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Islam in Kashmir

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Islam is the major religion practiced in Kashmir, with 97.16% of the region's population identifying as Muslims, as of 2014.[1] The religion - Islam, came to the region with the influx of Muslim Sufis preachers from Central Asia and Persia, beginning in the early 14th century.[2][3] Sometime back majority of the Kashmiri Muslims were of the Sunni religious persuasion, but now with rapid business influx makes Kashmiri Shias account for about and rapidly increasing.[4] Non-Kashmiri Muslims in Kashmir include semi-nomadic cowherds and shepherds, belonging to the Gurjar and Bakarwal communities.[4]

Historical development

Early period of Islamic contact

During the 8th century, the Kingdom of Kashmir was subjected to several attacks aimed at its conquest. Several attempts to conquer Kashmir were made by the Arabs who had established themselves in Sindh (711-13 C.E), under the leadership of Muhammad bin Qasim. But Muhammad bin Qasim was recalled by the Umayyad Caliph to Damascus, thus averting the possible invasion.[5][6] In the reign of Caliph Hisham (724-43 C.E), the Arabs again marched towards Kashmir under the leadership of ambitious and energetic leadership of the governor Junaid. Lalitaditya Muktapida (724–60 CE), the Raja (ruler) of Kashmir, defeated Junaid and overran his kingdom. However, this victory was not decisive as further attempts to invade were made by the Arabs, but Lalitaditya was able to stem the tide of these advances.[5] A last attempt at the invasion of the Kashmir Kingdom was made by Hisham ibn 'Amr al-Taghlibi, the Governor of Sindh, appointed by Caliph Mansur (754-75 C.E). Though he reached as far as the southern slopes of the Himalayas, which were a part of the Kashmir Kingdom, he failed to enter and occupy the valley.[5]

After the Arabs, it was the Ghaznavids who attempted to conquer Kashmir. Mahmud of Ghazni, defeated Raja Jaipal (1002 C.E), the ruler of Waihand (near Peshawar, in modern-day Pakistan).[5][7]Anandpal, the son and successor of Jaipal, also suffered a crushing defeat at the hands of Mahmud in 1009 C.E., and died a few years later. Anandpal's son Trilochanpala, whose power of influence was now confined only to the Salt Range, appealed to Samgramaraja (1003-28 C.E), the king of Kashmir, for help against Mahmud. A large army contingent was sent by Samgramaraja, who joined Trilochanpala's forces, however their combined forces were defeated by Mahmud in 1014 C.E. Mahmud advanced towards Kashmir and tried entering the kingdom via the Toshamaidan Pass. His progress was checked by the strong Loharkot Fort, which he besieged for a month. Owing to the heavy snowfall, which cut off Mahmud's communications, he was compelled to retreat.[2][5] However, the Sultan again set out to invade Kashmir in September–October, 1021 C.E, but was again compelled to retreat due to bad weather conditions.[5]

Establishment of Muslim rule and conversion to Islam

After Sultan Mahmud's attempted conquests to invade Kashmir, Kashmir remained generally unaffected and unchanged by invasions that were aimed at the plains of India, up until 1320 C.E. The Loharas (1003-1320 C.E.) ruled during this period, and was the last of the Hindu dynasties of Kashmir. In the spring of 1320, a Turkistani chieftain by the name of Zulqadar Khan Turk (Zulcha Khan), invaded Kashmir via the Jhelum Valley route. Suhadeva (1301–20 C.E), last ruler of the Loharas, tried to organize resistance, but failed due to his unpopularity among the masses. The reason for this unpopularity was financial exaction and general misrule that prevailed during the end period of the Lohara Dynasty.[5] Zulcha Khan's invasion created havoc and Suhadeva fled to Kistwar. Rinchana, son of a Ladakhi chief, who was employed by Ramacandra (Prime Minister of Kashmir) to establish law and order, took advantage of the chaos. He got Ramacandra murdered, occupied the Kashmir throne by the end of the year 1320, and ruled until his death in 1323 C.E. In order to gain acceptance of Kashmiris, he married Kota Rani, the daughter of Ramacandra, and made Rawancandra (Ramacandra's son) his commander-in-chief.[5][8] Rinchen was a pseudo- Buddhist and wanted to get initiated into Brahmanism to strengthen his political base in the Kashmir valley. Since Shaivism was the popular religion at the time in the valley, Rinchen approached Devaswami, the religious head of the Shaivas, for initiation into the Hindu religion. Devaswami, after holding a secret meeting on the subject with prominent Kashmiri Pandits of the time, refused to accept Rinchen into Hinduism, because of Rinchen's low birth.[9] Rinchan converted to Islam after coming into contact with Sayyid Sharfudin, a Sufi preacher commonly known as Bulbul Shah, who had come to Kashmir during the reign of Suhadeva. He changed his name to Sultan Sardarudin Shah after converting to Islam and thus became the first Muslim ruler of Kashmir.[5] Following the conversion of Rinchan, his commander in chief also became Muslim. The royal patronage for Islam won it new converts and according to one source, many Kashmiris embraced the creed of Bulbul Shah.[2][5]

The period after Sultan Sardarudin's death was marked by chaos and power tussle. Udayanadeva, the brother of Suhadeva, was made the ruler after an agreement among the nobles. However, he proved to be incompetent, and it was Kota Rani who was the virtual ruler. Soon after Udayanadeva's accession, a foreign chieftain attacked Kashmir, but the invaders were successfully repelled and defeated. However, the administration again fell into chaos. Udayanadeva had fled the country in sight of the attack, and lost his prestige in the eyes of the nobles. He died in the year 1338 C.E, and Kota Rani ascended the throne.[5][8] But Shah Mir, a nobleman employed earlier by Suhadeva, who had also kept the custody of the son of Rinchana and Kota Rani, had his own designs for power. Having married off his Muslim daughters to powerful Hindus of the kingdom and having had sons in positions of official power, he was able to put great political pressure under the queen. A period of battle ensued between him and Kota Rani. Fearing his political plots, she employed Bhikshana as her minister disappointing Shah Mir. According to Jonaraja, in his Rajatarangini, Shah Mir feigned being ill with a fatal disease which prompted a sympathy visit by Bhikshana and his associate, both of whom were immediately ambushed and killed during the visit. In 1339 C.E, Shah Mir killed Kota Rani along with her sons and usurped the throne.[5][8][10]

The Shahmiri Dynasty (1339- 1561 C.E), founded by Sultan Shah Mir, ruled Kashmir for the next 222 years. Various Sufi saints including Bulbul Shah, Shah e Hamdan, Nund Rishi was prolific to spread Islam in the valley through their moderate Sufi ideologies.[11]

Reign of Sikander Shah Miri "Butshikan"

Persecution of Hindus

Sikandar Shah Miri is remembered one of the great ruler in Muslim rule in Kashmir. Written in prominent books by prominent scholars and writers that during his rule large number of Hindus converted to Islam peacefully but some historians claims that non Muslims were brutally tortured and killed for refusal to convert during his reign.[12]

A rare photo of the ruins of the Martand Sun Temple near Anantnag, which was destroyed due to the iconoclastic policies of Sikandar Butshikan, photo taken by John Burke in 1868.

Sikandar won the sobriquet of but-shikan or idol-breaker, as these are forbidden in teachings of Islam, due to his actions related to the desecration and destruction of numerous temples, chaityas, viharas, shrines, hermitages, and other holy places of the Hindus and Buddhists. He banned dance, drama, music, iconography and such other religious, cultural or aesthetic activities of the Hindus and Buddhists, and classified them as heretical and un-Islamic. He forbade the Hindus to apply a tilak mark on their foreheads. He did not permit them to pray and worship, blow a conch shell or even to toll a bell. So unspeakable was Sikandar's rule that he even stopped Hindus and Buddhists from cremating their dead or crying over death and compelled them to bury the bodies using Muslim rituals. He imposed the Jizya, a poll-tax to be paid by non-Muslims living as subjects in a Muslim state, and the levy was a heavy one: each non-Muslim (mostly Hindus) was required to pay an annual tax of four tolas of silver.[12]

Islamization of Kashmir

During the Shah Miri dynasty, Islam Islam spread in the Kashmir and his rule has been considered controversial by some scholars due to his alleged non-secular policies in Kashmir. In consonance with the customs in Delhi and elsewhere, Sikandar created the office of Sheikh-ul-Islam and more important, decided that the Islamic law should be valid instead of the traditional law. But, as in other places, that may have been restricted mainly to the personal law.

It was during Sikander's reign that a wave of Sufi preachers headed by Mir Muhammad Hamadani (1372–1450) arrived in Kashmir in 1393. It is possibly under Hamadani's influence that Sultan Sikandar implemented an orthodox religious policy. The selling of alcohol, prostitution and gambling were prohibited. The non-Mulsims had to pay jizya, and were forbidden to display religious symbols like wearing tilak. The Kashmiri chronicler Jonaraja writes:

"The good fortune of the subjects left them and the king forgot his kingly duties and took delight, day and night, in breaking images.[13]

He [Sikander] prohibited all types of frugal games. Nobody dared commit acts which were prohibited by the Sharia. The Sultan was constantly busy in annihilating Hindus and destroyed most of the temples.[14]

He strived to destroy the idols of the infidels. He demolished the famous temple of Mahadeva at Bahrare. The temple was dug out from its foundations and the hole (that remained) reached the water level. Another temple at Jagdar was also demolished. Raja Alamadat had got a big temple constructed at Sinpur. (...) The temple was destroyed [by Sikander].[15] Sikander burnt all books the same wise as fire burns hay. All the scintillating works faced destruction in the same manner that lotus flowers face with the onset of frosty winter."[16]

References

  1. ^ Comprehensive SVEEP Plan of J&K State 2014 (PDF) (Report). ECI. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2018-09-01. Retrieved 2016-11-11.
  2. ^ a b c Sufi, G.M.D. (2015). Kashir : being a history of Kashmir : from the earliest times to our own. Gulshan Books Kashmir, Srinagar, 2015. pp. 75–95. OCLC 924660438. Retrieved 13 November 2016.
  3. ^ Yatoo, Altaf Hussain (2012). The Islamization of Kashmir: A Study of MuslimMissionaries. Kashmir, India: GULSHAN BOOKS. ISBN 978-8183391467.
  4. ^ a b Snedden, C. (2015). Understanding Kashmir and Kashmiris. Oxford University Press, 2015. p. 148. ISBN 9781849043427. Retrieved 13 November 2016.
  5. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l Hasan, M. (1959). Kashmir Under the Sultans. Aakar Books, 1959. pp. 29–30. ISBN 8187879491. Retrieved 14 November 2016.
  6. ^ Sen, S.N (1999). Ancient Indian History and Civilization. New Age International, 1999. pp. 293–294. ISBN 8122411983. Retrieved 14 November 2016.
  7. ^ Jaques, T (2007). Dictionary of Battles and Sieges: P-Z. Greenwood Publishing Group, 2007. p. 1089. ISBN 978-0313335396. Retrieved 14 November 2016.
  8. ^ a b c Kaw, M. K. (2004). Kashmir and Its People: Studies in the Evolution of Kashmiri Society. APH Publishing, 2004. pp. 178–179. ISBN 8176485373. Retrieved 14 November 2016.
  9. ^ Rinchen wanted Hinduism first;Explore Kashmiri Pandits book. ISBN 9780963479860.
  10. ^ Sufi, G.M.D. (1979). Islamic culture in Kashmir. New Delhi : Light & Life Publishers, 1979. pp. 32–48. OCLC 5750806.
  11. ^ "Kashmir's Composite Culture: Sufism & Communal Harmony - Kashmiriyat". www.efsas.org. Retrieved 2020-11-03.
  12. ^ a b Kaw, K.; Kashmir Education, Culture, and Science Society (2004). Kashmir and Its People: Studies in the Evolution of Kashmiri Society. A.P.H. Publishing Corporation. ISBN 9788176485371. Retrieved 7 July 2015.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  13. ^ Baloch, N. A.; Rafiqi, A. Q. (1998), "The Regions of Sind, Baluchistan, Multan and Kashmir" (PDF), in M. S. Asimov; C. E. Bosworth (eds.), History of Civilizations of Central Asia, Vol. IV, Part 1 — The age of achievement: A.D. 750 to the end of the fifteenth century — The historical, social and economic setting, UNESCO, p. 316, ISBN 978-92-3-103467-1
  14. ^ Haidar Malik Chãdurãh: Tãrîkh-i-Kashmîr; edited and translated into English by Razia Bano, Delhi, 1991, p. 55.
  15. ^ Khwãjah Nizamu'd-Dîn Ahmad bin Muhammad Muqîm al-Harbî: Tabqat-i-Akbarî translated by B. De, Calcutta, 1973
  16. ^ Srivara, Zaina Rajtarangini

Further reading

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