated as the alpha. Males, females, or both, can be alphas, depending on the species. Where one male and one female fulfill this role together, they are sometimes referred to as the alpha pair. Other animals in the same social group may exhibit deference or other species-specific subordinate behavior towards the alpha or alphas.

Alpha animals usually gain preferential access to food and other desirable items or activities, though the extent of this varies widely between species. Male or female alphas may gain preferential access to sex or mates; in some species, only alphas or an alpha pair reproduce.

Alphas may achieve their status by superior physical strength and aggression, or through social efforts and building alliances within the group,^[1] or more often, simply by breeding and being the parent of all in their pack.^[2] The individual with alpha status sometimes changes, often through a fight between the dominant and a subordinate animal. These fights are often to the death, depending on the animal.^[3]

Beta and omega

Social animals in a hierarchical community are sometimes assigned ranks in ethology studies.

Beta animals are collaborators, often act as second-in-command to the reigning alpha or alphas and will act as new alpha animals if an alpha dies or is otherwise no longer considered an alpha. In some species of birds, males pair up in twos when courting, the beta male aiding the alpha male. It has been found that the social context of the animals has a significant impact on courtship behavior and the overall reproductive success of that animal.^[4]

Omega has a conflicted meaning ranging from "runt" to "lone wolf". As an antonym it is used to refer to the lowest caste of a hierarchical society. Following the theories that omega animals are subordinate to all others in the community, and are expected by others in the group to remain submissive to everyone. Omega animals may also be used as communal scapegoats or outlets for frustration, or given the lowest priority when distributing food.^[5] These same researchers also compared the omega wolf to a "court jester," being first to initiate play, and while submissive, well liked and not outcast. Interestingly, in the pack under study, the omega named Lakota was in fact the largest and strongest of the wolves.^[6]

Alternately, and in popular use, is the omega as the romanticized "Lone Wolf" or the omega wolf as discussed by David Mech.^[7] Per this pro-omega type, the omega is not the submissive "second place" as a beta is. Rather, they are equally dominant yet in an independent way. Instead of leading a group like an alpha or collaborating like a beta, this omega type is self-reliant, and less collaborative – but also less focused on leading or commanding groups.

Examples

Primates

Researcher M.W. Foster investigated primates and found that the leaders were more likely to be those who did more for those around them instead of being determined by strength.^[8]

Baboons

Alpha male baboons monopolize resources and mating access to females, and they are also more likely to suffer from stress.^[9] Lower status males must expend more time and energy for mating opportunities. Alpha males may sometimes allow subordinate males to have access to mating, so the subordinate males can serve as "spare dads" and protect their offspring from other alpha males.^[10]

Capuchin monkeys

A study on the association of alpha males and females during the non-breeding season in wild Capuchin monkeys (Cebus apella nigritus) examined whether alpha males are the preferred mate for females and, secondly, whether female-alpha status and relationship to the alpha-male can be explained through the individual characteristics and or social network of the female.^[11] The results indicated that alpha male Capuchin are the preferred mate for adult females. However, only the alpha females had strong interactions with the alpha males by virtue of a dominance hierarchy among the females in which only the most dominant and strong females were able to interact with the alpha male.^[11]

Chimpanzees

Common chimpanzees use strength, intelligence, and political alliances to establish and maintain alpha position.^[12] There have been rare cases where a group has killed the alpha male.^[13]^[14] Common chimpanzees show deference to the alpha of the community by ritualized postures and gestures such as presenting their back, crouching, bowing, or bobbing.^[15] ^{[verification needed]} Chimpanzees lower in rank than the alpha male will offer their hand while grunting to the alpha male as a sign of submission.^[16] Bonobo society on the other hand is governed by alpha females. Males will associate with females for rank acquisition because females dominate the social environment. If a male is to achieve alpha status in a bonobo group, he must be accepted by the alpha female.^[17] Female bonobos use homosexual sex to increase social status. High-ranking females rarely interact sexually with other females, but low-ranking females interact sexually with all females.^[18]

Gorillas

Gorillas use intimidation to establish and maintain alpha position. A study conducted regarding the reproductive behavior of male mountain gorillas (Gorilla beringei beringei) found further evidence that dominant males are favored to father offspring, even when there is a greater number of males in a notably enlarged group size. The study also concluded that mating access dropped off less steeply with status; alpha, beta, and gamma showing more similar mating success, compared to what had been previously thought.^[19]

Humans

Humans compete for dominance in activities such as "social gatherings" and "playing games", resulting in a victor occupying "the alpha position".^[20] In a study where women viewed mixed-martial arts fights, the male winners were perceived as more attractive than the male losers, and the researchers concluded that "facial cues associated with successful male–male competition are attractive to women".^[21] When observing the male wrestling competitions of the indigenous Mehinaku tribe of the Amazon rainforest, anthropologist Thomas Gregor noted that males who are "heavily muscled" and "imposingly built" have higher mating access to females, while small men, who are derogatorily referred to as peristsi, "fare badly".^[22] He reports that powerful male wrestlers are both frightening to villagers and the most sexually desirable to females.^[22] Humans exert power over other humans for many reasons such as competition for resources, competition for mates, and protection of other humans.^[20] Males usually possess more political power since they have been the more dominant sex all throughout human history.^[20] Political leaders are alpha individuals who display varying levels of dominance depending on their position.^[20] All throughout human history, powerful male rulers around the world such as dictators, kings, and emperors have had sexual access to many women, often collecting them in harems.^[22] Others collected multiple female concubines and mistresses. Italian fascist dictator Benito Mussolini had several mistresses, and he also had many brief sexual encounters with his female supporters, as reported by his biographer Nicholas Farrell.^[23] One of history's most prominent conquerors, Genghis Khan, frequently acquired wives and concubines from empires and societies that he had conquered; these women were often princesses or queens that were taken captive or gifted to him.^[24] He also established large territories for his sons who had many wives and large harems.^[22] Moroccan emperor Moulay Ismail produced 888 children with his harem of 500 wives.^[22]In India, Bhupinder Singh of Patiala housed 332 women in his harem, which included mistresses, servants, and other women of varying status.^[22] Evolutionary anthropologist Laura Betzig analyzed Mesopotamia, Ancient Egypt, the Aztec Empire,the Incan Empire, Ancient India, and Imperial China, and found that all six civilizations showed the same consistent pattern of powerful high-status men monopolizing mating access to women.^[22] President Jacob Zuma of South Africa married 6 wives, and male members of the Nigerian chieftaincy system have historically had as many as 300 wives.^[25]^[26]

Gangs are social groups of individuals organized as a hierarchy, dominated by an alpha who leads other members of the group.^[20] Gangs are typically male-dominated; females are rarely able to become official members, though females may support male gangs as auxiliaries. ^[27] The primary purpose of a gang is to protect resources or territory by engaging in some form of violent or illegal behavior.^[20] Gangs consist of individuals competing for higher status.^[22] Male gang members who display "ferocity" in conflicts with rival gangs experience an increase in their status.^[22] When Craig Palmer and Christopher Tilley investigated gangs, they found that male gang leaders had the highest number of consensual female sex partners, while male gang members in general had more female sex partners than male nongang members.^[22]

Hector Garcia suggests that the Abrahamic God may be "an expression of an extreme, all-powerful, mortal (human) alpha male", noting that the "same evolutionary functions underlying an alpha males’ use of violence also underlie God’s use of violence".^[28] Various sociological studies have shown that women display a greater adherence to religion compared to men.^[29]

Mandrills

Adult male mandrills with alpha status display vivid colouration on their skin, while those with beta status are more dull in colour. Both types of males engage in mating, but only the dominant alpha males have the ability to produce offspring. Male mandrills sometimes fight for breeding rights which results in dominance. Though conflicts are rare, they can be deadly. Gaining dominance, that is becoming the alpha male, results in an "increased testicular volume, reddening of sexual skin on the face and genitalia, and heightened secretion of the sternal cutaneous gland".^[30] When a male loses dominance or its alpha status, the reverse happens, although the blue ridges remain brightened. There is also a fall in its reproductive success. This effect is gradual and takes place over a few years.^[31]^[32]^[33] When beta males mate-guard a female, the competition between them allows the alpha males to have a greater chance of producing offspring,^[34] since betas outnumber alphas 21 to 1.

Birds

Chiroxiphia

Male chiroxiphia can typically be designated alpha and beta, since there is a clear dominance relationship between them.^[35] There is only ever one alpha male, but, depending on species, there may be one or two beta males. Beta males are sometimes sub-adults - easily recognized, as their plumage retain female-like characters. Only the alpha male is ever seen to mate with the female.

Montezuma oropendolas

Webster et al. observed that males defend sexually-receptive females, suggesting that Montezuma oropendolas have a female-defence mating system. While the females nest, the males fight and fend off one another, and the males were ranked depending on the outcome of each fight. The alpha male eventually pushes out all other males until he is the only one left. When the alpha males leave the others come back and defend females until he returns. This type of mating system is similar to that of polygynous mammals, not birds.^[36]

Pale chanting goshawks

Normally, females mate with a single male (monogamy), but in "broken veld" vegetation (a prey-rich habitat in the Little Karoo), a female and two males may form a polyandrous trio.^[37] In these cases an alpha male and female will be assisted in raising the young by a beta male. The alpha male copulates with the female 31-5 days before laying while the beta male copulates 5-3 days before laying.^[38] Subordinate co-breeding males may have reproductive fitness benefits by assisting the alpha female with nest defense and prey provision.^[39] Non-breeding individuals from previous broods may remain in their natal territory and form part of the breeding group.^[37]

Fish

Cichlid

Aggressive behavior in cichlids is ritualized and consists of multiple displays used to seek confrontation while being involved in evaluation of competitors,^[40] coinciding with temporal proximity to mating. Displays of ritualized aggression in cichlids include a remarkably rapid change in coloration, during which a successfully dominant^[40] territorial male assumes a more vivid and brighter coloration, while a subordinate or "nonterritorial" male assumes a dull-pale coloration.^[41] In addition to color displays, cichlids employ their lateral lines to sense movements of water around their opponents to evaluate the competing male for physical traits/fitness.^[42] Male cichlids are very territorial due to the pressure of reproduction, and establish their territory and social status by physically driving out^[43] challenging males (novel intruders)^[44] through lateral displays (parallel orientation, uncovering gills),^[45] biting, or mouth fights (head-on collisions of open mouths, measuring jaw sizes, and biting each other's jaws). The cichlid social dichotomy is composed of a single dominant with multiple subordinates, where the physical aggression of males becomes a contest for resources^[43] (mates, territory, food). Female cichlids prefer to mate with a successfully alpha male with vivid coloration, whose territory has food readily available.

Moon wrasse

Some moon wrasses live in groups consisted of a dominant male, and a "harem" of about a dozen other wrasses, some female and some male.^[46] The alpha male is more brightly colored, and at every low tide hour, changes from green to blue, and goes into a show of attacking and nipping all the other wrasses. This is his way of showing his dominance to the rest of the males and keeping the females in check. During breeding season and before high tide, the alpha male turns completely blue, gathers up every single female, and the spawning frenzy begins.

Mozambique tilapia

Mozambique tilapias often travel in groups where a strict dominance hierarchy is maintained. Positions within the hierarchy correlate with territoriality, courtship rate, nest size, aggression, and hormone production.^[47] In terms of social structure, Mozambique tilapias engage in a system known as lek-breeding, where males establish territories with dominance hierarchies while females travel between them. Social hierarchies typically develop because of competition for limited resources including food, territories, or mates. During the breeding season, males cluster around certain territory, forming a dense aggregation in shallow water.^[48] This aggregation forms the basis of the lek through which the females preferentially choose their mates. Reproductive success by males within the lek is highly correlated to social status and dominance.^[49]

In experiments with captive tilapias, evidence demonstrates the formation of linear hierarchies where the alpha male participates in significantly more agonistic interactions. Thus, males that are higher ranked initiate much more aggressive acts than subordinate males. However, contrary to popular belief, Mozambique tilapias display more agonistic interactions towards fish that are farther apart in the hierarchy scale than they do towards individuals closer in rank. One hypothesis behind this action rests with the fact that aggressive actions are costly. In this context, members of this social system tend to avoid confrontations with neighboring ranks in order to conserve resources rather than engage in an unclear and risky fight. Instead, dominant individuals seek to bully subordinate tilapias both for an easy fight and to keep their rank.^[50]

Seals

Elephant seals

Dominant male elephant seals arrive at potential breeding sites in spring, and fast to ensure that they can mate with as many females as possible.^[51] Male elephant seals use fighting, vocal noises, and different positions to determine who will be deemed the dominant male.^[51]^[52] When males reach eight to nine years of age, they have developed a pronounced long nose, in addition to a chest shield, which is thickened skin in their chest area.^[51] They display their dominance by showing their noses, making loud vocalisations, and altering their postures.^[51]^[52] They fight each other by raising themselves and ramming each other with their chests and teeth.^[51]

When females arrive, the dominating males have already selected their territory on the beach.^[51] Females cluster in groups called harems, which could consist of up to 50 females surrounding one alpha male.^[51] Outside of these groups, a beta bull is normally roaming around on the beach.^[51] The beta bull helps the alpha by preventing other males accessing the females.^[51] In return, the beta bull might have an opportunity to mate with one of the females while the alpha is occupied.^[51]

Canines

In the past, the prevailing view on gray wolf packs was that they consisted of individuals vying with each other for dominance, with dominant gray wolves being referred to as the "alpha" male and female, and the subordinates as "beta" and "omega" wolves. This terminology was first used in 1947 by Rudolf Schenkel of the University of Basel, who based his findings on researching the behavior of captive gray wolves.^[53] This view on gray wolf pack dynamics was later popularized by the researcher L. David Mech in his 1970 book The Wolf. He later found additional evidence that the concept of an Alpha male may have been an interpretation of incomplete data and formally disavowed this terminology in 1999. He explained that it was heavily based on the behavior of captive packs consisting of unrelated individuals, an error reflecting the once prevailing view that wild pack formation occurred in winter among independent gray wolves. Later research on wild gray wolves revealed that the pack is usually a family consisting of a breeding pair and their offspring of the previous 1–3 years. In the article, Mech wrote that the use of the term "alpha" to describe the breeding pair adds no additional information, and is "no more appropriate than referring to a human parent or a doe deer as an alpha." He further notes the terminology falsely implies a "force-based dominance hierarchy." In 13 years of summer observations of wild wolves, he witnessed no dominance contests between them.^[54]

In some other wild canids, the alpha male may not have exclusive access to the alpha female.^[55] Other pack members as in the African painted dog (Lycaon pictus) may guard the maternity den used by the alpha female.^[56]

Application to humans

The term "Alpha Male" is often incorrectly applied to any dominating man, especially bullys ^[57]. However, 'domination' alone is rarely seen as a positive trait for either an ideal date or a romantic partner. ^[58] This misconception is common within the manosphere, especially in the pickup artist community. The view that there is a dominance hierarchy among humans consisting of "alpha males" and "beta males" is also reported in the mainstream media. Ideas about women being "hard-wired" to desire "alpha males"^[59] are seen as misogynistic^[opinion] and stereotypical ^[60], and are not supported by research. No general classification into a dominance hierarchy can be made, as humans can take the dominant role in some social situations and a subordinate role in others.^[61]^[62]

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Sources

Dutcher, Jim; Dutcher, Jamie; Manfull, James (2002). Wolves at our door: the extraordinary story of the couple who lived with wolves.
Greenberg, Gary; Haraway, Maury M. (1998). Comparative psychology : a handbook. New York: Garland Pub. ISBN 0815312814. OCLC 38392254.

@@ Line 37: / Line 37: @@
 ====Humans====
 Humans compete for dominance in activities such as "social gatherings" and "playing games", resulting in a victor occupying "the alpha position".<ref name="Herman 2017">
-{{cite book |last=Hermann |first=Henry R.|date=2017 |title=Dominance and Aggression in Humans and Other Animals: The Great Game of Life}}</ref> In a study where women viewed [[mixed-martial arts]] fights, the male winners were perceived as more attractive than the male losers, and the researchers concluded that "facial cues associated with successful [[Sexual selection|male–male competition]] are attractive to women".<ref>https://psycnet.apa.org/record/2015-55247-007</ref> When observing the male [[wrestling]] competitions of the indigenous [[Mehinaku]] tribe of the [[Amazon rainforest]], anthropologist Thomas Gregor noted that males who are "heavily muscled" and "imposingly built" have increased mating access to females, while small men, who are derogatorily referred to as ''peristsi'', "fare badly".<ref name="David 2015"/>  He reports that powerful male wrestlers are both frightening to villagers and the most sexually desirable to females.<ref name="David 2015"/>
+{{cite book |last=Hermann |first=Henry R.|date=2017 |title=Dominance and Aggression in Humans and Other Animals: The Great Game of Life}}</ref> In a study where women viewed [[mixed-martial arts]] fights, the male winners were perceived as more attractive than the male losers, and the researchers concluded that "facial cues associated with successful [[Sexual selection|male–male competition]] are attractive to women".<ref>https://psycnet.apa.org/record/2015-55247-007</ref> When observing the male [[wrestling]] competitions of the indigenous [[Mehinaku]] tribe of the [[Amazon rainforest]], anthropologist Thomas Gregor noted that males who are "heavily muscled" and "imposingly built" have higher mating access to females, while small men, who are derogatorily referred to as ''peristsi'', "fare badly".<ref name="David 2015"/>  He reports that powerful male wrestlers are both frightening to villagers and the most sexually desirable to females.<ref name="David 2015"/>
 Humans exert power over other humans for many reasons such as [[Competition (biology)|competition for resources]], competition for mates, and protection of other humans.<ref name="Herman 2017"/> Males usually possess more political power since they have been the more dominant sex all throughout human history.<ref name="Herman 2017"/>  Political leaders are alpha individuals who display varying levels of dominance depending on their position.<ref name="Herman 2017"/>   All throughout human history, powerful male rulers around the world such as [[dictator]]s, [[king]]s, and [[emperor]]s have had sexual access to many women, often collecting them in [[harem]]s.<ref name="David 2015">{{cite book |last=Buss |first=David M.| date=2015 |title=Evolutionary Psychology: The New Science of the Mind}}</ref>   Others collected multiple female [[concubine]]s and [[Mistress (lover)|mistress]]es.  Italian fascist dictator [[Benito Mussolini]] had several mistresses, and he also had many brief sexual encounters with his female supporters, as reported by his biographer Nicholas Farrell.<ref>{{Cite book|author=Peter York|title=Dictator Style|publisher=Chronicle Books |location=San Francisco |year=2006 |isbn=978-0-8118-5314-9|pages=17–18}}</ref> One of history's most prominent conquerors, [[Genghis Khan]], frequently acquired wives and concubines from empires and societies that he had conquered; these women were often princesses or queens that were taken captive or gifted to him.{{sfn|McLynn|2015|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=jcQzCgAAQBAJ&pg=PA169 169]}}  He also established large territories for his sons who had many wives and large harems.<ref name="David 2015"/> Moroccan emperor [[Moulay Ismail]] produced 888 children with his harem of 500 wives.<ref name="David 2015"/>In India, [[Bhupinder Singh of Patiala]] housed 332 women in his harem, which included [[Mistress (lover)|mistresses]], [[servants]], and other women of varying status.<ref name="David 2015"/> Evolutionary anthropologist Laura Betzig analyzed [[Mesopotamia]], [[Ancient Egypt]], the [[Aztec Empire]],the [[Incan Empire]], [[Ancient India]], and [[Imperial China]], and found that all six civilizations showed the same consistent pattern of powerful high-status men monopolizing mating access to women.<ref name="David 2015"/> President [[Jacob Zuma]] of [[South Africa]] married 6 wives, and male members of the [[Nigerian chieftaincy system]] have historically had as many as 300 wives.<ref>Toyin Falola and Matt D. Childs (2005), ''The Yoruba Diaspora in the Atlantic World'', pp. 64-67.</ref><ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-africa-19489196|title=Zulu King's Sixth Wife ''Needs Palace''|work=BBC|date=September 5, 2012|access-date=May 4, 2020}}</ref>