View source for Afghanistan

{{Short description|Country in Central Asia}}
{{other uses}}
{{redirect|Islamic Emirate of Afghanistan|the state that existed from 1996 to 2001|Islamic Emirate of Afghanistan (1996–2001)}}
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{{pp-extended|small=yes}}
{{Use American English|date=February 2023}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=July 2024}}
{{Infobox country
| conventional_long_name = Islamic Emirate of Afghanistan
| common_name            = Afghanistan
| native_name            = {{unbulleted list|{{native name|ps|د افغانستان اسلامي امارت|italic=no}}<br />{{small|{{transliteration|ps|Də Afġānistān Islāmī Imārat}}}}|{{native name|prs|امارت اسلامی افغانستان|italic=no}}<br />{{small|{{transliteration|prs|Imārat-i Islāmī-yi Afğānistān}}}}}}
| image_flag             = Flag of Taliban.svg
| flag_caption           = Flag
| image_coat             = Arms of the Islamic Emirate of Afghanistan.svg
| alt_coat               = Coat of Arms of the Islamic Emirate<ref>{{cite web |url=http://law.acku.edu.af/fa/download/file/fa/12686/77746 |title=Document 77746 |access-date=17 September 2021 |archive-date=3 June 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190603201955/http://law.acku.edu.af/fa/download/file/fa/12686/77746 |url-status=dead}}</ref>
| symbol_type            = [[Emblem of Afghanistan|Emblem]]
| national_motto         = {{lang|ar|لا إله إلا الله، محمد رسول الله}}<br/>{{transliteration|ar|Lā ʾilāha ʾillā llāh, Muhammadun rasūlu llāh}}<br/>
"There is no god but [[God in Islam|Allah]]; [[Muhammad]] is the messenger of Allah." (''[[Shahadah]]'')
| national_anthem        = {{lang|ps|دا د باتورانو کور}}<br />"{{transliteration|ps|Dā Də Bātorāno Kor}}"<br />"[[This Is the Home of the Brave]]"<ref>{{cite news |last=Tharoor |first=Ishaan |date=19 June 2013 |title=The Taliban's Qatar Office: Are Prospects for Peace Already Doomed? |magazine=[[Time (magazine)|Time]] |url=https://world.time.com/2013/06/19/the-talibans-qatar-office-are-prospects-for-peace-already-doomed/ |access-date=19 August 2021 |issn=0040-781X |archive-date=19 August 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210819021327/https://world.time.com/2013/06/19/the-talibans-qatar-office-are-prospects-for-peace-already-doomed/ |url-status=live }}</ref><br>
| image_map              = {{switcher|[[File:Afghanistan (orthographic projection).svg|upright=1.15|frameless]]|Afghanistan on the globe|[[File:Afghanistan - Location Map (2013) - AFG - UNOCHA.svg|upright=1.15|frameless]]|Afghanistan's neighbors and towns}}
| capital                = [[Kabul]]
| coordinates            = {{Coord|34|31|N|69|11|E|region:AF_source:geonames|display=inline,title}}<ref>[{{geonameslink|gnid=1149361|name=islamic-republic-of-afghanistan}} Islamic Republic of Afghanistan] in [{{geonamesabout}} Geonames.org (CC BY)]</ref>
| largest_city           = Kabul
| official_languages     = {{hlist|[[Pashto]]|[[Dari]]}}
| ethnic_groups          = {{unbulleted list
 | 42% [[Pashtun]]
 | 27% [[Tajiks|Tajik]]
 | {{figure space}}9% [[Hazaras|Hazara]]
 | {{figure space}}9% [[Uzbeks|Uzbek]]
 | {{figure space}}4% [[Aimaq people|Aimaq]]
 | {{figure space}}3% [[Turkmen people|Turkmen]]
 | {{figure space}}2% [[Baloch people|Baloch]]
 | {{figure space}}4% [[Ethnic groups in Afghanistan|other]]
 }}
| ethnic_groups_ref      = {{efn|The last census in Afghanistan was conducted in 1979, and was itself incomplete. Due to the [[Afghan conflict|ongoing conflict]] in the country, no official census has been conducted since.<ref name="Population Matters" />}}<ref name="timesofindia">{{cite web |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/world/south-asia/afghanistans-ethnic-mosaic/articleshow/85552093.cms |title=Afghanistan's ethnic mosaic |website=[[The Times of India]] |date=23 August 2021 |access-date=18 September 2021 |archive-date=18 September 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210918062710/https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/world/south-asia/afghanistans-ethnic-mosaic/articleshow/85552093.cms |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name="Population 2021" /><ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.statista.com/statistics/1258799/afghanistan-share-of-population-by-ethnic-group/ |title=Distribution of Afghan population by ethnic group 2020 |date=20 August 2021 |access-date=18 September 2021 |archive-date=18 September 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210918044205/https://www.statista.com/statistics/1258799/afghanistan-share-of-population-by-ethnic-group/ |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name="reliefweb.int">{{cite web |url=https://reliefweb.int/report/afghanistan/afghan-ethnic-groups-brief-investigation |title=Afghan Ethnic Groups: A Brief Investigation |date=14 August 2011 |access-date=18 September 2021 |archive-date=18 September 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210918053054/https://reliefweb.int/report/afghanistan/afghan-ethnic-groups-brief-investigation |url-status=live }}</ref>
| ethnic_groups_year     = 2019 unofficial estimates
| religion               = {{unbulleted list
 | 99.7% [[Islam in Afghanistan|Islam]] ([[State religion|official]])
 | 0.3% [[Demographics of Afghanistan#Religion|other]]
 }}
| religion_year          = 2015
| demonym                = [[Afghans|Afghan]]{{Efn|Other demonyms that have been used are Afghani,<ref>Dictionary.com. [[The American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language]], Fourth Edition. Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004. [http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/afghani Reference.com] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160303185738/http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/afghani |date=3 March 2016 }} (Retrieved 13 November 2007).</ref> Afghanese and Afghanistani (see [[Afghans]] for further details)<ref>Dictionary.com. [[WordNet]] 3.0. [[Princeton University]]. [http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/afghanistani Reference.com] (Retrieved 13 November 2007). {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140328102257/http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/afghanistani |date=28 March 2014}}</ref>|name="Demonym"|group="Note"}}<ref>{{cite web|title=Constitution of Afghanistan|url=https://www.afghanembassy.us/about-afghanistan/constitution/|year=2004|access-date=16 February 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160920112856/http://www.afghanembassy.us/about-afghanistan/constitution/|archive-date=20 September 2016|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |title=Afghan {{!}} meaning in the Cambridge English Dictionary |publisher=the Cambridge English Dictionary |isbn=9781107660151 |url=https://dictionary.cambridge.org/dictionary/english/afghan |access-date=27 March 2020 |archive-date=3 March 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210303180827/https://dictionary.cambridge.org/dictionary/english/afghan |url-status=live }}</ref>
| government_type        = Unitary [[totalitarian]]<ref>
*{{cite journal |last1=Sakhi |first1=Nilofar |title=The Taliban Takeover in Afghanistan and Security Paradox |journal=[[Journal of Asian Security and International Affairs]] |date=December 2022 |volume=9 |issue=3 |pages=383–401 |doi=10.1177/23477970221130882 |s2cid=253945821 |quote=Afghanistan is now controlled by a militant group that operates out of a totalitarian ideology. |issn = 2347-7970}}
*{{cite web |last1=Madadi |first1=Sayed |title=Dysfunctional centralization and growing fragility under Taliban rule |url=https://www.mei.edu/publications/dysfunctional-centralization-and-growing-fragility-under-taliban-rule |website=[[Middle East Institute]] |access-date=28 November 2022 |date=6 September 2022 |quote=In other words, the centralized political and governance institutions of the former republic were unaccountable enough that they now comfortably accommodate the totalitarian objectives of the Taliban without giving the people any chance to resist peacefully. |archive-date=28 November 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221128205909/https://www.mei.edu/publications/dysfunctional-centralization-and-growing-fragility-under-taliban-rule |url-status=live }}
*{{cite web |last1=Sadr |first1=Omar |title=Afghanistan's Public Intellectuals Fail to Denounce the Taliban |url=https://www.fairobserver.com/region/central_south_asia/omar-sadr-afghanistan-taliban-rule-totalitarianism-human-rights-news-2441/ |website=Fair Observer |access-date=28 November 2022 |date=23 March 2022 |quote=The Taliban government currently installed in Afghanistan is not simply another dictatorship. By all standards, it is a totalitarian regime. |archive-date=23 March 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220323115118/https://www.fairobserver.com/region/central_south_asia/omar-sadr-afghanistan-taliban-rule-totalitarianism-human-rights-news-2441/ |url-status=live }}
*{{cite web |title=Dismantlement of the Taliban regime is the only way forward for Afghanistan |url=https://www.atlanticcouncil.org/blogs/southasiasource/dismantlement-of-the-taliban-regime-is-the-only-way-forward-for-afghanistan/ |website=[[Atlantic Council]] |access-date=28 November 2022 |date=8 September 2022 |quote=As with any other ideological movement, the Taliban's Islamic government is transformative and totalitarian in nature. |archive-date=28 November 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221128205911/https://www.atlanticcouncil.org/blogs/southasiasource/dismantlement-of-the-taliban-regime-is-the-only-way-forward-for-afghanistan/ |url-status=live }}
*{{cite web |last=Akbari |first=Farkhondeh |title=The Risks Facing Hazaras in Taliban-ruled Afghanistan |url=https://extremism.gwu.edu/risks-facing-hazaras-taliban-ruled-afghanistan |website=[[George Washington University]] |access-date=28 November 2022 |date=7 March 2022 |quote=In the Taliban's totalitarian Islamic Emirate of Afghanistan, there is no meaningful political inclusivity or representation for Hazaras at any level. |archive-date=14 January 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230114164914/https://extremism.gwu.edu/risks-facing-hazaras-taliban-ruled-afghanistan |url-status=dead }}</ref> provisional [[theocratic]] Islamic [[emirate]]<!--Non-monarchical emirate--><ref>
*{{cite news |last=Choi |first=Joseph |title=EU: Provisional Taliban government does not fulfill promises |url=https://thehill.com/policy/international/571292-eu-provisional-taliban-government-does-not-fulfill-promises |access-date=18 March 2022 |work=[[The Hill (newspaper)|The Hill]] |date=8 September 2021 |archive-date=18 March 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220318015908/https://thehill.com/policy/international/571292-eu-provisional-taliban-government-does-not-fulfill-promises |url-status=live }}
*{{cite news |last=Bezhan |first=Frud |title=Key Figures In The Taliban's New Theocratic Government |url=https://gandhara.rferl.org/a/afghanistan-taliban-government-figures/31448372.html |access-date=6 February 2022 |work=[[Radio Farda]] |publisher=[[Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty]] |date=7 September 2021 |archive-date=6 February 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220206103928/https://gandhara.rferl.org/a/afghanistan-taliban-government-figures/31448372.html |url-status=live }}
*{{cite news |last=George |first=Susannah |title=Inside the Taliban campaign to forge a religious emirate |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/world/interactive/2023/afghanistan-taliban-islamic-law-rights/ |access-date=19 February 2023 |newspaper=[[The Washington Post]] |date=18 February 2023 |archive-date=18 February 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230218082415/https://www.washingtonpost.com/world/interactive/2023/afghanistan-taliban-islamic-law-rights/ |url-status=live }}</ref>
| leader_title1          = [[Supreme Leader of Afghanistan|Supreme Leader]]
| leader_name1           = {{nowrap|[[Hibatullah Akhundzada]]}}
| leader_title2          = [[Prime Minister of Afghanistan|Prime Minister]]
| leader_name2           = [[Hasan Akhund]] ([[Acting prime minister|acting]])
| leader_title3          = [[Chief Justice of Afghanistan|Chief Justice]]
| leader_name3           = [[Abdul Hakim Haqqani]]
| legislature            = None{{efn|Afghanistan is a pure [[autocracy]], with all law ultimately originating from the supreme leader. Consensus rule was initially used among the Taliban, but was phased out as the supreme leader monopolized control in the months following the 2021 return to power.<ref>{{cite web |author1=T. S. Tirumurti |title=Letter dated 25 May 2022 from the Chair of the Security Council Committee established pursuant to resolution 1988 (2011) addressed to the President of the Security Council |url=https://digitallibrary.un.org/record/3975071/files/S_2022_419-EN.pdf?ln=en |publisher=[[United Nations Security Council]] |access-date=2 May 2023 |date=26 May 2022}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |last1=Kraemer |first1=Thomas |title=Afghanistan dispatch: Taliban leaders issue new orders on law-making process, enforcement of court orders from previous government |url=https://www.jurist.org/news/2022/11/afghanistan-dispatch-taliban-leaders-issue-new-orders-on-law-making-process-enforcement-of-court-orders-from-previous-government/ |access-date=1 May 2023 |work=[[JURIST]] |date=27 November 2022 |archive-date=17 January 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240117233605/https://www.jurist.org/news/2022/11/afghanistan-dispatch-taliban-leaders-issue-new-orders-on-law-making-process-enforcement-of-court-orders-from-previous-government/ |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |last1=Dawi |first1=Akmal |title=Unseen Taliban Leader Wields Godlike Powers in Afghanistan |url=https://www.voanews.com/a/unseen-taliban-leader-wields-godlike-powers-in-afghanistan-/7026112.html |access-date=1 May 2023 |publisher=[[Voice of America]] |date=28 March 2023 |archive-date=13 April 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230413041049/https://www.voanews.com/a/unseen-taliban-leader-wields-godlike-powers-in-afghanistan-/7026112.html |url-status=live }}</ref> There is an advisory [[Leadership Council of Afghanistan|Leadership Council]], however its role is in question as the supreme leader has not convened it for many months ({{as of|lc=y|2023|03|post=),}} and increasingly rules by decree.<ref>{{cite journal |author1=Oxford Analytica |author1-link=Oxford Analytica |title=Senior Afghan Taliban figures move to curb leader |journal=Expert Briefings |series=Emerald Expert Briefings |date=10 March 2023 |volume=oxan-db |issue=oxan-db |doi=10.1108/OXAN-DB276639 |quote=[Akhundzada] has not convened the Taliban's Leadership Council (a 'politburo' of top leaders and commanders) for several months. Instead, he relies on the narrower Kandahar Council of Clerics for legal advice.}}</ref>}}
| sovereignty_type       = [[History of Afghanistan|Formation]]
| established_event1     = [[Hotak dynasty]]
| established_date1      = [[Mirwais Hotak|1709]]
| established_event2     = {{nowrap|[[Durrani Empire]]}}
| established_date2      = 1747
| established_event3     = [[Emirate of Afghanistan|Emirate]]
| established_date3      = 1823
| established_event4     = [[Dost Mohammad Khan|Dost Mohammad unites Afghanistan]]
| established_date4      = [[Herat Campaign of 1862–63|27 May 1863]]
| established_event5     = [[Third Anglo-Afghan War|Independence]]
| established_date5      = [[Afghan Independence Day|19 August 1919]]
| established_event6     = [[Kingdom of Afghanistan|Kingdom]]
| established_date6      = 9 June 1926
| established_event7    = [[Republic of Afghanistan (1973–1978)|Republic]]
| established_date7     = [[1973 Afghan coup d'état|17 July 1973]]
| established_event8    = [[Democratic Republic of Afghanistan|Democratic Republic]]
| established_date8    = [[Saur Revolution|27–28 April 1978]]
| established_event9    = [[Islamic State of Afghanistan|Islamic State]]
| established_date9     = 28 April 1992
| established_event10    = [[Islamic Emirate of Afghanistan (1996–2001)|Islamic Emirate]]
| established_date10     = 27 September 1996
| established_event11    = {{nowrap|[[Islamic Republic of Afghanistan|Islamic Republic]]}}
| established_date11     = 26 January 2004
| established_event12    = [[Fall of Kabul (2021)|Restoration of Islamic Emirate]]
| established_date12     = 15 August 2021
| area_km2               = 652,867<ref>Central Statistics Office Afghanistan</ref>
| area_rank              = 40th
| area_sq_mi             = 252,072
| percent_water          = negligible
| population_estimate    = {{IncreaseNeutral}} 41,128,771<ref>{{Cite web |title=World Bank Open Data |url=https://data.worldbank.org/ |access-date=27 April 2024 |website=World Bank Open Data |archive-date=26 May 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230526025607/https://data.worldbank.org/ |url-status=live }}</ref>
| population_estimate_year = 2023
| population_estimate_rank = 37th
| population_density_km2 = 48.08
| population_density_sq_mi = 119
| population_density_rank = 
| GDP_PPP                = $81.007&nbsp;billion<ref name="imf2">{{cite web|url=https://www.imf.org/en/Publications/WEO/weo-database/2023/April/weo-report?c=512,&s=NGDPD,PPPGDP,NGDPDPC,PPPPC,&sy=2020&ey=2020&ssm=0&scsm=1&scc=0&ssd=1&ssc=0&sic=0&sort=country&ds=.&br=1|title=Afghanistan|publisher=International Monetary Fund|access-date=1 May 2023|archive-date=1 May 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230501160206/https://www.imf.org/en/Publications/WEO/weo-database/2023/April/weo-report?c=512,&s=NGDPD,PPPGDP,NGDPDPC,PPPPC,&sy=2020&ey=2020&ssm=0&scsm=1&scc=0&ssd=1&ssc=0&sic=0&sort=country&ds=.&br=1|url-status=live}}</ref>
| GDP_PPP_year           = 2020
| GDP_PPP_rank           = 
| GDP_PPP_per_capita     = $2,459 <ref name="imf2"/>
| GDP_PPP_per_capita_rank = 179th
| GDP_nominal            =$20.136&nbsp;billion<ref name=imf2/>
| GDP_nominal_year       = 2020
| GDP_nominal_rank       = 
| GDP_nominal_per_capita = $611<ref name=imf2/>
| GDP_nominal_per_capita_rank = 190th
| HDI                    = 0.462<!-- number only -->
| HDI_year               = 2022<!-- Please use the year to which the data refers, not the publication year -->
| HDI_change             = decrease<!-- increase/decrease/steady -->
| HDI_ref                = <ref name="HDI">{{cite web|url=https://hdr.undp.org/sites/default/files/2023-24_HDR/HDR23-24_Statistical_Annex_HDI_Table.xlsx|title=Human Development Report 2023/24 |publisher=[[United Nations Development Programme]]|date=13 March 2024|access-date=22 March 2023|archive-date=19 March 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240319085123/https://hdr.undp.org/sites/default/files/2023-24_HDR/HDR23-24_Statistical_Annex_HDI_Table.xlsx|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|title=Human Development Report 2020 The Next Frontier: Human Development and the Anthropocene|date=15 December 2020|publisher=United Nations Development Programme|isbn=978-92-1-126442-5|pages=343–346|url=http://hdr.undp.org/sites/default/files/hdr2020.pdf |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/http://hdr.undp.org/sites/default/files/hdr2020.pdf |archive-date=9 October 2022 |url-status=live|access-date=16 December 2020}}</ref>
| HDI_rank               = 182nd
| currency               = [[Afghan afghani|Afghani]] ({{lang|prs|افغانى}})
| currency_code          = AFN
| time_zone              = [[Afghanistan Time]]
| utc_offset             = +4:30<br />[[Lunar Hijri calendar|Lunar Calendar]]<ref>{{Cite news |date=26 March 2022 |title=Taliban Changes Solar Year to Hijri Lunar Calendar |url=https://8am.af/eng/taliban-changes-solar-year-to-hijri-lunar-calendar/ |access-date=4 September 2022 |work=Hasht-e Subh Daily |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220904224713/https://8am.af/eng/taliban-changes-solar-year-to-hijri-lunar-calendar/ |archive-date=4 September 2022}}</ref>
| DST_note               = ''[[Daylight saving time|DST]] is not observed''<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.timeanddate.com/time/time-zones-interesting.html|title=Half Hour and 45-Minute Time Zones|website=timeanddate.com|access-date=23 December 2022|archive-date=15 February 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160215203607/https://www.timeanddate.com/time/time-zones-interesting.html|url-status=live}}</ref>
| cctld                  = [[.af]]
| today                  = 
}}
'''Afghanistan''',{{efn|{{IPAc-en|audio=En-us-Afghanistan.ogg|æ|f|ˈ|ɡ|æ|n|ᵻ|s|t|æ|n|,_|æ|f|ˈ|ɡ|ɑː|n|ᵻ|s|t|ɑː|n}}}} officially the '''Islamic Emirate of Afghanistan''',{{efn|{{bulleted list|{{lang-ps|د افغانستان اسلامي امارت}}|{{lang-prs|امارت اسلامی افغانستان}}}}}} is a landlocked country located at the crossroads of [[Central Asia]] and [[South Asia]]. It is bordered by [[Pakistan]] to the [[Durand Line|east and south]],{{efn|The [[Government of India]] regards Afghanistan as a bordering country, as it considers all of [[Kashmir]] to be part of India. However, this is [[Kashmir conflict|disputed]], and the region bordering Afghanistan is administered by Pakistan as [[Gilgit-Baltistan]].<ref>{{cite web |title=Ministry of Home Affairs (Department of Border Management) |url=https://mha.nic.in/sites/upload_files/mha/files/BMIntro-1011.pdf|access-date=1 September 2008|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150317182910/https://mha.nic.in/sites/upload_files/mha/files/BMIntro-1011.pdf|archive-date=17 March 2015|url-status=dead}}</ref>}} [[Iran]] to the [[Afghanistan–Iran border|west]], [[Turkmenistan]] to the [[Afghanistan–Turkmenistan border|northwest]], [[Uzbekistan]] to the [[Afghanistan–Uzbekistan border|north]], [[Tajikistan]] to the [[Afghanistan–Tajikistan border|northeast]], and [[China]] to the [[Afghanistan–China border|northeast and east]]. Occupying {{convert|652864|km2|sqmi|sp=us}} of land, the country is predominantly mountainous with plains [[Afghan Turkestan|in the north]] and [[Sistan Basin|the southwest]], which are separated by the [[Hindu Kush]] mountain range. [[Kabul]] is the country's capital and largest city. According to the World Population review, {{As of|2023|lc=y}}, [[Demographics of Afghanistan|Afghanistan's population]] is 43 million.<ref name="Population 2021" /> The [[National Statistics and Information Authority|National Statistics Information Authority of Afghanistan]] estimated the population to be 32.9&nbsp;million {{As of|2020|lc=y}}.<ref>{{cite report|title=د هېواد د وګړو اټکل برآورد نفوس کشور1399|language=ar,en|trans-title=Estimated Population of Afghanistan 2020–21|url=https://www.nsia.gov.af:8080/wp-content/uploads/2020/06/%D8%A8%D8%B1%D8%A2%D9%88%D8%B1%D8%AF-%D9%86%D9%81%D9%88%D8%B3-%DA%A9%D8%B4%D9%88%D8%B1-%DB%B1%DB%B3%DB%B9%DB%B9-%D9%86%D8%B3%D8%AE%DB%80-%D8%A7%D9%88%D9%84.pdf|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200703171906/https://www.nsia.gov.af:8080/wp-content/uploads/2020/06/%D8%A8%D8%B1%D8%A2%D9%88%D8%B1%D8%AF-%D9%86%D9%81%D9%88%D8%B3-%DA%A9%D8%B4%D9%88%D8%B1-%DB%B1%DB%B3%DB%B9%DB%B9-%D9%86%D8%B3%D8%AE%DB%80-%D8%A7%D9%88%D9%84.pdf|archive-date=3 July 2020|access-date=1 July 2020}}</ref>

[[Ancient history of Afghanistan|Human habitation in Afghanistan]] dates to the [[Middle Paleolithic]] era. Popularly referred to as the [[graveyard of empires]],<ref>{{Cite web |last=Pillalamarri |first=Akhilesh |title=Why Is Afghanistan the 'Graveyard of Empires'? |url=https://thediplomat.com/2017/06/why-is-afghanistan-the-graveyard-of-empires/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210811170328/https://thediplomat.com/2017/06/why-is-afghanistan-the-graveyard-of-empires/ |archive-date=11 August 2021 |access-date=25 February 2022 |website=[[The Diplomat]]}}</ref> the land [[Invasions of Afghanistan|has witnessed numerous military campaigns]], including those by [[Persian empire|the Persians]], [[Alexander the Great]], the [[Maurya Empire]], [[Muslim conquests of Afghanistan|Arab Muslims]], the [[Mongol invasion of the Khwarazmian Empire|Mongols]], the [[European influence in Afghanistan#The Great Game|British]], the [[Soviet–Afghan War|Soviet Union]], and [[War in Afghanistan (2001–2021)|a US-led coalition]]. Afghanistan also served as the source from which the [[Greco-Bactrian Kingdom|Greco-Bactrians]] and the [[Mughal Empire|Mughals]], among others, rose to form major empires.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.gl.iit.edu/govdocs/afghanistan/PreIslamic.html |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20011103002246/http://www.gl.iit.edu/govdocs/afghanistan/PreIslamic.html |archivedate=3 November 2001|title=The Pre-Islamic Period |work=Afghanistan Country Study |publisher=Illinois Institute of Technology |first=Luke |last=Griffin |date=14 January 2002 |access-date=14 October 2010}}</ref> Because of the various conquests and periods in both the [[Greater Iran|Iranian]] and [[Greater India|Indian]] cultural spheres,<ref>{{cite book |last1=Cush |first1=Denise |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=kzPgCgAAQBAJ&pg=PA200 |title=Encyclopedia of Hinduism |last2=Robinson |first2=Catherine |last3=York |first3=Michael |publisher=Routledge |year=2012 |isbn=9781135189792 |page=200}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=The remarkable rugs of war, Drill Hall Gallery|date=30 July 2021|work=The Australian|url=https://amp.theaustralian.com.au/arts/review/the-remarkable-rugs-of-war-drill-hall-gallery/news-story/49fb932f8be798b1641425be98e4e0db|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211122182853/https://amp.theaustralian.com.au/arts/review/the-remarkable-rugs-of-war-drill-hall-gallery/news-story/49fb932f8be798b1641425be98e4e0db|archive-date=22 November 2021|access-date=22 November 2021|url-status=bot: unknown}}</ref> the area was a center for [[Zoroastrianism]], Buddhism, Hinduism, and later Islam.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.redlandsdailyfacts.com/2021/09/15/professing-faith-religious-traditions-in-afghanistan-are-diverse/|title=Professing Faith: Religious traditions in Afghanistan are diverse|date=16 September 2021|access-date=1 November 2021|archive-date=6 October 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211006122528/https://www.redlandsdailyfacts.com/2021/09/15/professing-faith-religious-traditions-in-afghanistan-are-diverse/|url-status=live}}</ref> The modern state of Afghanistan began with the [[Durrani Empire|Durrani Afghan Empire]] in the 18th century,<ref>{{cite web|title=Afghanistan: the land that forgot time|date=26 October 2001|work=[[The Guardian]]|url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2001/oct/26/afghanistan.terrorism11|access-date=14 December 2021|archive-date=14 December 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211214155028/https://www.theguardian.com/world/2001/oct/26/afghanistan.terrorism11|url-status=live}}</ref> although [[Dost Mohammad Khan]] is sometimes considered to be the founder of the first [[Emirate of Afghanistan|modern Afghan state]].<ref>{{Cite web|year=1995|title=DŌST MOḤAMMAD KHAN|url=https://iranicaonline.org/articles/dost-mohammad-khan|access-date=8 February 2023|website=Encyclopaedia Iranica|archive-date=29 April 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110429181100/http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/dost-mohammad-khan|url-status=live}}</ref> Afghanistan became a [[buffer state]] in the [[Great Game]] between the [[British Empire]] and the [[Russian Empire]]. From India, the British attempted to subjugate Afghanistan but were repelled in the [[First Anglo-Afghan War]]; the [[Second Anglo-Afghan War]] saw a British victory. Following the [[Third Anglo-Afghan War]] in 1919, Afghanistan became free of foreign political hegemony, and emerged as the independent [[Kingdom of Afghanistan]] in 1926. This monarchy lasted almost half a century, until [[Mohammed Zahir Shah|Zahir Shah]] was [[1973 Afghan coup d'état|overthrown in 1973]], following which the [[Republic of Afghanistan (1973–1978)|Republic of Afghanistan]] was established.

Since the late 1970s, Afghanistan's history has been dominated by extensive warfare, including [[Afghan conflict|coups, invasions, insurgencies, and civil wars]]. The conflict began in 1978 when a [[Saur Revolution|communist revolution]] established a [[Democratic Republic of Afghanistan|socialist state]] (itself a response to the dictatorship established following a [[1973 Afghan coup d'état|coup d'état in 1973]]), and subsequent infighting prompted the [[Soviet invasion of Afghanistan|Soviet Union to invade Afghanistan]] in 1979. [[Mujahideen]] fought against the Soviets in the [[Soviet–Afghan War]] and continued fighting among themselves following the [[Soviet withdrawal from Afghanistan|Soviets' withdrawal in 1989]]. The [[Taliban]] controlled most of the country by 1996, but their [[Islamic Emirate of Afghanistan (1996–2001)|Islamic Emirate of Afghanistan]] received little international recognition before its overthrow in the 2001 [[United States invasion of Afghanistan|US invasion of Afghanistan]]. The Taliban returned to power in 2021 after [[Fall of Kabul (2021)|capturing Kabul]], ending the [[War in Afghanistan (2001–2021)|2001–2021 war]].<ref>{{cite journal |author-last=Watkins |author-first=Andrew H. |date=November 2021 |url=https://ctc.usma.edu/wp-content/uploads/2021/11/CTC-SENTINEL-092021.pdf |title=An Assessment of Taliban Rule at Three Months |url-status=live |editor1-last=Cruickshank |editor1-first=Paul |editor2-last=Hummel |editor2-first=Kristina |journal=[[CTC Sentinel]] |volume=14 |issue=9 |pages=1–14 |publisher=[[Combating Terrorism Center]] |location=West Point, New York |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211129104726/https://ctc.usma.edu/wp-content/uploads/2021/11/CTC-SENTINEL-092021.pdf |archive-date=29 November 2021 |access-date=29 November 2021}}</ref> The Taliban government remains internationally unrecognized.<ref>{{Cite web |title=The Taliban: Unrecognized and unrepentant |url=https://www.mei.edu/publications/taliban-unrecognized-and-unrepentant |access-date=18 October 2022 |website=Middle East Institute|archive-date=18 October 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221018002025/https://www.mei.edu/publications/taliban-unrecognized-and-unrepentant |url-status=live }}</ref>

Afghanistan is rich in natural resources, including [[lithium]], iron, [[zinc]], and copper. It is the second-largest producer of [[cannabis resin]],<ref>{{Cite web |title=Morocco seizes over 840 kg of cannabis – Xinhua {{!}} English.news.cn |url=http://www.xinhuanet.com/english/2019-08/06/c_138288434.htm |access-date=18 October 2022 |agency=Xinhua News Agency |archive-date=18 October 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221018002746/http://www.xinhuanet.com/english/2019-08/06/c_138288434.htm |url-status=live }}</ref> and third largest of both [[saffron]]<ref>{{Cite web |title=Afghanistan's Saffron on Media {{!}} AfGOV |url=https://www.mail.gov.af/en/afghanistan%E2%80%99s-saffron-media |access-date=18 October 2022 |website=mail.gov.af |archive-date=8 April 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230408010552/https://www.mail.gov.af/en/afghanistan%E2%80%99s-saffron-media |url-status=dead }}</ref> and [[Cashmere wool|cashmere]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=Taliban Takeover Puts Afghanistan's Cashmere, Silk Industries at Risk |url=https://www.businessoffashion.com/news/global-markets/taliban-takeover-puts-afghanistans-cashmere-silk-industries-at-risk/ |access-date=18 October 2022 |website=The Business of Fashion |date=25 August 2021|archive-date=18 October 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221018002748/https://www.businessoffashion.com/news/global-markets/taliban-takeover-puts-afghanistans-cashmere-silk-industries-at-risk/ |url-status=live }}</ref> The country is a member of the [[South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation]] and a founding member of the [[Organization of Islamic Cooperation]]. Due to the effects of war in recent decades, the country has dealt with high levels of terrorism, [[Poverty in Afghanistan|poverty]], and child malnutrition. Afghanistan remains among the world's least developed countries, ranking 180th in the [[Human Development Index]]. Afghanistan's gross domestic product (GDP) is $81&nbsp;billion by [[purchasing power parity]] and $20.1&nbsp;billion by nominal values. Per capita, its GDP is among the lowest of any country {{As of|2020|lc=y}}.

==Etymology==
{{Main|Name of Afghanistan}}

Some scholars suggest that the [[Root (linguistics)|root]] name [[Afghan (ethnonym)|''Afghān'']] is derived from the [[Sanskrit]] word ''[[Aśvaka]]n'', which was the name used for ancient inhabitants of the [[Hindu Kush]].<ref>
*"The name Afghan has evidently been derived from Asvakan, the Assakenoi of Arrian... " (Megasthenes and Arrian, p 180. See also: Alexander's Invasion of India, p 38; J.W. McCrindle). 
*"Even the name Afghan is Aryan being derived from Asvakayana, an important clan of the Asvakas or horsemen who must have derived this title from their handling of celebrated breeds of horses" (See: Imprints of Indian Thought and Culture Abroad, p 124, Vivekananda Kendra Prakashan).
*Cf: "Their name (Afghan) means "cavalier" being derived from the [[Sanskrit]], ''Asva'', or ''Asvaka'', a horse, and shows that their country must have been noted in ancient times, as it is at the present day, for its superior breed of horses. Asvaka was an important tribe settled north to Kabul river, which offered a gallant resistance but ineffectual resistance to the arms of Alexander." (''Scottish Geographical Magazine'', 1999, p. 275, Royal Scottish Geographical Society)
*"Afghans are Assakani of the [[Greeks]]; this word being the [[Sanskrit]] [[Ashvaka]] meaning 'horsemen'." (''Sva'', 1915, p. 113, Christopher Molesworth Birdwood)
*Cf: "The name represents Sanskrit Asvaka in the sense of a ''cavalier'', and this reappears scarcely modified in the Assakani or Assakeni of the historians of the expedition of [[Alexander the Great|Alexander]]" (Hobson-Jobson: ''A Glossary of Colloquial [[Anglo-Indian]] words and phrases, and of kindred terms, etymological''. Henry Yule, A. D. Burnell).</ref> ''Aśvakan'' literally means "horsemen", "horse breeders", or "[[cavalry]]men" (from ''[[aśva]]'', the [[Sanskrit]] and [[Avestan]] words for "horse").<ref>{{cite book |title=Ancient India |first=Ramesh Chandra |last=Majumdar |author-link=Ramesh Chandra Majumdar |edition=Reprinted |publisher=Motilal Banarsidass |year=1977 |orig-date=1952 |isbn=978-8-12080-436-4 |page=99 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=XNxiN5tzKOgC&pg=PA99}}</ref>

Historically, the ethnonym ''Afghān'' was used to refer to ethnic [[Pashtuns]].<ref>{{cite encyclopedia |author=Ch. M. Kieffer |url=http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/afgan-in-current-political-usage-any-citizen-of-afghanistan-whatever-his-ethnic-tribal-or-religious-affiliation |title=Afghan |encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Iranica |edition=online |publisher=Columbia University |date=15 December 1983|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131116233835/http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/afgan-in-current-political-usage-any-citizen-of-afghanistan-whatever-his-ethnic-tribal-or-religious-affiliation |archive-date=16 November 2013}}</ref> The Arabic and Persian form of the name, ''Afġān'', was first attested in the 10th-century geography book ''[[Hudud al-'Alam]]''.<ref>{{Cite book|title=The Afghans|last1=Vogelsang|first1=Willem|year=2002|publisher=Wiley Blackwell|isbn=0-631-19841-5|page=18|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=9kfJ6MlMsJQC&pg=PA18|access-date=6 July 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190709112010/https://books.google.com/books?id=9kfJ6MlMsJQC&lpg=PP1&pg=PA18|archive-date=9 July 2019|url-status=live}}</ref> The last part of the name, "''[[-stan]]''", is a Persian suffix meaning "place of". Therefore, "Afghanistan" translates to "land of the Afghans", or "land of the Pashtuns" in a historical sense. According to the third edition of the ''[[Encyclopedia of Islam]]'':<ref>{{EI3|last=Nölle-Karimi|first=Christine|title=Afghanistan until 1747|url=https://referenceworks.brillonline.com/entries/encyclopaedia-of-islam-3/*-COM_24776|year=2020}}</ref>
{{blockquote|The name Afghanistan (Afghānistān, land of the Afghans / Pashtuns, ''afāghina'', sing. ''afghān'') can be traced to the early eighth/fourteenth century, when it designated the easternmost part of the [[Kartid]] realm. This name was later used for certain regions in the [[Safavid Iran|Ṣafavid]] and [[Mughal Empire|Mughal]] empires that were inhabited by Afghans. While based on a state-supporting elite of [[Durrani|Abdālī / Durrānī]] Afghans, the [[Durrani Empire|Sadūzāʾī Durrānī polity]] that came into being in 1160 / 1747 was not called Afghanistan in its own day. The name became a state designation only during the colonial intervention of the nineteenth century.}}

The term "Afghanistan" was officially used in 1855, when the British recognized [[Dost Mohammad Khan]] as king of [[Emirate of Afghanistan|Afghanistan]].{{sfn|Lee|2019|p=317}}

==History==
{{Main|History of Afghanistan}}

===Prehistory and antiquity===
{{Main|Ancient history of Afghanistan}}
{{See also|Hindu and Buddhist heritage of Afghanistan}}
[[File:Nomads in Badghis Province.jpg|thumb|left|Tents of Afghan [[nomad]]s in the northern [[Badghis Province]]. Early peasant farming villages came into existence about 7,000 years ago.]]

Excavations of prehistoric sites suggest that humans were living in what is now Afghanistan at least 50,000 years ago, and that farming communities in the area were among the earliest in the world. An important site of early historical activities, many believe that Afghanistan compares to [[Egypt]] in the historical value of its archaeological sites.<ref name="JFS">{{cite encyclopedia|url=http://encarta.msn.com/text_761569370___42/Afghanistan.html |title=Afghanistan&nbsp;– John Ford Shroder, University of Nebraska |publisher=Encarta |access-date=19 May 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20040717092902/http://encarta.msn.com/text_761569370___42/Afghanistan.html |archive-date=17 July 2004 |url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,1881896-1,00.html |title=Afghanistan: A Treasure Trove for Archaeologists |magazine=[[Time (magazine)|Time]] | date=26 February 2009 |access-date=13 July 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130726153721/http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0%2C9171%2C1881896-1%2C00.html |archive-date=26 July 2013 |url-status=dead}}</ref> Artifacts typical of the [[Paleolithic]], [[Mesolithic]], [[Neolithic]], [[Bronze Age|Bronze]], and [[Iron Age]]s have been found in Afghanistan. Urban civilization is believed to have begun as early as 3000 BCE, and the early city of [[Mundigak]] (near [[Kandahar]] in the south of the country) was a center of the [[Helmand culture]]. More recent findings established that the [[Indus Valley Civilization]] stretched up towards modern-day Afghanistan. An Indus Valley site has been found on the [[Oxus River]] at [[Shortugai]] in northern Afghanistan.<ref>{{cite book|title=The Ancient Indus: Urbanism, Economy, and Society|page=1|author=Rita Wright|date=2009|publisher=Cambridge University Press|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=gAgFPQAACAAJ|isbn=978-0521576529|access-date=11 December 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160628065355/https://books.google.com/books?id=gAgFPQAACAAJ|archive-date=28 June 2016|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>Kenoyer, Jonathan Mark (1998). Ancient cities of the Indus Valley Civilisation. pp.96</ref><ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=-xjGtwAACAAJ|title=Notes on Shortugai: An Harappan Site in Northern Afghanistan|publisher=Centre for the Study of the Civilization of Central Asia|author=Louis Depree|year=1981}}</ref>

After 2000 BCE successive waves of semi-nomadic people from Central Asia began moving south into Afghanistan; among them were many [[Indo-European languages|Indo-European]]-speaking [[Indo-Iranians]]. These tribes later migrated further into South Asia, Western Asia, and toward Europe via the area north of the [[Caspian Sea]]. The region at the time was referred to as [[Ariana]].<ref name="JFS" /><ref>Bryant, Edwin F. (2001) ''The quest for the origins of Vedic culture: the Indo-Aryan migration debate'' [[Oxford University Press]], {{ISBN|978-0-19-513777-4}}.</ref> By the middle of the 6th century BCE, the Achaemenids overthrew the [[Medes]] and incorporated [[Arachosia]], [[Aria (satrapy)|Aria]], and [[Bactria]] within its eastern boundaries. An [[Epigraphy|inscription]] on the tombstone of [[Darius I of Persia]] mentions the [[Kabulistan|Kabul Valley]] in a list of the 29 countries that he had conquered.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.gandhara.com.au/afghan_table.html |archive-url=https://archive.today/20120909000527/http://www.gandhara.com.au/afghan_table.html |url-status=dead |archive-date=9 September 2012 |title=Chronological History of Afghanistan&nbsp;– the cradle of Gandharan civilisation |publisher=Gandhara.com.au |date=15 February 1989 |access-date=19 May 2012}}</ref> The region of [[Arachosia]], around [[Kandahar]] in modern-day southern Afghanistan, used to be primarily Zoroastrian and played a key role in the transfer of the Avesta to [[Persis|Persia]] and is thus considered by some to be the "second homeland of Zoroastrianism".<ref name="Gnoli-1989">{{Cite book|last=Gnoli|first=Gherado|title=The Idea of Iran, an Essay on its Origin|publisher=Istituto italiano per il Medio ed Estremo Oriente|year=1989|pages=133|quote=... he would have drawn inspiration from a ireligious policy which intended to counteract the Median Magi's influence and transfer the 'Avesta-Schule' from Arachosia to Persia: thus the Avesta would have arrived in Persia through Arachosia in the 6th century B.C. [...] Although ... Arachosia would have been only a second fatherland for Zoroastrianism, a significant role should still be attributed to this south-eastern region in the history of the Zoroastrian tradition.}}</ref><ref name="Gnoli-1989a">{{Cite book|last=Gnoli|first=Gherado|title=The Idea of Iran, an essay on its Origin|publisher=Istituto italiano per il Medio ed Estremo Oriente|year=1989|pages=133|quote=linguistic data [...] prove the presence of the Zoroastrian tradition in Arachosia both in the Achaemenian age, in the last quarter of the 6th century, and in the Seleucid age.}}</ref><ref name="ARACHOSIA – Encyclopaedia Iranica">{{Cite web|title=ARACHOSIA – Encyclopaedia Iranica|url=https://iranicaonline.org/articles/arachosia|access-date=19 February 2021|website=iranicaonline.org|archive-date=23 May 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210523120936/https://iranicaonline.org/articles/arachosia|url-status=live}}</ref>
[[File:ScythianBelt.jpg|thumb|A "Bactrian gold" [[Scythian]] belt depicting [[Dionysus]], from [[Tillya Tepe]] in the ancient region of [[Bactria]]]]

[[Alexander the Great]] and his Macedonian forces arrived in Afghanistan in 330 BCE after defeating [[Darius III of Persia]] a year earlier in the [[Battle of Gaugamela]]. Following Alexander's brief occupation, the successor state of the [[Seleucid Empire]] controlled the region until 305 BCE, when they gave much of it to the [[Maurya Empire]] as part of an alliance treaty. The Mauryans controlled the area south of the [[Hindu Kush]] until they were overthrown in about 185 BCE. Their decline began 60 years after [[Ashoka]]'s rule ended, leading to the [[Hellenistic]] reconquest by the [[Greco-Bactrians]]. Much of it soon broke away and became part of the [[Indo-Greek Kingdom]]. They were defeated and expelled by the [[Indo-Scythians]] in the late 2nd century BCE.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://lcweb2.loc.gov/frd/cs/profiles/Afghanistan.pdf |title=Country Profile: Afghanistan |publisher=[[Library of Congress Country Studies]] on Afghanistan | date=August 2008 |access-date=10 October 2010|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140408085103/http://lcweb2.loc.gov/frd/cs/profiles/Afghanistan.pdf |archive-date=8 April 2014}}</ref>{{sfn|Runion|2007|page=44}}
The [[Silk Road]] appeared during the first century BCE, and Afghanistan flourished with trade, with routes to China, India, Persia, and north to the cities of [[Bukhara]], [[Samarkand]], and [[Khiva]] in present-day Uzbekistan.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://unama.unmissions.org/afghanistan-and-silk-road-land-heart-world-trade-bijan-omrani|title='Afghanistan and the Silk Road: The land at the heart of world trade' by Bijan Omrani|date=8 March 2010|website=UNAMA|access-date=17 June 2020|archive-date=16 August 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210816022140/https://unama.unmissions.org/afghanistan-and-silk-road-land-heart-world-trade-bijan-omrani|url-status=live}}</ref> Goods and ideas were exchanged at this center point, such as Chinese silk, Persian silver and Roman gold, while the region of present Afghanistan was mining and trading [[lapis lazuli]] stones<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://en.unesco.org/silkroad/countries-alongside-silk-road-routes/afghanistan|title=Afghanistan – Silk Roads Programme|publisher=[[UNESCO]]|access-date=17 June 2020|archive-date=18 June 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210618032829/https://en.unesco.org/silkroad/countries-alongside-silk-road-routes/afghanistan|url-status=live}}</ref> mainly from the [[Badakhshan]] region.

During the first century BCE, the [[Parthian Empire]] subjugated the region but lost it to their [[Indo-Parthian]] vassals. In the mid-to-late first century CE the vast [[Kushan Empire]], centered in Afghanistan, became great patrons of Buddhist culture, making [[Buddhism]] flourish throughout the region. The Kushans were overthrown by the [[Sassanids]] in the 3rd century CE, though the [[Indo-Sassanids]] continued to rule at least parts of the region. They were followed by the [[Kidarite]]s who, in turn, was replaced by the [[Hephthalites]]. They were replaced by the [[Turk Shahi]] in the 7th century. The Buddhist Turk Shahi of Kabul was replaced by a Hindu dynasty before the Saffarids conquered the area in 870, this Hindu dynasty was called [[Hindu Shahi]].<ref>{{cite book|last=Wink|first=André|title=Al-Hind, the Making of the Indo-Islamic World: Early Medieval India and the Expansion of Islam 7Th-11th Centuries|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=g2m7_R5P2oAC&pg=PA125|year=2002|publisher=BRILL|isbn=0-391-04173-8|page=125|access-date=11 December 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191201142728/https://books.google.com/books?id=g2m7_R5P2oAC&pg=PA125|archive-date=1 December 2019|url-status=live}}</ref> Much of the northeastern and southern areas of the country remained dominated by [[Buddhist]] culture.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.alamahabibi.com/English%20Articles/Afghan_and_Afghanistan.htm|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081023100306/http://www.alamahabibi.com/English%20Articles/Afghan_and_Afghanistan.htm|archive-date=23 October 2008 |title=Afghan and Afghanistan |work=[[Abdul Hai Habibi]]|publisher=alamahabibi.com|year=1969|access-date=17 November 2015}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|author=Charles Higham|title=Encyclopedia of Ancient Asian Civilizations|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=H1c1UIEVH9gC&pg=PA141|year=2014|publisher=Infobase Publishing|isbn=978-1-4381-0996-1|page=141}}</ref>

===Medieval period===
{{Main|Muslim conquests of Afghanistan|Mongol invasion of Central Asia|Ghaznavid campaigns in India}}
[[File:Ghurid Empire according to Schwartzberg Atlas, p.147.png|thumb|right|The [[Ghurid dynasty|Ghurids]] originated from [[Ghor Province]] in central Afghanistan.]]

[[Arab]] [[Muslim]]s brought Islam to [[Herat]] and [[Zaranj]] in 642&nbsp;CE and began spreading eastward; some of the native inhabitants they encountered accepted it while others revolted. Before the [[Islamic conquest of Afghanistan|arrival of Islam]], the region used to be home to various beliefs and cults, often resulting in [[Syncretism]] between the dominant religions<ref>{{Cite book|last1=Weber|first1=Olivier|url=|title=Eternal Afghanistan|last2=Unesco|date=2002|publisher=Chêne|isbn=978-92-3-103850-1|quote=Gradually there emerged a fabulous syncretism between the Hellenistic world and the Buddhist universe}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|last=Grenet|first=Grenet|title=Zoroastriansm among the Kushans|year=2016}}</ref> such as [[Zoroastrianism]],<ref name="Gnoli-1989"/><ref name="Gnoli-1989a"/><ref name="ARACHOSIA – Encyclopaedia Iranica"/> [[Buddhism]] or [[Greco-Buddhism]], [[Ancient Iranian religion]]s,<ref name="Allen">{{Cite book|last=Allen|first=Charles|url=|title=The Search For Shangri-La: A Journey into Tibetan History|date=5 November 2015|publisher=Little, Brown Book Group|isbn=978-0-349-14218-0|quote=With Aurmuzd, Sroshard, Narasa and Mihr, we are on safer ground because all are Zoroastrian deities: Aurmuzd is the supreme god of light, Ahura Mazda; and Mihr, the sun god, is linked with the Iranian Mithra. Exactly the same non-Buddhist[...]}}</ref> [[Hinduism]], Christianity,<ref>{{cite book|last1=Gorder|first1=A. Christian Van|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=FeHAxxEpe-cC&q=nestorian+christians+Afghanistan&pg=PA34|title=Christianity in Persia and the Status of Non-muslims in Iran|date=2010|publisher=Rowman & Littlefield|isbn=978-0-7391-3609-6}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last1=Kennedy|first1=Hugh|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Pk7BS9XC10QC&q=Zaranj+christians+Afghanistan&pg=PT127|title=The Great Arab Conquests: How the Spread of Islam Changed the World We Live In|date=9 December 2010|publisher=Orion|isbn=978-0-297-86559-9|quote=.. when the patriarch at Ctesiphon had to broker a compromise that left one bishop at the capital Zaranj and another further east at Bust, now in southern Afghanistan. A Christian text composed in about 850 also records a monastery of ...}}</ref> and Judaism.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Yossef|first1=Noam Bar'am-Ben|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=wVMwAAAAYAAJ&q=Judaism+in+Afghanistan+ghor|title=Brides and Betrothals: Jewish Wedding Rituals in Afghanistan|date=1998|publisher=Israel Museum|isbn=978-965-278-223-6|quote=The Jews of Afghanistan According to tradition, the first Jews reached ... in Hebrew script found in the Tang - e Azao Valley in the Ghor region ...}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last1=Ende|first1=Werner|title=Islam in the World Today: A Handbook of Politics, Religion, Culture, and Society|last2=Steinbach|first2=Udo|date=15 April 2010|publisher=Cornell University Press|isbn=9780801464898|page=257|quote=At the time of the first Muslim advances, numerous local natural religions were competing with Buddhism, Zoroastrianism, and Hinduism in the territory of modern Afghanistan.}}</ref> An exemplification of the syncretism in the region would be that people were patrons of Buddhism but still worshipped local Iranian gods such as [[Ahura Mazda]], [[Nana (Kushan goddess)|Lady Nana]], [[Anahita]] or [[Mithra|Mihr (Mithra)]] and portrayed [[Greek mythology|Greek gods]] as protectors of Buddha.<ref>{{Cite book|last1=Adrych|first1=Philippa|url=|title=Images of Mithra|last2=coins)|first2=Robert Bracey (Writer on|last3=Dalglish|first3=Dominic|last4=Lenk|first4=Stefanie|last5=Wood|first5=Rachel|date=2017|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=978-0-19-879253-6|quote=The Rabatak inscription includes Miiro amongst a list of gods: Nana, Ahura Mazda, and Narasa. All of these gods likely had images dedicated at the Bagolaggo, presumably alongside statues of Kanishka}}</ref><ref name="Allen"/><ref>{{Cite book|last=Allen|first=Charles|url=|title=The Search For Shangri-La: A Journey into Tibetan History|date=5 November 2015|publisher=Little, Brown Book Group|isbn=978-0-349-14218-0|quote=The two most important deities are goddesses: one is the lady Nana', daughter of the moon god and sister of the sun god, the Kushan form of Anahita, Zoroastrian goddess of fertility}}</ref> The [[Zunbils]] and Kabul Shahi were first conquered in 870&nbsp;CE by the [[Saffarid dynasty|Saffarid]] Muslims of Zaranj. Later, the [[Samanids]] extended their Islamic influence south of the Hindu Kush. The [[Ghaznavids]] rose to power in the 10th century.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://persian.packhum.org/persian/pf?file=80201012&ct=98 |title=A.—The Hindu Kings of Kábul |work=Sir H. M. Elliot |publisher=[[Packard Humanities Institute]] |location=London |date=1867–1877 |access-date=18 September 2010|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140408220905/http://persian.packhum.org/persian/pf?file=80201012&ct=98 |archive-date=8 April 2014}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://persian.packhum.org/persian/pf?file=16301012&ct=16 |title=The Geographical Part of the NUZHAT-AL-QULUB |author =Hamd-Allah Mustawfi of Qazwin |work=Translated by Guy Le Strange |publisher=[[Packard Humanities Institute]] |year=1340 |access-date=19 August 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130726144951/http://persian.packhum.org/persian/pf?file=16301012&ct=16 |archive-date=26 July 2013}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://persian.packhum.org/persian/pf?file=80201012&ct=100 |title=A.—The Hindu Kings of Kábul (p.3) |work=Sir H. M. Elliot |publisher=[[Packard Humanities Institute]] |location=London |date=1867–1877 |access-date=18 September 2010|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130726133107/http://persian.packhum.org/persian/pf?file=80201012&ct=100 |archive-date=26 July 2013}}</ref>

By the 11th century, [[Mahmud of Ghazni]] had defeated the remaining Hindu rulers and effectively [[Islamized]] the wider region,{{sfn|Ewans|2002|page=22–23}} with the exception of [[Kafiristan]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://nuristan.info/Nuristani/Nuristanis1.html|title=Richard Strand's Nuristân Site: Peoples and Languages of Nuristan|author=Richard F. Strand|date=31 December 2005|work=nuristan.info|author-link=Richard Strand|access-date=2 June 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190401180243/http://nuristan.info/Nuristani/Nuristanis1.html|archive-date=1 April 2019|url-status=live}}</ref> Mahmud made [[Ghazni]] into an important city and patronized intellectuals such as the historian [[Al-Biruni]] and the poet [[Ferdowsi]].<ref>{{cite book|title=Afghanistan: A Country Study|date=1986|publisher=Foreign Area Studies, The American University|editor1=Richard Nyrop|editor2=Donald Seekins|page=10}}</ref> The [[Ghaznavid dynasty]] was [[Siege of Lahore (1186)|overthrown by the Ghurids in 1186]], whose architectural achievements included the remote [[Minaret of Jam]]. The Ghurids controlled Afghanistan for less than a century before being conquered by the [[Khwarazmian dynasty]] in 1215.{{sfn|Ewans|2002|page=23}}

[[File:Genghis Khan empire-en.svg|thumb|upright=1.2|[[Mongol invasions and conquests]]]]

In 1219 CE, [[Genghis Khan]] and his [[Mongol invasion of the Khwarazmian Empire|Mongol army overran the region]]. His troops are said to have annihilated the Khwarazmian cities of [[Herat]] and [[Balkh]] as well as [[Bamyan, Afghanistan|Bamyan]].<ref>{{cite web |url=https://faculty.washington.edu/modelski/CAWC.htm |title=Central Asian world cities |publisher=Faculty.washington.edu |date=29 September 2007 |access-date=6 May 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130723185841/https://faculty.washington.edu/modelski/CAWC.htm |archive-date=23 July 2013}}</ref> The destruction caused by the Mongols forced many locals to return to an agrarian rural society.<ref>{{cite news |last=Page |first=Susan |url=https://www.usatoday.com/news/world/2009-02-17-afghanistan-forces_N.htm |title=Obama's war: Deploying 17,000 raises stakes in Afghanistan |work=[[USA Today]] |date=18 February 2009 |access-date=19 May 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110513040037/http://www.usatoday.com/news/world/2009-02-17-afghanistan-forces_N.htm |archive-date=13 May 2011 |url-status=live}}</ref> Mongol rule continued with the [[Ilkhanate]] in the northwest while the [[Khalji dynasty]] administered the Afghan tribal areas south of the Hindu Kush until the invasion of [[Timur]] (aka Tamerlane), who established the [[Timurid Empire]] in 1370. Under the rule of [[Shah Rukh]], the city of Herat<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Dale |first=Stephen Frederic |year=1998 |title=The Legacy of the Timurids |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/25183465 |journal=Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society |volume=8 |issue=1 |pages=43–58 |doi=10.1017/S1356186300016424 |jstor=25183465 |s2cid=154120015 |issn=1356-1863 |access-date=26 November 2023 |archive-date=26 November 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231126185502/https://www.jstor.org/stable/25183465 |url-status=live }}</ref> served as the focal point of the [[Timurid Renaissance]], whose glory matched [[Florence]] of the [[Italian Renaissance]] as the center of a cultural rebirth.<ref>Periods of World History: A Latin American Perspective – Page 129</ref><ref>The Empire of the Steppes: A History of Central Asia – Page 465</ref>

In the early 16th century [[Babur]] arrived from [[Ferghana]] and captured Kabul from the [[Arghun dynasty]].{{sfn|Barfield|2012|pp=92–93}} [[Babur]] would go on to conquer the Afghan [[Lodi dynasty]] who had ruled the Delhi Sultanate in the [[First Battle of Panipat]].{{sfn|Barfield|2012|pp=75}} Between the 16th and 18th century, the Uzbek [[Khanate of Bukhara]], Iranian [[Safavids]], and Indian [[Mughals]] ruled parts of the territory.{{sfn|Dupree|1997|pp=319, 321}} During the medieval period, the northwestern area of Afghanistan was referred to by the regional name [[Greater Khorasan|Khorasan]], which was commonly used up to the 19th century among natives to describe their country.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ziaeDwAAQBAJ&q=elphinstone+khorasan&pg=PA128|title=Mountstuart Elphinstone in South Asia: Pioneer of British Colonial Rule|first=Shah Mahmoud|last=Hanifi|date=15 July 2019|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=9780190914400}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=cJQ3AAAAIAAJ |chapter=Khurasan |title=The Encyclopaedia of Islam |page=55 |quote=In pre-Islamic and early Islamic times, the term "Khurassan" frequently had a much wider denotation, covering also parts of what are now Soviet Central Asia and Afghanistan |publisher=Brill |year=2009 |access-date=20 June 2015 |archive-date=25 February 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240225074807/https://books.google.com/books?id=cJQ3AAAAIAAJ |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite book |title=Travels in Asia and Africa, 1325–1354 |last1=Ibn Battuta |edition=reprint, illustrated |year=2004 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-0-415-34473-9 |page=416 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=zKqn_CWTxYEC&pg=PA180|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170416132656/https://books.google.com/books?id=zKqn_CWTxYEC&pg=PA180 |archive-date=16 April 2017 |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |chapter-url=http://persian.packhum.org/persian/pf?file=80201016&ct=199 |title=The History of India |volume=6 |chapter=Chapter 200: Translation of the Introduction to Firishta's History |page=8 |access-date=22 August 2010 |author=Muhammad Qasim Hindu Shah |others=Sir H. M. Elliot |publisher=Packard Humanities Institute |location=London |year=1560|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130726121158/http://persian.packhum.org/persian/pf?file=80201016&ct=199 |archive-date=26 July 2013 |author-link=Firishta}}</ref>

===Hotak dynasty===
{{Main|Hotak dynasty}}
[[File:Mapofthehotaks1728.png|thumb|upright=1.2|Map of the Hotak Empire at its height in 1728, disputed between [[Hussain Hotak]] (centered in Kandahar) and [[Ashraf Hotak]] (centered in Isfahan)]]

In 1709, [[Mirwais Hotak]], a local [[Ghilzai]] tribal leader, successfully rebelled against the [[Safavid dynasty|Safavids]]. He defeated [[Gurgin Khan]], the Georgian governor of Kandahar under the Safavids, and established his own kingdom.<ref name="Browne">{{cite web|url=http://persian.packhum.org/persian/main?url=pf%3Ffile%3D90001014%26ct%3D29 |title=A Literary History of Persia, Volume 4: Modern Times (1500–1924), Chapter IV. An Outline of the History Of Persia During The Last Two Centuries (A.D. 1722–1922) |author=Edward G. Browne |publisher=[[Packard Humanities Institute]] |access-date=9 September 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130726142425/http://persian.packhum.org/persian/main?url=pf%3Ffile%3D90001014&ct=29 |archive-date=26 July 2013 |url-status=dead}}</ref> Mirwais died in 1715, and was succeeded by his brother [[Abdul Aziz Hotak|Abdul Aziz]], who was soon killed by Mirwais's son [[Mahmud Hotak|Mahmud]] for possibly planning to sign a peace with the Safavids. Mahmud led the Afghan army in 1722 to the Persian capital of [[Isfahan]], and captured the city after the [[Battle of Gulnabad]] and proclaimed himself King of Persia.<ref name="Browne" /> The Afghan dynasty was ousted from Persia by [[Nader Shah]] after the 1729 [[Battle of Damghan (1729)|Battle of Damghan]].

In 1738, [[Nader Shah]] and his [[Afsharid dynasty|forces]] captured Kandahar in the [[siege of Kandahar]], the last Hotak stronghold, from Shah [[Hussain Hotak]]. Soon after, the Persian and Afghan forces [[Nader Shah's invasion of India|invaded India]], Nader Shah had plundered Delhi, alongside his 16-year-old commander, [[Ahmad Shah Durrani]] who had assisted him on these campaigns. Nader Shah was assassinated in 1747.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia |url=https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/10162/Ahmad-Shah-Durrani |title=Ahmad Shah Durrani |encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica Online |access-date=9 September 2010|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140404104909/https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/10162/Ahmad-Shah-Durrani |archive-date=4 April 2014}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.marxists.org/archive/marx/works/1857/afghanistan/index.htm |title=Afghanistan |access-date=25 August 2010 |author =Friedrich Engels |work=[[Andy Blunden]] |publisher=The New American Cyclopaedia, Vol. I |year=1857|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140427034439/http://www.marxists.org/archive/marx/works/1857/afghanistan/index.htm |archive-date=27 April 2014 |author-link=Friedrich Engels}}</ref>

===Durrani Empire===
{{Main|Durrani Empire|Ahmad Shah Durrani}}

After the death of Nader Shah in 1747, [[Ahmad Shah Durrani]] had returned to Kandahar with a contingent of 4,000 [[Pashtuns]]. The Abdalis had "unanimously accepted" Ahmad Shah as their new leader. With his ascension in 1747, Ahmad Shah had led multiple campaigns against the [[Mughal empire]], [[Maratha empire]], and then-receding [[Afsharid Iran|Afsharid empire]]. Ahmad Shah had captured [[Kabul]] and [[Peshawar]] from the Mughal appointed governor, Nasir Khan. Ahmad Shah had then conquered [[Herat]] in 1750, and had also captured [[Kashmir]] in 1752.<ref>{{cite book | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=s5KMCwAAQBAJ&q=durrani+capture+kashmir&pg=PA43 | title=Understanding Kashmir and Kashmiris| isbn=9781849043427| last1=Snedden| first1=Christopher| year=2015| publisher=Oxford University Press}}</ref> Ahmad Shah had launched two campaigns into [[Greater Khorasan|Khorasan]], 1750–1751 and 1754–1755.<ref>{{cite book|last=Noelle-Karimi|first=Christine|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Kdl9oAEACAAJ|title=The Pearl in Its Midst: Herat and the Mapping of Khurasan (15th–19th Centuries)|date=2014|publisher=Austrian Academy of Sciences Press|isbn=978-3-7001-7202-4}}</ref> His first campaign had seen the siege of [[Mashhad]], however, he was forced to retreat after four months. In November 1750, he moved to siege [[Khanate of Nishapur|Nishapur]], but he was unable to capture the city and was forced to retreat in early 1751. [[Durrani Campaign to Khorasan (1754-55)|Ahmad Shah returned in 1754]]; he captured [[Ferdows|Tun]], and on 23 July, he sieged [[Mashhad]] once again. Mashhad had fallen on 2 December, but [[Shahrokh Shah|Shahrokh]] was [[Afsharid Iran|reappointed]] in 1755. He was forced to give up [[Torshiz]], [[Bakharz]], [[Torbat-e Jam|Jam]], [[Khaf, Iran|Khaf]], and [[Torbat-e Heydarieh|Turbat-e Haidari]] to the Afghans, as well as accept Afghan sovereignty. Following this, Ahmad Shah sieged [[Khanate of Nishapur|Nishapur]] once again, and captured it.

Ahmad Shah [[Indian campaign of Ahmad Shah Durrani|invaded India eight times]] during his reign,{{sfn|Mehta|p=248}} beginning in 1748. Crossing the Indus River, his armies sacked and absorbed [[Lahore]] into the [[Durrani Empire|Durrani Realm]]. He met Mughal armies at the [[Battle of Manupur (1748)]], where he was defeated and forced to retreat back to Afghanistan.<ref>{{Google books |id=NbUB_ACAR5QC |page=509 |title=History of Islam}}</ref> He returned the next year in 1749 and captured the area around [[Lahore]] and [[Punjab]], presenting it as an Afghan victory for this campaign.{{sfn|Lee|2019|p=122-123}} From 1749 to 1767, Ahmad Shah led six more invasions, the most important being the last; the [[Third Battle of Panipat]] created a power vacuum in northern India, halting [[Maratha Empire|Maratha]] expansion.

[[File:Portrait of Ahmad-Shah Durrani. Mughal miniature. ca. 1757, Bibliothèque nationale de France.jpg|thumb|left|Portrait of [[Ahmad Shah Durrani]] {{Circa|1757}}]]

Ahmad Shah Durrani died in October 1772, and a civil war over succession followed, with his named successor, [[Timur Shah Durrani]] succeeding him after the defeat of his brother, Suleiman Mirza.{{sfn|Lee|2019|p=149}} Timur Shah Durrani ascended to the throne in November 1772, having defeated a coalition under Shah Wali Khan and Humayun Mirza. Timur Shah began his reign by consolidating power toward himself and people loyal to him, purging Durrani Sardars and influential tribal leaders in [[Kabul]] and [[Kandahar]]. One of Timur Shah's reforms was to move the capital of the [[Durrani Empire]] from [[Kandahar]] to [[Kabul]]. Timur Shah fought multiple series of rebellions to consolidate the empire, and he also led campaigns into [[Punjab]] against the Sikhs like his father, though more successfully. The most prominent example of his battles during this campaign was when he led his forces under Zangi Khan Durrani – with over 18,000 men total of Afghan, Qizilbash, and Mongol cavalrymen – against over 60,000 Sikh men. The Sikhs lost over 30,000 in this battle and staged a Durrani resurgence in the [[Punjab]] region<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Muhammad Katib Hazarah |first1=Fayz |title=The History Of Afghanistan Fayż Muḥammad Kātib Hazārah's Sirāj Al Tawārīkh By R. D. Mcchesney, M. M. Khorrami |journal=AAF |year=2012 |page=131 |url=https://archive.org/details/the-history-of-afghanistan-fayz-muhammad-katib-hazarahs-siraj-al-tawarikh-by-r.-/page/n63/mode/2up?view=theater |access-date=11 November 2021}}</ref> The Durranis lost [[Multan]] in 1772 after Ahmad Shah's death. Following this victory, Timur Shah was able to lay siege to [[Multan]] and recapture it,<ref>{{cite thesis |last1=Muhammad Khan |first1=Ashiq |title=THE LAST PHASE OF MUSLIM RULE IN MULTAN (1752–1818) |year=1998 |issue=1 |page=159 |publisher=University of Multan, MULTAN |url=http://prr.hec.gov.pk/jspui/handle/123456789/5209 |access-date=4 December 2021 |type=Thesis |archive-date=4 December 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211204042026/http://prr.hec.gov.pk/jspui/handle/123456789/5209 |url-status=dead}}</ref> incorporating it into the Durrani Empire once again, reintegrating it as a province until the [[Siege of Multan (1818)]]. Timur Shah was succeeded by his son [[Zaman Shah Durrani]] after his death in May 1793. Timur Shah's reign oversaw the attempted stabilization and consolidation of the empire. However, Timur Shah had over 24 sons, which plunged the empire in civil war over succession crises.{{sfn|Lee|2019|p=155}}

[[Zaman Shah Durrani]] succeeded to the [[Durrani Empire|Durrani Throne]] following the death of his father, Timur Shah Durrani. His brothers [[Mahmud Shah Durrani]] and Humayun Mirza revolted against him, with Humayun centered in [[Kandahar]] and Mahmud Shah centered in [[Herat]].{{sfn|Lee|2019|p=158}} Zaman Shah would defeat Humayun and force the loyalty of Mahmud Shah Durrani.{{sfn|Lee|2019|p=158}} Securing his position on the throne, Zaman Shah led three campaigns into [[Punjab]]. The first two campaigns captured [[Lahore]], but he retreated due to intel about a possible [[Qajar Iran|Qajar]] invasion. Zaman Shah embarked on his third campaign for [[Punjab]] in 1800 to deal with a rebellious Ranjit Singh.{{sfn|Lee|2019|p=162}} However, he was forced to withdraw, and Zaman Shah's reign was ended by Mahmud Shah Durrani.{{sfn|Lee|2019|p=162}} However, just under two years into his reign, Mahmud Shah Durrani was deposed by his brother [[Shah Shuja Durrani]] on 13 July 1803.{{sfn|Lee|2019|p=166}} Shah Shuja attempted to consolidate the [[Durrani Empire|Durrani Realm]] but was deposed by his brother at the [[Battle of Nimla (1809)]].{{sfn|Lee|2019|p=172}} Mahmud Shah Durrani defeated Shah Shuja and forced him to flee, usurping the throne again. His second reign began on 3 May 1809.{{sfn|Lee|2019|p=176}}

===Barakzai dynasty and British wars===
{{Further|Dost Mohammad Khan|Herat (1793–1863)|Maimana Khanate|Principality of Qandahar|European influence in Afghanistan|Anglo-Afghan Wars|Durand Line|Afghan Civil War (1928–1929)}}
[[File:Map of Afghanistan March 1839.png|thumb|300px|Map of Afghanistan ([[Emirate of Afghanistan|Emirate]]) and surrounding nations in 1839, during the [[First Anglo-Afghan War]]. [[Dost Mohammad Khan]]'s realm can be seen as the Emirate of Kabul, with the [[Principality of Qandahar]] and the [[Emirate of Herat]] seen as well.]]

By the early 19th century, the Afghan empire was under threat from the [[Qajar dynasty|Persians]] in the west and the [[Sikh Empire]] in the east. [[Fateh Khan Barakzai|Fateh Khan]], leader of the [[Barakzai dynasty|Barakzai tribe]], installed many of his brothers in positions of power throughout the empire. Fateh Khan was [[Torture and Execution of Fateh Khan Barakzai|brutally murdered]] in 1818 by [[Mahmud Shah Durrani|Mahmud Shah]]. As a result, the brothers of Fateh Khan and the [[Barakzai]] tribe rebelled, and a civil war brewed. During this turbulent period, Afghanistan fractured into many states, including the [[Principality of Qandahar]], [[Herat (1793–1863)|Emirate of Herat]], [[Kunduz Khanate|Khanate of Qunduz]], [[Maimana Khanate]], and numerous other warring polities. The most prominent state was the [[Emirate of Afghanistan|Emirate of Kabul]], ruled by [[Dost Mohammad Khan]].<ref>{{cite book |title=Afghanistan: A Military History from Alexander the Great to the War against the Taliban |last=Tanner |first=Stephen |year=2009 |publisher=Da Capo Press |isbn=978-0-306-81826-4 |url={{Google books |plainurl=yes |id=J3pUS_-uD-oC |page=126}} |page=126}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|last=Lee|first=Jonathan L.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=kSWDDwAAQBAJ|title=Afghanistan: A History from 1260 to the Present|date=15 January 2019|publisher=Reaktion Books|isbn=978-1-78914-010-1}}</ref>

With the collapse of the Durrani Empire, and the exile of the [[Durrani dynasty|Sadozai Dynasty]] to be left to rule in [[Herat (1793–1863)|Herat]], Punjab and Kashmir were lost to [[Ranjit Singh]], ruler of the [[Sikh Empire]], who invaded [[Khyber Pakhtunkhwa]] in March 1823 and captured the city of [[Peshawar]] following the [[Battle of Nowshera]]. In 1834, Dost Mohammad Khan led numerous campaigns, firstly [[Dost Mohammad's Campaign to Jalalabad (1834)|campaigning to Jalalabad]], and then allying with his rival brothers in [[Principality of Qandahar|Kandahar]] to defeat [[Shah Shuja Durrani]] and the British in the [[Expedition of Shuja ul-Mulk]].{{sfn|Lee|2019|p=205}} In 1837, Dost Mohammad Khan attempted to conquer Peshawar and sent a large force under his son [[Wazir Akbar Khan]], leading to the [[Battle of Jamrud]]. [[Wazir Akbar Khan|Akbar Khan]] and the Afghan army failed to capture the [[Jamrud Fort]] from the [[Sikh Khalsa Army]], but killed Sikh Commander [[Hari Singh Nalwa]], thus ending the [[Afghan-Sikh Wars]]. By this time the British were advancing from the east, capitalizing off of the decline of the Sikh Empire after it had its own period of turbulence following the death of [[Ranjit Singh]], which engaged the [[Emirate of Afghanistan|Emirate of Kabul]] in the [[First Anglo-Afghan War|first major conflict]] during "[[The Great Game]]".<ref>{{cite book |title=History of Civilizations of Central Asia: Development in contrast: from the sixteenth to the mid-nineteenth century |last=Chahryar |first=Adle |year=2003 |publisher=UNESCO |isbn=978-92-3-103876-1 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=AzG5llo3YCMC&pg=PA296|page=296}}</ref>

[[File:Afghan foot soldiers in 1841.jpg|thumb|[[Pashtun tribes|Afghan tribesmen]] in 1841, painted by British officer [[James Rattray]]]]

In 1839 a [[British Army|British]] expeditionary force marched into Afghanistan, invading the [[Principality of Qandahar]], and in August 1839, seized [[Kabul]]. Dost Mohammad Khan defeated the British in the [[Parwan Campaign (1840)|Parwan campaign]], but surrendered following his victory. He was replaced with the former Durrani ruler [[Shah Shuja Durrani]] as the new [[List of heads of state of Afghanistan|ruler]] of [[Kabul]], a de facto puppet of the British.<ref>{{cite journal|jstor=40105749 |url=http://pahar.in/wpfb-file/1980-great-britains-great-game-an-introduction-by-ingram-from-intl-hist-rev-v2-s-pdf/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160816181410/http://pahar.in/wpfb-file/1980-great-britains-great-game-an-introduction-by-ingram-from-intl-hist-rev-v2-s-pdf/ |archive-date=16 August 2016 |title=Great Britain's Great Game: An Introduction |last1=Ingram |first1=Edward |journal=The International History Review |volume=2 |issue=2 |pages=160–171 |year=1980 |doi=10.1080/07075332.1980.9640210}}</ref><ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=Fr9cAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA11 In Defence of British India: Great Britain in the Middle East, 1775–1842] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170106130452/https://books.google.com/books?id=Fr9cAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA11 |date=6 January 2017}} By Edward Ingram. Frank Cass & Co, London, 1984. {{ISBN|0714632465}}. p7-19</ref> Following an uprising that saw the assassination of [[Shah Shuja Durrani|Shah Shuja]], the [[1842 retreat from Kabul]] of British-Indian forces and the [[1842 retreat from Kabul|annihilation]] of [[William George Keith Elphinstone|Elphinstone]]'s army, and the punitive expedition of [[Battle of Kabul (1842)|The Battle of Kabul]] that led to its sacking, the British gave up on their attempts to try to subjugate Afghanistan, allowing Dost Mohammad Khan to return as ruler. Following this, Dost Mohammad pursued a myriad of campaigns to unite most of Afghanistan in his reign, launching numerous incursions including against the surrounding states such as the [[Hazarajat Campaign of 1843|Hazarajat campaign]], [[Afghan Conquest of Balkh|conquest of Balkh]], [[Afghan Conquest of Kunduz|conquest of Kunduz]], and the [[conquest of Kandahar]]. Dost Mohammad led his final campaign against [[Herat (1793–1863)|Herat]], conquering it and re-uniting Afghanistan. During his campaigns of re-unification, he held friendly relations with the British despite the First Anglo-Afghan War, and affirmed their status in the [[Second Anglo-Afghan Treaty (1857)|Second Anglo-Afghan treaty]] of 1857, while [[Emirate of Bukhara|Bukhara]] and internal religious leaders pressured Dost Mohammad to invade India during the [[Indian Rebellion of 1857]].<ref>{{Cite book|last=Lee|first=Jonathan L.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=nYaamE_3kD4C|title=The "Ancient Supremacy": Bukhara, Afghanistan and the Battle for Balkh, 1731–1901|date=1 January 1996|publisher=BRILL|isbn=978-90-04-10399-3|page=257}}</ref>

Dost Mohammad died in June 1863, a few weeks after his successful [[Herat campaign of 1862–1863|campaign]] to Herat. Following his death, a civil war ensued among his sons, prominently [[Mohammad Afzal Khan]], [[Mohammad Azam Khan]], and [[Sher Ali Khan]]. Sher Ali won the resulting [[Afghan Civil War (1863–1869)]] and ruled Afghanistan until his death in 1879. In his final years, the British returned to Afghanistan in the [[Second Anglo-Afghan War]] to fight perceived Russian influence in the region. Sher Ali retreated to northern Afghanistan, intending to create a resistance there similar to his predecessors, Dost Mohammad Khan, and Wazir Akbar Khan. His untimely death however, saw [[Mohammad Yaqub Khan|Yaqub Khan]] declared the new Amir, leading to Britain gaining control of Afghanistan's foreign relations as part of the [[Treaty of Gandamak]] of 1879, making it an official [[British Protectorate|British Protected State]].{{sfn|Lee|2019|p=359-366}}<ref>{{cite web |last1=Onley |first1=James |title=The Raj Reconsidered: British India's Informal Empire and Spheres of Influence in Asia and Africa |date=March 2009 |volume=XL |publisher=Routledge |id=Page 9 of URL/Page 52 |url=https://socialsciences.exeter.ac.uk/iais/downloads/Onley_Raj_Reconsidered.pdf |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/https://socialsciences.exeter.ac.uk/iais/downloads/Onley_Raj_Reconsidered.pdf |archive-date=9 October 2022 |url-status=live |access-date=18 September 2021}}</ref> [[Siege of the British Residency in Kabul|An uprising]] however, re-started the conflict, and Yaqub Khan was deposed. During this tumultuous period, [[Abdur Rahman Khan]] began his rise to power, becoming an eligible candidate to become Amir after he seized [[Second Anglo-Afghan War#Exploits of Abdur Rahman Khan|much of Northern Afghanistan]]. Abdur Rahman marched on [[Kabul]], and was declared Amir, being recognized by the British as well. Another uprising by [[Ayub Khan (Emir of Afghanistan)|Ayub Khan]] threatened the British, where rebels confronted and defeated British forces in the [[Battle of Maiwand]]. Following up on his victory, Ayub Khan unsuccessfully [[Battle of Kandahar (1880)|besieged Kandahar]], and his decisive defeat saw the end of the Second Anglo-Afghan War, with Abdur Rahman secured firmly as Amir.{{sfn|Lee|2019|p=376-383}} In 1893, Abdur Rahman signed an agreement in which the ethnic [[Pashtun]] and [[Baloch people|Baloch]] territories were divided by the [[Durand Line]], which forms the modern-day border between Pakistan and Afghanistan. [[Shia Islam in Afghanistan|Shia]]-dominated [[Hazarajat]] and pagan [[Kafiristan]] remained politically independent until being [[Muslim conquests of Afghanistan|conquered]] by Abdur Rahman Khan in 1891–1896. He was known as the "Iron Amir" for his features and his ruthless methods against tribes.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://reliefweb.int/report/afghanistan/afghan-women-hope-more-gains-under-new-administration|title=Afghan Women Hope for More Gains Under New Administration – Afghanistan|website=ReliefWeb|date=22 October 2014|access-date=14 June 2020|archive-date=22 August 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210822163517/https://reliefweb.int/report/afghanistan/afghan-women-hope-more-gains-under-new-administration|url-status=live}}</ref> He died in 1901, succeeded by his son, [[Habibullah Khan]].{{blockquote|How can a small power like Afghanistan, which is like a goat between these lions [Britain and Russia] or a grain of wheat between two strong millstones of the grinding mill, stand in the midway of the stones without being ground to dust?|author=[[Abdur Rahman Khan]], the "Iron Amir", in 1900<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://countrystudies.us/afghanistan/2.htm |title=Afghanistan – HISTORY|website=Country Studies US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=REwmr2bFYfkC&pg=PA2 |title=Afghanistan: The Soviet Invasion in Perspective |isbn=9780817982133 |last1=Arnold |first1=Anthony |date=June 1985 |publisher=Hoover Press}}</ref>}}

During the [[First World War]], when Afghanistan was neutral, Habibullah Khan was met by officials of the central powers in the [[Niedermayer–Hentig Expedition]]. They called on Afghanistan to declare full independence from the United Kingdom, join them and attack British India, as part of the [[Hindu–German Conspiracy]]. The effort to bring Afghanistan into the Central Powers failed, but it sparked discontent among the population about maintaining neutrality with the British. Habibullah was assassinated in February 1919, and [[Amanullah Khan]] eventually assumed power. A staunch supporter of the 1915–1916 expeditions, Amanullah Khan invaded British India, beginning the [[Third Anglo-Afghan War]], and entering British India via the [[Khyber Pass]].<ref>{{Cite journal|title=Afghanistan in the Great War|first=Christopher|last=Wyatt|date=2 September 2015|journal=Asian Affairs|volume=46|issue=3|pages=387–410|doi=10.1080/03068374.2015.1081001|s2cid = 159788830}}</ref>

[[File:King Amanullah standing.jpg|thumb|upright|[[Amanullah Khan]] proclaimed himself [[King of Afghanistan]] in June 1926.]]

After the end of the Third Anglo-Afghan War and the signing of the [[Anglo-Afghan Treaty of 1919|Treaty of Rawalpindi]] on 19 August 1919, [[Emir of Afghanistan|Emir]] Amanullah Khan declared the [[Emirate of Afghanistan]] a [[sovereign state|sovereign]] and fully [[independent state]]. He moved to end his country's traditional isolation by establishing diplomatic relations with the international community, particularly with the [[Soviet Union]] and the [[Weimar Republic]].<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Pj8DIT_bva0C&pg=PA42|title=The Origins of Conflict in Afghanistan|first=Jeffery J.|last=Roberts|date=14 June 2003|publisher=Greenwood Publishing Group|isbn=9780275978785}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|title='Drang Nach Osten' Continued? Germany and Afghanistan during the Weimar Republic|last=Nicosia |first= Francis R.|year=1997|journal=Journal of Contemporary History|volume=32|issue=2|pages=235–257|doi = 10.1177/002200949703200207|jstor = 261243|s2cid = 160565967}}</ref> He proclaimed himself [[King of Afghanistan]] on 9 June 1926, forming the [[Kingdom of Afghanistan]]. He introduced several reforms intended to modernize his nation. A key force behind these reforms was [[Mahmud Tarzi]], an ardent supporter of the education of women. He fought for Article 68 of Afghanistan's 1923 [[constitution of Afghanistan|constitution]], which made elementary education compulsory. [[Slavery]] was abolished in 1923.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia | year = 1976| volume = 25| encyclopedia = [[Encyclopedia Americana]]|publisher=Americana Corporation | page = 24 |title=Afghanistan }}</ref> King Amanullah's wife, [[Soraya Tarzi|Queen Soraya]], was an important figure during this period in the fight for woman's education and against their oppression.<ref>{{Cite news|date=10 September 2020|title=Queen Soraya of Afghanistan: A woman ahead of her time|url=https://arab.news/5hdva|access-date=3 July 2021|website=Arab News|archive-date=30 August 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210830214955/https://www.arabnews.com/node/1732666/world|url-status=live}}</ref>

Some of the reforms, such as the abolition of the traditional [[burqa]] for women and the opening of co-educational schools, alienated many tribal and religious leaders, leading to the [[Afghan Civil War (1928–1929)]]. King Amanullah abdicated in January 1929, and soon after Kabul fell to [[Saqqawist]] forces led by [[Habibullah Kalakani]].<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=A4_jAAAAMAAJ|title=Kabul under siege: Fayz Muhammad's account of the 1929 Uprising|last1=Muḥammad|first1=Fayz̤|last2=McChesney|first2=R. D.|date=1999|publisher=Markus Wiener Publishers|isbn=9781558761544|pages=39, 40|access-date=15 June 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190404143046/https://books.google.nl/books?id=A4_jAAAAMAAJ|archive-date=4 April 2019|url-status=live}}</ref> [[Mohammed Nadir Shah]], Amanullah's cousin, defeated and killed Kalakani in October 1929, and was declared King Nadir Shah.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=A4_jAAAAMAAJ|title=Kabul under siege: Fayz Muhammad's account of the 1929 Uprising|last1=Muḥammad|first1=Fayz̤|last2=McChesney|first2=R. D.|date=1999|publisher=Markus Wiener Publishers|isbn=9781558761544|pages=275, 276|access-date=15 June 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190404143046/https://books.google.nl/books?id=A4_jAAAAMAAJ|archive-date=4 April 2019|url-status=live}}</ref> He abandoned the reforms of King Amanullah in favor of a more gradual approach to modernization, but was assassinated in 1933 by [[Abdul Khaliq Hazara (assassin)|Abdul Khaliq]].<ref>{{cite book |title=Culture and customs of Afghanistan |last1=Hafizullah |first1=Emadi |year=2005 |publisher=Greenwood Publishing Group |isbn=0-313-33089-1 |page=35 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=bY8ck6iktikC&pg=PA35 |access-date=31 May 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170225052702/https://books.google.com/books?id=bY8ck6iktikC&lpg=PP1&pg=PA35 |archive-date=25 February 2017 |url-status=live }}</ref>

Mohammed Zahir Shah succeeded to the throne and reigned as king from 1933 to 1973. During the [[Afghan tribal revolts of 1944–1947|tribal revolts of 1944–1947]], King Zahir's reign was challenged by [[Zadran (Pashtun tribe)|Zadran]], [[Safi (Pashtun tribe)|Safi]], [[Mangal (Pashtun tribe)|Mangal]], and [[Wazir (Pashtun tribe)|Wazir]] tribesmen led by [[Mazrak Zadran]], [[Salemai]], and [[Faqir Ipi|Mirzali Khan]], among others – many of whom were [[Amanullah loyalist]]s. Afghanistan joined the [[League of Nations]] in 1934. The 1930s saw the development of roads, infrastructure, the founding of a [[Da Afghanistan Bank|national bank]], and increased education. Road links in the north played a large part in a growing cotton and textile industry.<ref name="Eur2002"/> The country built close relationships with the [[Axis powers]], with [[Nazi Germany]] having the largest share in Afghan development at the time.<ref>{{cite book|author=Anthony Hyman|title=Afghanistan under Soviet Domination, 1964–91|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=nvO-DAAAQBAJ&pg=PA46|date=27 July 2016|publisher=Springer|isbn=978-1-349-21948-3|page=46}}</ref>

[[File:Zahir Shah of Afghanistan in 1930s-cropped.jpg|thumb|upright|[[Mohammed Zahir Shah|King Zahir]], the last reigning monarch of Afghanistan, who reigned from 1933 until 1973]]

Until 1946 King Zahir ruled with the assistance of his uncle, who held the post of [[Prime Minister of Afghanistan|prime minister]] and continued the policies of Nadir Shah. Another uncle, [[Shah Mahmud Khan]], became prime minister in 1946 and experimented with allowing greater political freedom. He was replaced in 1953 by [[Mohammed Daoud Khan]], a [[Pashtun]] nationalist who sought the creation of a [[Pashtunistan]], leading to highly tense relations with Pakistan.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.rferl.org/a/1103837.html|title=Afghanistan: History Of 1973 Coup Sheds Light On Relations With Pakistan|access-date=6 July 2019|date=18 July 2003|publisher=Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty|author=Ron Synovitz|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190626230602/https://www.rferl.org/a/1103837.html|archive-date=26 June 2019|url-status=live}}</ref> Daoud Khan pressed for social modernization reforms and sought a closer relationship with the [[Soviet Union]]. Afterward, the [[1964 Constitution of Afghanistan|1964 constitution]] was formed, and the first non-royal prime minister was sworn in.<ref name="Eur2002">{{cite book|author=Eur|title=The Far East and Australasia 2003|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=LclscNCTz9oC&pg=PA62|year=2002|publisher=Psychology Press|isbn=978-1-85743-133-9|page=62}}</ref>

Zahir Shah, like his father Nadir Shah, had a policy of maintaining national independence while pursuing gradual modernization, creating nationalist feeling, and improving relations with the United Kingdom. Afghanistan was neither a participant in [[World War II]] nor aligned with either power bloc in the [[Cold War]]. However, it was a beneficiary of the latter rivalry as both the Soviet Union and the United States vied for influence by building Afghanistan's main highways, airports, and other vital infrastructure. On a per capita basis, Afghanistan received more Soviet [[development aid]] than any other country. In 1973, while the King was in Italy, Daoud Khan launched a [[1973 Afghan coup|bloodless coup]] and became the first [[president of Afghanistan]], abolishing the monarchy.

===Democratic Republic and Soviet war===
{{Main|Democratic Republic of Afghanistan|Soviet–Afghan War|Afghan Civil War (1989–1992)}}
{{Further|History of Afghanistan (1978–1992)}}
[[File:Afgan1987 Gardez UAZ469.jpg|thumb|Soviet troops in [[Gardez]], Afghanistan in 1987]]

In April 1978, the communist [[People's Democratic Party of Afghanistan]] (PDPA) seized power in a bloody coup d'état against then-President [[Mohammed Daoud Khan]], in what is called the [[Saur Revolution]]. The PDPA declared the establishment of the [[Democratic Republic of Afghanistan]], with its first leader named as [[People's Democratic Party of Afghanistan|People's Democratic Party]] General Secretary [[Nur Muhammad Taraki]].{{sfn|Ewans|2002|page=186–88}} This would trigger a series of events that would dramatically turn Afghanistan from a poor and secluded (albeit peaceful) country to a hotbed of international terrorism.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=U0FvDwAAQBAJ&pg=PR16|title=Afghanistan War: A Documentary and Reference Guide|first=Ryan|last=Wadle|date=1 October 2018|publisher=ABC-CLIO|isbn=9781440857478}}</ref> The PDPA initiated various social, symbolic, and land distribution reforms that provoked strong opposition, while also brutally oppressing political dissidents. This caused unrest and quickly expanded into a state of [[Afghan conflict|civil war]] by 1979, waged by guerrilla ''[[mujahideen]]'' (and smaller [[Maoist]] guerrillas) against regime forces countrywide. It quickly turned into a [[proxy war]] as the Pakistani government provided these rebels with covert training centers, the United States [[Operation Cyclone|supported]] them through Pakistan's [[Inter-Services Intelligence]] (ISI),<ref>{{cite book |last=Meher |first=Jagmohan |title=America's Afghanistan War: The Success that Failed |publisher=Gyan Books |year=2004 |pages=68–69, 94 |isbn=978-81-7835-262-6}}</ref> and the [[Soviet Union]] sent thousands of military advisers to support the PDPA regime.<ref>{{cite book |last=Hussain |first=Rizwan |title=Pakistan and the Emergence of Islamic Militancy in Afghanistan |publisher=Ashgate Publishing |year=2005 |pages=108–109 |isbn=978-0-7546-4434-7}}</ref> Meanwhile, there was increasingly hostile friction between the competing factions of the PDPA&nbsp;– the dominant [[Khalq]] and the more moderate [[Parcham]].<ref>{{cite book|title=Afghanistan: A Modern History|publisher=[[I.B.Tauris]]|year=2005|isbn=978-1850438571|last=Rasanayagam |first= Angelo|page=[https://archive.org/details/afghanistan00ange/page/73 73]|url=https://archive.org/details/afghanistan00ange|url-access=registration|access-date=31 May 2019}}</ref>

In October 1979, PDPA General Secretary Taraki was assassinated in an internal coup orchestrated by then-prime minister [[Hafizullah Amin]], who became the new general secretary of the [[People's Democratic Party of Afghanistan|People's Democratic Party]]. The situation in the country deteriorated under Amin, and thousands of people went missing.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/south_asia/83854.stm|title=Afghanistan: 20 years of bloodshed|publisher=[[BBC News]]|date=26 April 1998|access-date=4 July 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190217184807/http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/south_asia/83854.stm|archive-date=17 February 2019|url-status=live}}</ref> Displeased with Amin's government, the [[Soviet Army]] invaded the country in December 1979, heading for Kabul and killing Amin.{{sfn|Barfield|2012|page=234}} A Soviet-organized regime, led by Parcham's [[Babrak Karmal]] but inclusive of both factions (Parcham and Khalq), filled the vacuum. Soviet troops in more substantial numbers were deployed to stabilize Afghanistan under Karmal, marking the beginning of the [[Soviet–Afghan War]].<ref>{{cite book |last=Kalinovsky |first=Artemy M. |title=A Long Goodbye: The Soviet Withdrawal from Afghanistan |publisher=Harvard University Press |year=2011 |pages=25–28 |isbn=978-0-674-05866-8}}</ref> Lasting nine years, the war caused the deaths of between 562,000<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Lacina|first1=Bethany|last2=Gleditsch|first2=Nils Petter|url=http://www.bethanylacina.com/LacinaGleditsch_newdata.pdf|title=Monitoring Trends in Global Combat: A New Dataset of Battle Deaths|journal=European Journal of Population|volume=21|issue=2–3|year=2005|page=154|doi=10.1007/s10680-005-6851-6|s2cid=14344770|access-date=1 March 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141006175909/http://www.bethanylacina.com/LacinaGleditsch_newdata.pdf|archive-date=6 October 2014|url-status=dead}}</ref> and 2&nbsp;million Afghans,<ref>{{cite book|url=http://publishing.cdlib.org/ucpressebooks/view?docId=ft7b69p12h;brand=ucpress|title=The Soviet Invasion and the Afghan Response, 1979–1982|last=Kakar|first=Mohammed|publisher=University of California Press|isbn=9780520208933|quote=The Afghans are among the latest victims of genocide by a superpower. Large numbers of Afghans were killed to suppress resistance to the army of the Soviet Union, which wished to vindicate its client regime and realize its goal in Afghanistan.|date=3 March 1997|access-date=7 January 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170106175142/http://publishing.cdlib.org/ucpressebooks/view?docId=ft7b69p12h;brand=ucpress|archive-date=6 January 2017|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=I2chrSJCW54C&pg=PA129|title=The Widening Circle of Genocide|last=Klass|first=Rosanne|publisher=Transaction Publishers|year=1994|isbn=978-1-4128-3965-5|page=129|quote=During the intervening fourteen years of Communist rule, an estimated 1.5 to 2 million Afghan civilians were killed by Soviet forces and their proxies- the four Communist regimes in Kabul, and the East Germans, Bulgarians, Czechs, Cubans, Palestinians, Indians and others who assisted them. These were not battle casualties or the unavoidable civilian victims of warfare. Soviet and local Communist forces seldom attacked the scattered guerilla bands of the Afghan Resistance except, in a few strategic locales like the Panjsher valley. Instead they deliberately targeted the civilian population, primarily in the rural areas.}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.paulbogdanor.com/left/afghan/genocide.pdf|title=Genocide and the Soviet Occupation of Afghanistan|last1=Reisman|first1=W. Michael|last2=Norchi|first2=Charles H.|access-date=7 January 2017|quote=According to widely reported accounts, substantial programmes of depopulation have been conducted in these Afghan provinces: Ghazni, Nagarhar, Lagham, Qandahar, Zabul, Badakhshan, Lowgar, Paktia, Paktika and Kunar...There is considerable evidence that genocide has been committed against the Afghan people by the combined forces of the Democratic Republic of Afghanistan and the Soviet Union.|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161026182528/http://www.paulbogdanor.com/left/afghan/genocide.pdf|archive-date=26 October 2016|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|url=https://archive.org/details/afghanistansendl00good|url-access=registration|title=Afghanistan's Endless War: State Failure, Regional Politics, and the Rise of the Taliban|last=Goodson|first=Larry P.|publisher=University of Washington Press|year=2001|isbn=978-0-295-98050-8|page=[https://archive.org/details/afghanistansendl00good/page/5 5]}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=vYUzL1qhltA |title=Soldiers of God: Cold War (Part 1/5) |publisher=[[CNN]]|year=1998 |access-date=11 October 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130708042702/http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=vYUzL1qhltA&feature=related |archive-date=8 July 2013 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>[[UNICEF]], [http://www.unicef.org/graca/mines.htm Land-mines: A deadly inheritance] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130805102916/http://www.unicef.org/graca/mines.htm | date=5 August 2013 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.defenseindustrydaily.com/Landmines-in-Afghanistan-A-Decades-Old-Danger-06143/ |title=Landmines in Afghanistan: A Decades Old Danger |publisher=Defenseindustrydaily.com | date=1 February 2010 |access-date=6 May 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140111130437/http://www.defenseindustrydaily.com/Landmines-in-Afghanistan-A-Decades-Old-Danger-06143/ |archive-date=11 January 2014 }}</ref>{{Excessive citations inline|date=October 2021}} and displaced about 6&nbsp;million people who subsequently fled Afghanistan, mainly to [[Afghans in Pakistan|Pakistan]] and [[Afghans in Iran|Iran]].<ref>{{cite web |url=https://2009-2017.state.gov/j/prm/releases/onepagers/202635.htm |title=Refugee Admissions Program for Near East and South Asia |publisher=Bureau of Population, Refugees, and Migration |access-date=29 December 2013 |archive-date=28 October 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201028213336/https://2009-2017.state.gov/j/prm/releases/onepagers/202635.htm |url-status=live }}</ref> Heavy air bombardment destroyed many countryside villages, millions of [[landmine]]s were planted,<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.rferl.org/a/1051546.html|title=Afghanistan: Land Mines From Afghan-Soviet War Leave Bitter Legacy (Part 2)|website=RadioFreeEurope/RadioLiberty|last1=Recknagel|first1=Charles|access-date=13 June 2020|archive-date=14 August 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210814144505/https://www.rferl.org/a/1051546.html|url-status=live}}</ref> and some cities such as [[Herat]] and [[Kandahar]] were also damaged from bombardment. After the [[Soviet withdrawal from Afghanistan|Soviet withdrawal]], the [[Afghan Civil War (1989-92)|civil war ensued]] until the communist regime under People's Democratic Party leader [[Mohammad Najibullah]] collapsed in 1992.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.infoplease.com/ce6/world/A0856490.html |title=Afghanistan: History&nbsp;– ''Columbia Encyclopedia'' |publisher=Infoplease.com | date=11 September 2001 |access-date=19 May 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120810051626/http://www.infoplease.com/ce6/world/A0856490.html |archive-date=10 August 2012 }}</ref><ref>[https://www.prio.org/utility/Download.ashx?x=228 'Mujahidin vs. Communists: Revisiting the battles of Jalalabad and Khost] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180802084503/https://www.prio.org/utility/Download.ashx?x=228 |date=2 August 2018 }}. By Anne Stenersen: a Paper presented at the conference ''COIN in Afghanistan: From Mughals to the Americans'', Peace Research Institute Oslo (PRIO), 12–13 February 2012. Retrieved 1 February 2018.</ref>{{sfn|Barfield|2012|pp=239, 244}}

The Soviet–Afghan War had drastic social effects on Afghanistan. The militarization of society led to heavily armed police, private bodyguards, openly armed civil defense groups, and other such things becoming the norm in Afghanistan for decades thereafter.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Archived Version|url=http://prr.hec.gov.pk/jspui/bitstream/123456789/6891/1/Aqab_Mehmood_Malik_Strategic_%26_Nuclear_Studies_2015_NDU_19.05.2016.pdf|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200909110438/http://prr.hec.gov.pk/jspui/bitstream/123456789/6891/1/Aqab_Mehmood_Malik_Strategic_%26_Nuclear_Studies_2015_NDU_19.05.2016.pdf|archive-date=9 September 2020|website=prr.hec.gov.pk}}</ref> The traditional power structure had shifted from clergy, community elders, intelligentsia, and military in favor of powerful [[warlords]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://publishing.cdlib.org/ucpressebooks/view?docId=ft7b69p12h;chunk.id=0;doc.view=print|title=Afghanistan|website=publishing.cdlib.org|access-date=25 August 2021|archive-date=21 January 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230121200011/https://publishing.cdlib.org/ucpressebooks/view?docId=ft7b69p12h;chunk.id=0;doc.view=print|url-status=live}}</ref>

===Post–Cold War conflict===
{{See also|Afghan Civil War (1992–1996)|Afghan Civil War (1996–2001)|Islamic Emirate of Afghanistan (1996–2001)|Northern Alliance}}
[[File:War in Afganistan (1992–2001).png|thumb|upright=1.5|Development of the civil war from 1992 to late 2001]]

Another civil war broke out after the [[Peshawar Accords|creation]] of a dysfunctional coalition [[Islamic State of Afghanistan|government]] between leaders of various ''mujahideen'' factions. Amid a state of anarchy and factional infighting,<ref>{{cite book |last=Saikal |first=Amin |title=Modern Afghanistan: A History of Struggle and Survival |date=13 November 2004 |publisher=I.B. Tauris & Co Ltd., London New York |isbn=978-1-85043-437-5 |edition=2006 1st |page=352 |author-link=Amin Saikal}}</ref><ref name="Human Rights Watch-2005">{{cite web |url=https://www.hrw.org/en/reports/2005/07/06/blood-stained-hands |title=Blood-Stained Hands, Past Atrocities in Kabul and Afghanistan's Legacy of Impunity |date=7 July 2005 |publisher=[[Human Rights Watch]]|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091212081418/http://www.hrw.org/en/reports/2005/07/06/blood-stained-hands |archive-date=12 December 2009}}</ref><ref>GUTMAN, Roy (2008): How We Missed the Story: Osama bin Laden, the Taliban and the Hijacking of Afghanistan, Endowment of the United States Institute of Peace, 1st ed., Washington D.C.</ref> various ''mujahideen'' factions committed widespread rape, murder and extortion,<ref name="Human Rights Watch-2005" /><ref>{{cite web |year=2005 |url=http://www.afghanistanjusticeproject.org/warcrimesandcrimesagainsthumanity19782001.pdf |title=Casting Shadows: War Crimes and Crimes against Humanity: 1978–2001 |publisher=Afghanistan Justice Project |access-date=16 December 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131004221455/http://www.afghanistanjusticeproject.org/warcrimesandcrimesagainsthumanity19782001.pdf |archive-date=4 October 2013 }}</ref><ref name="Human Rights Watch-1998">{{cite web |url=https://www.hrw.org/reports98/afghan/Afrepor0-01.htm#P81_13959 |title=Afghanistan: The massacre in Mazar-i Sharif. (Chapter II: Background) |publisher=[[Human Rights Watch]]| date=November 1998| access-date=16 December 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081102042606/http://www.hrw.org/reports98/afghan/Afrepor0-01.htm |archive-date=2 November 2008}}</ref> while Kabul was heavily bombarded and partially destroyed by the fighting.<ref name="Human Rights Watch-1998" /> Several failed reconciliations and alliances occurred between different leaders.<ref>{{cite web |year=2005 |url=http://www.afghanistanjusticeproject.org/warcrimesandcrimesagainsthumanity19782001.pdf |page=63|title=Casting Shadows: War Crimes and Crimes against Humanity: 1978–2001 |publisher=Afghanistan Justice Project |access-date=16 December 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131004221455/http://www.afghanistanjusticeproject.org/warcrimesandcrimesagainsthumanity19782001.pdf |archive-date=4 October 2013 }}</ref> The [[Taliban]] emerged in September 1994 as a movement and militia of students (''talib'') from Islamic [[Madrassas in Pakistan|madrassas (schools) in Pakistan]],<ref name="Human Rights Watch-1998" /><ref>Matinuddin, Kamal, ''The Taliban Phenomenon, Afghanistan 1994–1997'', [[Oxford University Press]], (1999), pp. 25–26</ref> who soon had military support from Pakistan.<ref name="George Washington University">{{cite web |year=2007 |url=http://www.gwu.edu/~nsarchiv/NSAEBB/NSAEBB227/index.htm#17 |title=Documents Detail Years of Pakistani Support for Taliban, Extremists |publisher=[[George Washington University]]|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131203002159/http://www2.gwu.edu/~nsarchiv/NSAEBB/NSAEBB227/index.htm |archive-date=3 December 2013 }}</ref> Taking control of [[Kandahar]] city that year,<ref name="Human Rights Watch-1998" /> they conquered more territories until finally driving out the government of [[Burhanuddin Rabbani|Rabbani]] from Kabul in 1996,<ref>{{cite report |ref={{sfnRef|Chronology of Events|1997}} |title=Afghanistan: Chronology of Events January 1995 – February 1997 |date=February 1997 |publisher=Immigration and Refugee Board of Canada |url=https://www.justice.gov/sites/default/files/eoir/legacy/2014/01/16/Af_chronology_1995-.pdf |access-date=28 February 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171012061437/https://www.justice.gov/sites/default/files/eoir/legacy/2014/01/16/Af_chronology_1995-.pdf |archive-date=12 October 2017 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>Coll, ''Ghost Wars'' (New York: Penguin, 2005), 14.</ref> where they established an [[Islamic Emirate of Afghanistan (1996–2001)|emirate]].<ref>[https://www.loc.gov/rr/frd/cs/profiles/Afghanistan.pdf Country profile: Afghanistan (published August 2008)] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180625161206/https://www.loc.gov/rr/frd/cs/profiles/Afghanistan.pdf |date=25 June 2018 }}(page 3). Library of Congress. Retrieved 13 February 2018.</ref> The Taliban were condemned internationally for the harsh enforcement of their interpretation of Islamic [[sharia]] law, which resulted in the brutal treatment of many Afghans, especially [[Taliban treatment of women|women]].<ref>{{cite book|last=Skain|first=Rosemarie|title=The women of Afghanistan under the Taliban|year=2002|publisher=McFarland|isbn=978-0-7864-1090-3|page=41}}</ref><ref>* {{cite news |url=https://www.latimes.com/archives/la-xpm-2001-nov-18-mn-5602-story.html |date=18 November 2001 |author1=James Gerstenzan |author2=Lisa Getter |title=Laura Bush Addresses State of Afghan Women |work=[[Los Angeles Times]] |access-date=14 September 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121010184219/http://articles.latimes.com/2001/nov/18/news/mn-5602 |archive-date=10 October 2012 |url-status=live }}
* {{cite web |url=https://www.pbs.org/wnet/wideangle/episodes/a-woman-among-warlords/womens-rights-in-the-taliban-and-post-taliban-eras/66/ |date=11 September 2007 |title=Women's Rights in the Taliban and Post-Taliban Eras |work=A Woman Among Warlords |publisher=[[PBS]] |access-date=14 September 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130114011223/http://www.pbs.org/wnet/wideangle/episodes/a-woman-among-warlords/womens-rights-in-the-taliban-and-post-taliban-eras/66/ |archive-date=14 January 2013 |url-status=live }}</ref> During their rule, the Taliban and their allies committed massacres against Afghan civilians, denied UN food supplies to starving civilians and conducted a policy of [[scorched earth]], burning vast areas of fertile land and destroying tens of thousands of homes.<ref>{{cite book|last=Rashid|first=Ahmed|title=Taliban: Islam, Oil and the New Great Game in Central Asia|year=2002|publisher=I.B.Tauris|isbn=978-1-86064-830-4|page=253}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.chicagotribune.com/2001/10/12/taliban-massacres-outlined-for-un/|title=Taliban massacres outlined for UN|date=October 2001|work=Chicago Tribune|first=Edward A|last=Gargan|access-date=24 November 2010|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110916074935/http://articles.chicagotribune.com/2001-10-12/news/0110120312_1_taliban-fighters-massacres-in-recent-years-mullah-mohammed-omar|archive-date=16 September 2011|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.papillonsartpalace.com/massacre.htm |title=Confidential UN report details mass killings of civilian villagers |access-date=12 October 2001 |work=Newsday |year=2001 |publisher=newsday.org |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20021118162327/http://www.papillonsartpalace.com/massacre.htm |archive-date=18 November 2002 }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |url=http://nl.newsbank.com/nl-search/we/Archives?p_product=NewsLibrary&p_multi=APAB&d_place=APAB&p_theme=newslibrary2&p_action=search&p_maxdocs=200&p_topdoc=1&p_text_direct-0=0F8B4F98500EA0F8&p_field_direct-0=document_id&p_perpage=10&p_sort=YMD_date:D&s_trackval=GooglePM |agency=[[Associated Press]]|title=U.N. says Taliban starving hungry people for military agenda |date=7 January 1998 |access-date=7 July 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180913121938/http://nl.newsbank.com/nl-search/we/Archives?p_product=NewsLibrary&p_multi=APAB&d_place=APAB&p_theme=newslibrary2&p_action=search&p_maxdocs=200&p_topdoc=1&p_text_direct-0=0F8B4F98500EA0F8&p_field_direct-0=document_id&p_perpage=10&p_sort=YMD_date:D&s_trackval=GooglePM |archive-date=13 September 2018 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last=Goodson|first=Larry P.|title=Afghanistan's Endless War: State Failure, Regional Politics and the Rise of the Taliban|url=https://archive.org/details/afghanistansendl00good|url-access=registration|year=2002|publisher=University of Washington Press|isbn=978-0-295-98111-6|page=[https://archive.org/details/afghanistansendl00good/page/121 121]}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.npr.org/programs/morning/features/2002/aug/afghanistan/ |publisher=[[NPR]]|title=Re-Creating Afghanistan: Returning to Istalif |date=1 August 2002 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131023072254/http://www.npr.org/programs/morning/features/2002/aug/afghanistan/ |archive-date=23 October 2013}}</ref>{{Excessive citations inline|date=October 2021}}

[[Battle of Kabul (1992–1996)|After the fall of Kabul]] to the Taliban, [[Ahmad Shah Massoud]] and [[Abdul Rashid Dostum]] formed the [[Northern Alliance]], later joined by others, to resist the Taliban. Dostum's forces were defeated by the Taliban during the [[Battles of Mazar-i-Sharif (1997–1998)|Battles of Mazar-i-Sharif]] in 1997 and 1998; Pakistan's Chief of Army Staff, [[Pervez Musharraf]], began sending thousands of Pakistanis to help the Taliban defeat the Northern Alliance.<ref>{{cite book |last=Marcela Grad |title=Massoud: An Intimate Portrait of the Legendary Afghan Leader |edition=1 March 2009 |page=310 |publisher=Webster University Press }}</ref><ref name="George Washington University" /><ref>{{cite web |year=2010 |url=http://www.historycommons.org/entity.jsp?entity=ahmed_shah_massoud |title=Ahmed Shah Massoud |publisher=[[History Commons]] |access-date=16 December 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140125130822/http://www.historycommons.org/entity.jsp?entity=ahmed_shah_massoud |archive-date=25 January 2014 }}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Maley |first=William |title=The Afghanistan wars |year=2009 |publisher=Palgrave Macmillan |isbn=978-0-230-21313-5 |page=288}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/asia/afghanistan/1340244/Afghanistan-resistance-leader-feared-dead-in-blast.html |title=Afghanistan resistance leader feared dead in blast |work=[[The Daily Telegraph]]|location=London | date=11 September 2001 |first=Ahmed |last=Rashid|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131108225950/http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/asia/afghanistan/1340244/Afghanistan-resistance-leader-feared-dead-in-blast.html |archive-date=8 November 2013 }}</ref>{{Excessive citations inline|date=October 2021}} By 2000, the Northern Alliance only controlled 10% of territory, cornered in the northeast. On 9 September 2001, Massoud was assassinated by two Arab [[suicide attack]]ers in [[Panjshir Valley]]. Around 400,000 Afghans died in internal conflicts between 1990 and 2001.<ref>"[http://www.csmonitor.com/2001/0920/p1s3-wosc.html/(page)/4 Life under Taliban cuts two ways]". ''[[The Christian Science Monitor|CSM]]''. 20 September 2001 {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131230233031/http://www.csmonitor.com/2001/0920/p1s3-wosc.html/(page)/4 | date=30 December 2013 }}</ref>

=== US invasion and Islamic Republic ===
{{further|War in Afghanistan (2001–2021)|Islamic Republic of Afghanistan|Taliban insurgency|Fall of Kabul (2021)}}
In October 2001, the [[United States invasion of Afghanistan|United States invaded Afghanistan]] to remove the Taliban from power after they refused to hand over [[Osama bin Laden]], the prime suspect of the [[September 11 attacks]], who was a "guest" of the Taliban and was operating his [[al-Qaeda]] network in Afghanistan.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Grugy2txSvc |title=Brigade 055 |publisher=CNN|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130729101159/https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Grugy2txSvc|archive-date=29 July 2013}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |author=Rory McCarthy |url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2001/oct/17/afghanistan.terrorism11 |title=New offer on Bin Laden |newspaper=[[The Guardian]] | date= 17 October 2001|access-date=17 July 2012 |location=London|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130628053351/http://www.guardian.co.uk/world/2001/oct/17/afghanistan.terrorism11|archive-date=28 June 2013}}</ref><ref>[http://edition.cnn.com/2017/08/21/politics/trump-afghanistan-pakistan-india/index.html 'Trump calls out Pakistan, India as he pledges to 'fight to win' in Afghanistan] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170901150353/http://edition.cnn.com/2017/08/21/politics/trump-afghanistan-pakistan-india/index.html |date=1 September 2017}}. CNN, 24 August 2017. Retrieved 1 September 2017.</ref> The majority of Afghans supported the American invasion.<ref>{{cite web|date=30 January 2006|title=WPO Poll: Afghan Public Overwhelmingly Rejects al-Qaeda, Taliban|url=http://drum.lib.umd.edu/bitstream/handle/1903/10127/Afghanistan_Jan06_art2.pdf;jsessionid=51A568EB80A658471A265A1D06EF8ADB?sequence=3|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170102172723/http://drum.lib.umd.edu/bitstream/handle/1903/10127/Afghanistan_Jan06_art2.pdf;jsessionid=51A568EB80A658471A265A1D06EF8ADB?sequence=3|archive-date=2 January 2017|access-date=2 January 2017|website=[[University of Maryland Libraries]]|quote=Equally large percentages endorse the US military presence in Afghanistan. Eighty-three percent said they have a favorable view of "the US military forces in our country" (39% very favorable). Just 17% have an unfavorable view.}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|date=29 January 2015|title=Afghan Futures: A National Public Opinion Survey|url=http://acsor-surveys.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/01/Afghan-Futures-Wave-6-Analysis_FINAL-v2.pdf|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170329093740/http://acsor-surveys.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/01/Afghan-Futures-Wave-6-Analysis_FINAL-v2.pdf|archive-date=29 March 2017|access-date=2 January 2017|website=[[Afghan Center for Socio-economic and Opinion Research]]|page=4|quote=Seventy-seven percent support the presence of U.S. forces; 67 percent say the same of NATO/ISAF forces more generally. Despite the country's travails, eight in 10 say it was a good thing for the United States to oust the Taliban in 2001. And much more blame either the Taliban or al Qaeda for the country's violence, 53 percent, than blame the United States, 12 percent. The latter is about half what it was in 2012, coinciding with a sharp reduction in the U.S. deployment.}}</ref> During the initial invasion, US and UK forces bombed al-Qaeda training camps, and later working with the Northern Alliance, the Taliban regime came to an end.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2001/10/08/world/nation-challenged-attack-us-britain-strike-afghanistan-aiming-bases-terrorist.html |title=A Nation challenged: The attack; U.S. and Britain strike Afghanistan, aiming at bases and terrorist camps; Bush warns 'Taliban will pay a price' |last=Tyler |first=Patrick | date=8 October 2001 |newspaper=[[The New York Times]] |access-date=28 February 2010|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140411134316/http://www.nytimes.com/2001/10/08/world/nation-challenged-attack-us-britain-strike-afghanistan-aiming-bases-terrorist.html |archive-date=11 April 2014 }}</ref>

[[File:Inbound Choppers in Afghanistan 2008.jpg|thumb|US troops and [[Boeing CH-47 Chinook|Chinooks]] in Afghanistan, 2008]]

In December 2001, after the Taliban government was overthrown, the [[Afghan Interim Administration]] under [[Hamid Karzai]] was formed. The [[International Security Assistance Force]] (ISAF) was established by the [[UN Security Council]] to help assist the [[Karzai administration]] and provide basic security.<ref>{{UN document |docid=S-RES-1386(2001) |type=Resolution|body=Security Council|year=2001|resolution_number=1386 |access-date=21 September 2007| date=31 May 2001}}&nbsp;– ([[s:United Nations Security Council Resolution 1386|UNSCR 1386]])</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://nato.usmission.gov/ |title=United States Mission to Afghanistan|publisher=Nato.usmission.gov|access-date=14 November 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101021065112/http://nato.usmission.gov/ |archive-date=21 October 2010|url-status=live}}</ref> By this time, after two decades of war as well as an acute [[famine]] at the time, Afghanistan had one of the highest [[infant mortality|infant]] and child mortality rates in the world, the lowest life expectancy, much of the population were hungry,<ref>{{cite web|url=https://merip.org/2001/09/afghanistans-refugee-crisis/|title=Afghanistan's Refugee Crisis|date=24 September 2001|website=MERIP|access-date=16 June 2020|archive-date=16 June 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200616143702/https://merip.org/2001/09/afghanistans-refugee-crisis/|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.doctorswithoutborders.org/what-we-do/news-stories/research/afghanistan-civilians-risk|title=Afghanistan: Civilians at Risk|website=Doctors Without Borders – USA|access-date=16 June 2020|archive-date=16 June 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200616134107/https://www.doctorswithoutborders.org/what-we-do/news-stories/research/afghanistan-civilians-risk|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://monthlyreview.org/2001/11/01/limbs-of-no-body/|website=Monthly Review|title=Limbs of No Body: The World's Indifference to the Afghan Tragedy|first=Mohsen|last=Makhmalbaf|date=1 November 2001|access-date=16 June 2020|archive-date=7 April 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110407231857/https://monthlyreview.org/2001/11/01/limbs-of-no-body/|url-status=live}}</ref> and infrastructure was in ruins.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.returntohope.com/inDepth/RebuildingAfghanistan#intro|title=Rebuilding Afghanistan|website=Return to Hope|access-date=16 June 2020|archive-date=14 August 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210814144505/http://www.returntohope.com/inDepth/RebuildingAfghanistan#intro|url-status=live}}</ref> Many foreign donors started providing aid and assistance to rebuild the war-torn country.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://edition.cnn.com/2002/WORLD/asiapcf/east/01/15/japan.aid.gen/index.html?related|title=Japan aid offer to 'broke' Afghanistan|date=15 January 2002|publisher=CNN|access-date=16 June 2020|archive-date=19 November 2002|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20021119080524/https://edition.cnn.com/2002/WORLD/asiapcf/east/01/15/japan.aid.gen/index.html?related|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://web.stanford.edu/class/intnlrel193/readings/week6/afghan.html|title=Rebuilding Afghanistan: The U.S. Role|website=Stanford University|access-date=16 June 2020|archive-date=20 August 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140820000226/https://web.stanford.edu/class/intnlrel193/readings/week6/afghan.html|url-status=live}}</ref> As coalition troops entered Afghanistan to help the [[Reconstruction in Afghanistan|rebuilding process]],<ref>{{cite web|first=Julie|last=Fossler|url=http://afghanistan.usaid.gov/en/index.aspx|title=USAID Afghanistan|publisher=Afghanistan.usaid.gov|access-date=14 November 2010|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101017104214/http://afghanistan.usaid.gov/en/Index.aspx|archive-date=17 October 2010|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.afghanistan.gc.ca/canada-afghanistan/news-nouvelles/2010/2010_07_09.aspx?lang=eng |title=Canada's Engagement in Afghanistan: Backgrounder |publisher=Afghanistan.gc.ca |date=9 July 2010|access-date=14 November 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101215180833/http://www.afghanistan.gc.ca/canada-afghanistan/news-nouvelles/2010/2010_07_09.aspx|archive-date=15 December 2010|url-status=dead}}</ref> the [[Taliban insurgency|Taliban began an insurgency]] to regain control. Afghanistan remained one of the poorest countries in the world because of a lack of foreign investment, [[Corruption in Afghanistan|government corruption]], and the Taliban insurgency.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://abcnews.go.com/Video/video?id=5484891&tab=9482931&section=8865284&page=1|publisher=ABC News|location=United States |access-date=28 September 2010|title=Pakistan Accused of Helping Taliban| date=31 July 2008|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131221050959/http://abcnews.go.com/Video/video?id=5484891&tab=9482931&section=8865284&page=1 |archive-date=21 December 2013}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/asia/afghanistan/7910687/Wikileaks-Pakistan-accused-of-helping-Taliban-in-Afghanistan-attacks.html|work=[[The Daily Telegraph]]|access-date=28 September 2010|title=Wikileaks: Pakistan accused of helping Taliban in Afghanistan attacks | date=26 July 2010|location=London|first1=Rob|last1=Crilly|first2=Alex |last2=Spillius|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140129073942/http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/asia/afghanistan/7910687/Wikileaks-Pakistan-accused-of-helping-Taliban-in-Afghanistan-attacks.html|archive-date=29 January 2014}}</ref>

The Afghan government was able to build some democratic structures, adopting a constitution in 2004 with the name [[Islamic Republic of Afghanistan]]. Attempts were made, often with the support of foreign donor countries, to improve the country's economy, healthcare, education, transport, and agriculture. ISAF forces also began to train the [[Afghan National Security Forces]]. Following 2002, nearly five million [[Afghan diaspora|Afghans]] were repatriated.<ref>{{cite book|author=Howard Adelman|title=Protracted Displacement in Asia: No Place to Call Home|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=oLYFDAAAQBAJ&pg=PT167|date=15 April 2016|publisher=Taylor & Francis|isbn=978-1-317-07407-6|page=167}}</ref> The number of NATO troops present in Afghanistan peaked at 140,000 in 2011,<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-south-asia-11371138|title=The foreign troops left in Afghanistan|publisher=BBC News|date=15 October 2015|access-date=13 June 2020|archive-date=19 August 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210819084124/https://www.bbc.com/news/world-south-asia-11371138|url-status=live}}</ref> dropping to about 16,000 in 2018.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.forces.net/operations/afghanistan/how-many-troops-are-currently-afghanistan|title=How Many Troops Are Currently in Afghanistan?|author=((18 May 2018 at 11:38&nbsp;am))|website=Forces Network|date=18 May 2018|access-date=13 June 2020|archive-date=16 March 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200316023620/https://www.forces.net/operations/afghanistan/how-many-troops-are-currently-afghanistan|url-status=live}}</ref> In September 2014 [[Ashraf Ghani]] became president after the [[Afghan presidential election, 2014|2014 presidential election]] where for the first time in Afghanistan's history power was democratically transferred.<ref>{{cite news|title=Huge security as Afghan presidential election looms|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-26880022|publisher=BBC News|date=4 April 2014|access-date=21 October 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181021190735/https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-26880022|archive-date=21 October 2018|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|title=Afghanistan votes in historic presidential election|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-26893972|publisher=BBC News|date=5 April 2014|access-date=21 October 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181021152941/https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-26893972|archive-date=21 October 2018|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |last1=Harooni |first1=Mirwais |last2=Shalizi |first2=Hamid |date=4 April 2014 |title=Landmark Afghanistan Presidential Election Held Under Shadow of Violence |url=https://www.huffingtonpost.com/2014/04/04/landmark-afghan-election-_n_5095143.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160303225603/http://www.huffingtonpost.com/2014/04/04/landmark-afghan-election-_n_5095143.html |archive-date=3 March 2016 |access-date=21 October 2018 |newspaper=[[HuffPost]] |agency=[[Reuters]]}}</ref> On 28 December 2014, NATO formally ended ISAF combat operations and transferred full security responsibility to the Afghan government. The NATO-led [[Operation Resolute Support]] was formed the same day as a successor to ISAF.<ref>{{cite news|title=U.S. formally ends the war in Afghanistan|url=https://www.cbsnews.com/news/america-formally-ends-the-war-in-afghanistan/|access-date=28 December 2014|agency=[[Associated Press]]|issue=online|publisher=CBA News|date=28 December 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141228152651/http://www.cbsnews.com/news/america-formally-ends-the-war-in-afghanistan/|archive-date=28 December 2014|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|title=Nato ends combat operations in Afghanistan|url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2014/dec/28/nato-ends-afghanistan-combat-operations-after-13-years|access-date=11 January 2015|newspaper=[[The Guardian]]|date=28 December 2014|location=Kabul|author=Sune Engel Rasmussen in Kabul|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150102134349/http://www.theguardian.com/world/2014/dec/28/nato-ends-afghanistan-combat-operations-after-13-years|archive-date=2 January 2015|url-status=live}}</ref> Thousands of NATO troops remained in the country to train and advise Afghan government forces<ref>{{cite web|title=U.S. formally ends the war in Afghanistan|url=https://www.cbsnews.com/news/america-formally-ends-the-war-in-afghanistan/|publisher=[[CBS News]]|date=28 December 2014 |access-date=12 April 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141228152651/http://www.cbsnews.com/news/america-formally-ends-the-war-in-afghanistan/|archive-date=28 December 2014|url-status=live}}</ref> and continue their fight against the Taliban.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.soufangroup.com/tsg-intelbrief-afghanistan-16-0/|title=TSG IntelBrief: Afghanistan 16.0|website=The Soufan Group|access-date=27 September 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180809184149/http://www.soufangroup.com/tsg-intelbrief-afghanistan-16-0/|archive-date=9 August 2018|url-status=dead}}</ref> A report titled ''Body Count'' concluded that 106,000–170,000 civilians had been killed as a result of the fighting in Afghanistan at the hands of all parties to the conflict.<ref>
* [http://www.ippnw.de/commonFiles/pdfs/Frieden/Body_Count_first_international_edition_2015_final.pdf "Body Count – Casualty Figures after 10 Years of the 'War on Terror' – Iraq Afghanistan Pakistan"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150430175027/http://www.ippnw.de/commonFiles/pdfs/Frieden/Body_Count_first_international_edition_2015_final.pdf |date=30 April 2015 }} (PDF), by [[IPPNW]], [[Physicians for Global Survival|PGS]] and [[Physicians for Social Responsibility|PSR]], First international edition (March 2015)
* {{cite news |author=Gabriela Motroc |url=http://www.australiannationalreview.com/war-terror-reportedly-killed-13-million-people-decade/ |title=U.S. War on Terror has reportedly killed 1.3&nbsp;million people in a decade |work=Australian National Review |date=7 April 2015 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150505004045/http://www.australiannationalreview.com/war-terror-reportedly-killed-13-million-people-decade/ |archive-date=5 May 2015 }}
* {{cite news |url=http://www.dailytimes.com.pk/national/30-Mar-2015/220-000-killed-in-us-war-in-afghanistan-80-000-in-pakistan-report |title=220,000 killed in US war in Afghanistan 80,000 in Pakistan: report |work=[[Daily Times (Pakistan)|Daily Times]] |date=30 March 2015 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150505055409/http://www.dailytimes.com.pk/national/30-Mar-2015/220-000-killed-in-us-war-in-afghanistan-80-000-in-pakistan-report |archive-date=5 May 2015 }}
</ref>

[[File:2021 Taliban Offensive.png|thumb|A map of Afghanistan showing the [[2021 Taliban offensive]] ]]
On 19 February 2020, the [[US–Taliban deal]] was made in Qatar. The deal was one of the critical events that caused the collapse of the [[Afghan National Security Forces]] (ANSF);<ref>{{cite news|last=Borger|first=Julian|title=US withdrawal triggered catastrophic defeat of Afghan forces, damning watchdog report finds|date=18 May 2022|access-date=19 May 2022|url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2022/may/18/afghanistan-us-withdrawal-defeat-watchdog-report-sigar|work=[[The Guardian]]|archive-date=21 May 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220521122933/https://www.theguardian.com/world/2022/may/18/afghanistan-us-withdrawal-defeat-watchdog-report-sigar|url-status=live}}</ref> following the signing of the deal, the US dramatically reduced the number of air attacks and deprived the ANSF of a critical edge in fighting the [[Taliban insurgency]], leading to the Taliban takeover of Kabul.<ref>{{cite news|title=US withdrawal prompted collapse of Afghan army: Report|date=18 May 2022|access-date=19 May 2022|url=https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2022/5/18/us-withdrawal-prompted-collapse-of-afghan-army-report|publisher=[[Al Jazeera Media Network|Al Jazeera]]|archive-date=20 June 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220620140206/https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2022/5/18/us-withdrawal-prompted-collapse-of-afghan-army-report|url-status=live}}</ref>

===Second Taliban era===
{{Further|Aftermath of the Afghanistan War (2001–2021)}}

NATO Secretary General [[Jens Stoltenberg]] announced on 14 April 2021 that the alliance had agreed to start [[2020–2021 US troop withdrawal from Afghanistan|withdrawing its troops from Afghanistan]] by 1 May.<ref>{{cite news |title=NATO to Cut Forces in Afghanistan, Match US Withdrawal |url=https://www.voanews.com/usa/nato-cut-forces-afghanistan-match-us-withdrawal |work=[[VOA News]] |date=14 April 2021 |access-date=26 July 2021 |archive-date=15 April 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210415000426/https://www.voanews.com/usa/nato-cut-forces-afghanistan-match-us-withdrawal |url-status=live }}</ref> Soon after NATO troops began withdrawing, the [[Taliban]] launched an [[2021 Taliban offensive|offensive against the Afghan government]] and quickly advanced in front of collapsing Afghan government forces.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Robertson |first1=Nic |title=Afghanistan is disintegrating fast as Biden's troop withdrawal continues |url=https://edition.cnn.com/2021/06/24/asia/afghanistan-taliban-offensive-intl-cmd/index.html |publisher=CNN |date=24 June 2021 |access-date=26 July 2021 |archive-date=9 July 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210709190124/https://edition.cnn.com/2021/06/24/asia/afghanistan-taliban-offensive-intl-cmd/index.html |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |title=Afghanistan stunned by scale and speed of security forces' collapse |url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2021/jul/13/afghanistan-stunned-by-scale-and-speed-of-security-forces-collapse |work=[[The Guardian]] |date=13 July 2021 |access-date=26 July 2021 |archive-date=15 August 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210815063215/https://www.theguardian.com/world/2021/jul/13/afghanistan-stunned-by-scale-and-speed-of-security-forces-collapse |url-status=live }}</ref> The Taliban [[Fall of Kabul (2021)|captured the capital city of Kabul]] on 15 August 2021, after regaining control over a vast majority of Afghanistan. Several foreign diplomats and Afghan government officials, including president Ashraf Ghani,<ref>{{cite news |title=President Ashraf Ghani Flees Afghanistan, Taliban Take Over Kabul: Report |work=NDTV.com |url=https://www.ndtv.com/world-news/taliban-enter-afghan-capital-kabul-news-agency-afp-2510885 |url-status=live |access-date=15 August 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210815081516/https://www.ndtv.com/world-news/taliban-enter-afghan-capital-kabul-news-agency-afp-2510885 |archive-date=15 August 2021}}</ref> were evacuated from the country, with many Afghan civilians attempting to flee along with them.<ref>{{cite news |title=The Afghan government's collapse is a humiliation for the US and Joe Biden |url=https://www.newstatesman.com/world/asia/2021/08/afghan-government-s-collapse-humiliation-us-and-joe-biden |access-date=15 August 2021 |work=[[New Statesman]] |date=15 August 2021 |archive-date=16 August 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210816164152/https://www.newstatesman.com/world/asia/2021/08/afghan-government-s-collapse-humiliation-us-and-joe-biden |url-status=live }}</ref> On 17 August, first vice president [[Amrullah Saleh]] proclaimed himself caretaker president and announced the formation of an [[National Resistance Front of Afghanistan|anti-Taliban front]] with a reported 6,000+ troops<ref>{{cite web|title=Operations|url=https://www.nrfafg.org/operations|access-date=21 August 2021|website=The National Resistance Front: Fighting for a Free Afghanistan|publisher=National Resistance Front of Afghanistan|archive-date=6 September 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210906001614/https://www.nrfafg.org/operations|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=Anti-Taliban forces say they've taken three districts in Afghanistan's north|date=21 August 2021|url=https://www.reuters.com/world/asia-pacific/anti-taliban-forces-say-theyve-taken-three-districts-afghanistans-north-2021-08-21/|work=Reuters|access-date=21 August 2021|archive-date=23 August 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210823164227/https://www.reuters.com/world/asia-pacific/anti-taliban-forces-say-theyve-taken-three-districts-afghanistans-north-2021-08-21/|url-status=live}}</ref> in the [[Panjshir Valley]], along with [[Ahmad Massoud]].<ref>{{cite web|title=An anti-Taliban front forming in Panjshir? Ex top spy Saleh, son of 'Lion of Panjshir' meet at citadel|url=https://www.theweek.in/news/world/2021/08/17/an-anti-taliban-front-forming-in-panjshir-ex-top-spy-saleh-son-of-lion-of-panjshir-meet-at-citadel.html|access-date=17 August 2021|website=The Week|archive-date=17 August 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210817065524/https://www.theweek.in/news/world/2021/08/17/an-anti-taliban-front-forming-in-panjshir-ex-top-spy-saleh-son-of-lion-of-panjshir-meet-at-citadel.html|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|date=17 August 2021|title=Afghan Vice President Saleh Declares Himself Caretaker President; Reaches Out To Leaders for Support|url=https://www.news18.com/news/world/afghan-vice-president-saleh-declares-himself-caretaker-president-reaches-out-to-leaders-for-support-4097117.html|access-date=17 August 2021|website=News18|archive-date=17 August 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210817224511/https://www.news18.com/news/world/afghan-vice-president-saleh-declares-himself-caretaker-president-reaches-out-to-leaders-for-support-4097117.html|url-status=live}}</ref> However, by 6 September, the Taliban had taken control of most of [[Panjshir province]], with resistance fighters retreating to the mountains.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.ft.com/content/5b4b7b58-1edf-4510-ad15-813487f3c80e |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221210/https://www.ft.com/content/5b4b7b58-1edf-4510-ad15-813487f3c80e |archive-date=10 December 2022 |url-access=subscription |url-status=live|title=Taliban says it has captured last Afghan region of resistance|last1=Kazmin|first1=Amy|last2=Findlay|first2=Stephanie|last3=Bokhari|first3=Farhan|work=[[Financial Times]]|date=6 September 2021|access-date=6 September 2021}}</ref> Clashes in the valley ceased mid-September.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2021/09/17/world/asia/panjshir-resistance-taliban-massoud.html |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20211228/https://www.nytimes.com/2021/09/17/world/asia/panjshir-resistance-taliban-massoud.html |archive-date=28 December 2021 |url-access=limited |title=In Panjshir, Few Signs of an Active Resistance, or Any Fight at All |newspaper=The New York Times |date=17 September 2021 |last1=Huylebroek |first1=Jim |last2=Blue |first2=Victor J.}}{{cbignore}}</ref>

According to the [[Costs of War Project]], 176,000 people were killed in the conflict, including 46,319 civilians, between 2001 and 2021.<ref>{{cite web|title=Human and Budgetary Costs to Date of the U.S. War in Afghanistan, 2001–2022 {{!}} Figures {{!}} Costs of War|url=https://watson.brown.edu/costsofwar/figures/2021/human-and-budgetary-costs-date-us-war-afghanistan-2001-2022|access-date=1 September 2021|website=The Costs of War|archive-date=6 September 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210906010357/https://watson.brown.edu/costsofwar/figures/2021/human-and-budgetary-costs-date-us-war-afghanistan-2001-2022|url-status=live}}</ref> According to the [[Uppsala Conflict Data Program]], at least 212,191 people were killed in the conflict.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.ucdp.uu.se/country/700|title=UCDP – Uppsala Conflict Data Program|website=ucdp.uu.se|access-date=25 December 2022|archive-date=19 August 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210819054652/https://www.ucdp.uu.se/country/700|url-status=live}}</ref> Though the state of war in the country ended in 2021, armed conflict persists in some regions<ref>{{cite web |title=One year later, Austin acknowledges lasting questions over Afghanistan war's end |url=https://www.stripes.com/theaters/us/2022-08-30/lasting-questions-afghanistan-withdrawal-7156882.html |access-date=1 October 2022 |website=Stars and Stripes |archive-date=1 October 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221001113942/https://www.stripes.com/theaters/us/2022-08-30/lasting-questions-afghanistan-withdrawal-7156882.html |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |date=9 March 2022 |title=Karzai says while the war has ended, unity has not yet been achieved {{!}} Ariana News |url=https://www.ariananews.af/karzai-says-while-the-war-has-ended-unity-has-not-yet-been-achieved/ |access-date=1 October 2022 |website=ariananews.af|archive-date=1 October 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221001113942/https://www.ariananews.af/karzai-says-while-the-war-has-ended-unity-has-not-yet-been-achieved/ |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |date=26 January 2022 |title=Briefing by Special Representative Deborah Lyons to the Security Council |url=https://unama.unmissions.org/briefing-special-representative-deborah-lyons-security-council-10 |access-date=1 October 2022 |website=UNAMA|archive-date=4 October 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221004064300/https://unama.unmissions.org/briefing-special-representative-deborah-lyons-security-council-10 |url-status=live }}</ref> amid [[Islamic State–Taliban conflict|fighting between the Taliban and the local branch of the Islamic State]], as well as an anti-Taliban [[Republican insurgency in Afghanistan|Republican insurgency]].<ref>{{Cite news |title=Hamid Karzai stays on in Afghanistan — hoping for the best, but unable to leave|publisher=[[NPR]] |url=https://www.npr.org/2022/08/08/1115674232/afghanistan-taliban-hamid-karzai-us-withdrawal |access-date=15 October 2022 |archive-date=19 January 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230119174316/https://www.npr.org/2022/08/08/1115674232/afghanistan-taliban-hamid-karzai-us-withdrawal |url-status=live }}</ref>
[[File:Taliban Humvee in Kabul, August 2021 (cropped).png|thumb|left|Taliban fighters in Kabul on a captured [[Humvee]] following the [[Fall of Kabul (2021)|2021 fall of Kabul]]]]

The Taliban government is led by [[Head of the Islamic Emirate of Afghanistan|supreme leader]] [[Hibatullah Akhundzada]]<ref>{{cite news|last=Zucchino|first=David|date=1 September 2021|title=Shifting to Governing, Taliban Will Name Supreme Afghan Leader|work=The New York Times|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2021/09/01/world/asia/afghanistan-taliban-government-leader.html |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20211228/https://www.nytimes.com/2021/09/01/world/asia/afghanistan-taliban-government-leader.html |archive-date=28 December 2021 |url-access=limited|access-date=6 September 2021|issn=0362-4331}}{{cbignore}}</ref> and acting prime minister [[Hasan Akhund]], who took office on 7 September 2021.<ref>{{cite news |title=گروه طالبان حکومت جدید خود را با رهبری ملا حسن اخوند اعلام کرد |publisher=BBC News فارسی |url=https://www.bbc.com/persian/afghanistan-58477769 |access-date=8 October 2021 |archive-date=7 September 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210907202525/https://www.bbc.com/persian/afghanistan-58477769 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite news|date=7 September 2021|title=Taliban announce new government for Afghanistan|publisher=BBC News|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-58479750|access-date=9 September 2021|archive-date=7 September 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210907212403/https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-58479750|url-status=live}}</ref> Akhund is one of the four founders of the Taliban<ref>{{cite news|title=Profile: Who is Afghanistan's new caretaker prime minister?|url=https://tribune.com.pk/story/2319144/profile-who-is-afghanistans-new-caretaker-prime-minister|newspaper=The Express Tribune|date=8 September 2021|access-date=8 October 2021|archive-date=8 September 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210908140526/https://tribune.com.pk/story/2319144/profile-who-is-afghanistans-new-caretaker-prime-minister|url-status=live}}</ref> and was a deputy prime minister of the previous emirate; his appointment was seen as a compromise between moderates and hardliners.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-58479750|title=Hardliners get key posts in new Taliban government|publisher=BBC News|date=7 September 2021|access-date=9 September 2021|archive-date=7 September 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210907212403/https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-58479750|url-status=live}}</ref> A [[Cabinet of Afghanistan|new, all-male cabinet]] was formed, which included [[Abdul Hakim Haqqani]] as minister of justice.<ref>{{cite news |title=Taliban Announces Head of State, Acting Ministers |date=7 September 2021 |newspaper=[[TOLOnews]] |url=https://tolonews.com/afghanistan-174556 |access-date=7 September 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210907182414/https://tolonews.com/afghanistan-174556 |archive-date=7 September 2021 |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |title=Taliban Name Their Deputy Ministers, Doubling Down On An All-Male Team |date=21 September 2021 |publisher=[[NPR]] |url=https://www.npr.org/2021/09/21/1039232797/taliban-women-all-male-government-cabinet-ministers |access-date=8 October 2021 |archive-date=10 October 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211010123846/https://www.npr.org/2021/09/21/1039232797/taliban-women-all-male-government-cabinet-ministers |url-status=live }}</ref> On 20 September 2021, [[Secretary-General of the United Nations|United Nations Secretary-General]] [[António Guterres]] received a letter from acting [[Ministry of Foreign Affairs (Afghanistan)|minister of foreign affairs]] [[Amir Khan Muttaqi]] to formally claim Afghanistan's seat as a member state for their official spokesman in [[Doha]], [[Suhail Shaheen]]. The United Nations did not recognize the previous Taliban government and chose to work with the then government-in-exile instead.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.aljazeera.com/economy/2021/9/24/who-will-speak-for-afghanistan-at-the-united-nations|title=Who will speak for Afghanistan at the United Nations?|publisher=[[Al Jazeera Media Network|Al Jazeera]]|date=26 September 2021|access-date=8 October 2021|archive-date=14 October 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211014060240/https://www.aljazeera.com/economy/2021/9/24/who-will-speak-for-afghanistan-at-the-united-nations|url-status=live}}</ref>

Western nations suspended most of their humanitarian aid to Afghanistan following the Taliban's August 2021 takeover of the country; the [[World Bank]] and [[International Monetary Fund]] also halted their payments.<ref>{{cite news |title=China urges World Bank, IMF to help Afghanistan |url=https://www.news24.com/news24/world/news/china-urges-world-bank-imf-to-help-afghanistan-20211028 |work=News24 |date=28 October 2021 |access-date=12 November 2021 |archive-date=2 June 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220602222034/https://www.news24.com/news24/world/news/china-urges-world-bank-imf-to-help-afghanistan-20211028 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |title=Afghanistan: Can the Taliban avert a food crisis without foreign aid? |url=https://www.dw.com/en/afghanistan-can-the-taliban-avert-a-food-crisis-without-foreign-aid/a-59790464 |publisher=Deutsche Welle |date=11 November 2021 |access-date=12 November 2021 |archive-date=26 December 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221226203615/http://www.dw.com/en/afghanistan-can-the-taliban-avert-a-food-crisis-without-foreign-aid/a-59790464 |url-status=live }}</ref> More than half of Afghanistan's 39 million people faced an acute [[Food security|food shortage]] in October 2021.<ref>{{cite news |title='Countdown to catastrophe': half of Afghans face hunger this winter – UN |url=https://www.theguardian.com/global-development/2021/oct/25/countdown-to-catastrophe-half-of-afghans-face-hunger-this-winter-un |work=[[The Guardian]] |date=25 October 2021 |access-date=12 November 2021 |archive-date=9 June 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220609005548/https://www.theguardian.com/global-development/2021/oct/25/countdown-to-catastrophe-half-of-afghans-face-hunger-this-winter-un |url-status=live }}</ref> Human Rights Watch reported on 11 November 2021 that Afghanistan was facing widespread [[famine]] due to an economic and banking crisis.<ref>{{cite news |title=Afghanistan Facing Famine: UN, World Bank, US Should Adjust Sanctions, Economic Policies |url=https://www.hrw.org/news/2021/11/11/afghanistan-facing-famine |publisher=Human Rights Watch |date=11 November 2021 |access-date=12 November 2021 |archive-date=12 May 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220512115310/https://www.hrw.org/news/2021/11/11/afghanistan-facing-famine |url-status=live }}</ref> The [[Taliban]] have significantly tackled corruption, now being placed as 150th on the corruption watchdog perception index. The Taliban have also reportedly reduced bribery and extortion in public service areas.<ref>{{cite web |date=31 January 2023 |title=Can the Taliban Tackle Corruption in Afghanistan? |url=https://www.voanews.com/a/can-the-taliban-tackle-corruption-in-afghanistan-/6942205.html |access-date=16 August 2023 |website=VOA |quote=Taliban-ruled Afghanistan is ranked 150th, a remarkable status upgrade from its 174th ranking in 2021. In 2011, at the height of U.S. military and developmental engagement in Afghanistan, the country was ranked 180th, next to North Korea and Somalia. |archive-date=16 August 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230816235333/https://www.voanews.com/a/can-the-taliban-tackle-corruption-in-afghanistan-/6942205.html |url-status=live }}</ref> At the same time, the human rights situation in the country has deteriorated.<ref>{{cite web |title=Taliban blasted for 'shocking oppression' of women |website=Arab News |date=12 September 2023 |url=https://www.arabnews.com/node/2372216/world |access-date=13 September 2023 |archive-date=12 September 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230912213450/https://www.arabnews.com/node/2372216/world |url-status=live }}</ref> Following the 2001 invasion, more than 5.7&nbsp;million refugees returned to Afghanistan;<ref>Afghan Refugees, Costs of War, {{cite web |url=http://costsofwar.org/article/afghan-refugees |title=Afghan Refugees &#124; Costs of War |access-date=5 March 2013 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130310001659/http://costsofwar.org/article/afghan-refugees |archive-date=10 March 2013}}, 2012</ref> however, in 2021, 2.6&nbsp;million Afghans remained refugees, primarily in Iran and Pakistan, and another 4 million were internally displaced.<ref>{{cite web |title=In numbers: Life in Afghanistan after America leaves |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-asia-57767067 |publisher=BBC News |date=13 July 2021 |access-date=15 July 2021 |archive-date=23 August 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210823133602/https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-asia-57767067 |url-status=live }}</ref>

In October 2023, the Pakistani government ordered the [[expulsion of Afghans from Pakistan]].<ref>{{cite news |title='What's wrong?': The silence of Pakistanis on expulsion of Afghan refugees |url=https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2023/11/22/whats-wrong-the-silence-of-pakistanis-on-expulsion-of-afghan-refugees |publisher=Al Jazeera |date=22 November 2023 |access-date=26 January 2024 |archive-date=26 January 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240126111459/https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2023/11/22/whats-wrong-the-silence-of-pakistanis-on-expulsion-of-afghan-refugees |url-status=live }}</ref> Iran also decided to deport [[Afghans in Iran|Afghan]] nationals back to Afghanistan.<ref>{{cite news |title=Afghans Banned From 16 Provinces In Iran As Forced Exodus Continues |url=https://www.rferl.org/a/iran-afghans-banned-provinces/32713320.html |publisher=Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty |date=4 December 2023 |access-date=26 January 2024 |archive-date=26 January 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240126112954/https://www.rferl.org/a/iran-afghans-banned-provinces/32713320.html |url-status=live }}</ref> Taliban authorities condemned the deportations of Afghans as an "inhuman act".<ref>{{cite news |title=Taliban: Iran Deports Almost 350,000 Afghans Within 3 Months |url=https://www.voanews.com/a/taliban-iran-deports-almost-350-000-afghans-within-3-months/7392705.html |work=VOA News |date=11 December 2023 |access-date=26 January 2024 |archive-date=26 January 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240126101758/https://www.voanews.com/a/taliban-iran-deports-almost-350-000-afghans-within-3-months/7392705.html |url-status=live }}</ref> Afghanistan faced a humanitarian crisis in late 2023.<ref>{{cite news |title=Over 1 mn Afghan children facing severe malnutrition, says WHO chief |url=https://www.business-standard.com/world-news/over-1-mn-afghan-children-facing-severe-malnutrition-says-who-chief-123122200080_1.html |work=Business Standard |date=22 December 2023 |access-date=26 January 2024 |archive-date=1 January 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240101131416/https://www.business-standard.com/world-news/over-1-mn-afghan-children-facing-severe-malnutrition-says-who-chief-123122200080_1.html |url-status=live }}</ref>

==Geography==
{{Main|Geography of Afghanistan}}
{{Map of Afghanistan}}
Afghanistan is located in Southern-Central Asia.<ref>* {{cite web |url=http://pubs.usgs.gov/of/1997/ofr-97-470/OF97-470C/asiaGmap.html |title=U.S. maps |publisher=Pubs.usgs.gov |access-date=19 May 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131225134851/http://pubs.usgs.gov/of/1997/ofr-97-470/OF97-470C/asiaGmap.html |archive-date=25 December 2013 }}
* {{cite web |url=http://www.worldbank.org/en/region/sar |title=South Asia: Data, Projects, and Research |access-date=2 March 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150301035209/http://www.worldbank.org/en/region/sar |archive-date=1 March 2015 |url-status=live }}
* {{cite web |url=http://pubs.usgs.gov/of/1997/ofr-97-470/OF97-470C/asiaGmap.html |title=Maps Showing Geology, Oil and Gas Fields and Geological Provinces of South Asia (Includes Afghanistan) |access-date=2 March 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131225134851/http://pubs.usgs.gov/of/1997/ofr-97-470/OF97-470C/asiaGmap.html |archive-date=25 December 2013 |url-status=dead }}
* {{cite web |url=http://jsis.washington.edu/advise/catalog/soasia-b.html |title=University of Washington Jackson School of International Studies: The South Asia Center |access-date=2 March 2015 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150402100846/http://jsis.washington.edu/advise/catalog/soasia-b.html |archive-date=2 April 2015 }}
* {{cite web |url=http://www.maxwell.syr.edu/moynihan/programs/sac/ |title=Syracruse University: The South Asia Center |date=26 March 2013 |access-date=2 March 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150326065054/http://www.maxwell.syr.edu/moynihan/programs/sac/ |archive-date=26 March 2015 |url-status=live }}
* {{cite web |url=http://www.ii.umich.edu/csas |title=Center for South Asian Studies (CSAS) |website= U-M LSA |access-date=2 March 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071211204817/http://www.ii.umich.edu/csas/ |archive-date=11 December 2007 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://millenniumindicators.un.org/unsd/methods/m49/m49regin.htm#asia |title=Composition of macro geographical (continental) regions, geographical sub-regions, and selected economic and other groupings |publisher=[[UNdata]] | date=26 April 2011 |access-date=13 July 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110713041240/http://millenniumindicators.un.org/unsd/methods/m49/m49regin.htm |archive-date=13 July 2011 |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite encyclopedia |url=https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/7798/Afghanistan |title=Afghanistan |encyclopedia=[[Encyclopædia Britannica]] |access-date=17 March 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100225235842/https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/7798/Afghanistan |archive-date=25 February 2010 |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |last1=Tan |first1=Anjelica |title=A new strategy for Central Asia |url=https://thehill.com/opinion/international/483511-a-new-strategy-for-central-asia |work=[[The Hill (newspaper)|The Hill]] |date=18 February 2020 |quote=, as Afghan President Ashraf Ghani has noted, Afghanistan is itself a Central Asian country. |access-date=28 March 2020 |archive-date=16 August 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210816055841/https://thehill.com/opinion/international/483511-a-new-strategy-for-central-asia |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite book |title=Afghanistan {{!}} meaning in the Cambridge English Dictionary |publisher=Cambridge University |isbn=9781107619500 |url=https://dictionary.cambridge.org/dictionary/english/afghanistan |access-date=28 March 2020 |archive-date=6 October 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191006145913/https://dictionary.cambridge.org/dictionary/english/afghanistan |url-status=live }}</ref> The region centered at Afghanistan is considered the "crossroads of Asia",<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=GB-JV2eOr2UC&pg=PA257|title=Early Buddhist Transmission and Trade Networks: Mobility and Exchange Within and Beyond the Northwestern Borderlands of South Asia|first=Jason|last=Neelis|date=19 November 2010|publisher=BRILL|isbn=978-9004181595}}</ref> and the country has had the nickname Heart of Asia.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.cemml.colostate.edu/cultural/09476/afgh01.html |title=Afghanistan: Cultural Crossroad at the Heart of Asia |access-date=17 June 2020 |archive-date=30 August 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200830013605/https://www.cemml.colostate.edu/cultural/09476/afgh01.html |url-status=dead }}</ref> The renowned [[Urdu]] poet [[Allama Iqbal]] once wrote about the country:

{{Blockquote|Asia is a body of water and earth, of which the Afghan nation is the heart. From its discord, the discord of Asia; and from its accord, the accord of Asia.}}

At over {{convert|652864|km2|abbr=on}},<ref>{{cite web|title=Land area (sq. km) |url=http://data.worldbank.org/indicator/AG.LND.TOTL.K2 |work=World Development Indicators |publisher=World Bank |access-date=13 October 2011 |year=2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131029185313/http://data.worldbank.org/indicator/AG.LND.TOTL.K2 |archive-date=29 October 2013 }}</ref> Afghanistan is the world's [[List of countries and dependencies by area|41st largest country]].<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/fields/2147.html#af |title=CIA Factbook – Area: 41 |publisher=Central Intelligence Agency | date=26 November 1991 |access-date=4 February 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140131115000/https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/fields/2147.html |archive-date=31 January 2014 }}</ref> It is slightly bigger than France and smaller than Myanmar, and about the size of Texas in the United States. There is no coastline, as Afghanistan is [[landlocked]]. Afghanistan shares its longest land border (the [[Durand Line]]) with Pakistan to the east and south, followed by borders with Tajikistan to the northeast, Iran to the west, Turkmenistan to the north-west, Uzbekistan to the north and China to the far northeast; India recognizes a border with Afghanistan through Pakistani-administered [[Kashmir]].<ref>[https://www.mha.gov.in/sites/default/files/BMIntro-1011.pdf "International Land Border."] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210308124901/https://www.mha.gov.in/sites/default/files/BMIntro-1011.pdf |date=8 March 2021 }} India Ministry of Home Affairs. Retrieved 13 November 2021.</ref> Clockwise from south-west, Afghanistan shares borders with the [[Sistan and Baluchestan Province]], South Khorasan Province and [[Razavi Khorasan Province]] of Iran; [[Ahal Region]], [[Mary Region]] and [[Lebap Region]] of Turkmenistan; [[Surxondaryo Region]] of Uzbekistan; [[Khatlon Region]] and [[Gorno-Badakhshan Autonomous Region]] of Tajikistan; [[Xinjiang|Xinjiang Uyghur Autonomous Region]] of China; and the [[Gilgit-Baltistan|Gilgit-Baltistan territory]], [[Khyber Pakhtunkhwa|Khyber Pakhtunkhwa province]] and [[Balochistan, Pakistan|Balochistan province]] of Pakistan.<ref>{{cite book|author=Cary Gladstone|title=Afghanistan Revisited|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=aH_KCWVB6W0C&pg=PA121|year=2001|publisher=Nova Publishers|isbn=978-1-59033-421-8|page=121}}</ref>

[[File:FrontLines Environment Photo Contest Winner -5 (5808476109).jpg|thumb|Floodplain cultivation in the [[Wakhan Corridor]], [[Pamir Mountains]]]]

The geography in Afghanistan is varied, but is mostly mountainous and rugged, with some unusual mountain ridges accompanied by plateaus and river basins.<ref name="Fisher-2002">{{Cite book|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=LclscNCTz9oC&pg=PA59|title=The Far East and Australasia 2003|date=2002|publisher=Psychology Press|isbn=9781857431339|chapter=Afghanistan: Physical and Social Geography|last=Fisher|first=W. B.|pages=59–60}}</ref> It is dominated by the [[Hindu Kush]] range, the western extension of the [[Himalayas]] that stretches to eastern [[Tibet]] via the [[Pamir Mountains]] and [[Karakoram Mountains]] in Afghanistan's far north-east. Most of the highest points are in the east consisting of fertile mountain valleys, often considered part of the "[[Roof of the World]]". The Hindu Kush ends at the west-central highlands, creating plains in the north and southwest, namely the [[Turkestan]] Plains and the [[Sistan Basin]]; these two regions consist of rolling grasslands and semi-deserts, and hot windy deserts, respectively.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=l_AdBQAAQBAJ&pg=PT26|title=Afghanistan|first=Kim|last=Whitehead|date=21 October 2014|publisher=Simon and Schuster|isbn=9781633559899}}</ref> Forests exist in the corridor between [[Nuristan]] and [[Paktika]] provinces (see [[East Afghan montane conifer forests]]),<ref>{{cite web |url=https://cropwatch.unl.edu/documents/Forests%20of%20Afghanistan.pdf |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/https://cropwatch.unl.edu/documents/Forests%20of%20Afghanistan.pdf |archive-date=9 October 2022 |url-status=live |title=Forests of Afghanistan |website=cropwatch.unl.edu |access-date=28 June 2021 }}</ref> and [[tundra]] in the northeast. The country's highest point is [[Noshaq]], at {{convert|7492|m|abbr=on}} above sea level.<ref name="Factbook">{{Cite CIA World Factbook|country=Afghanistan|access-date=24 September 2022|year=2022}}</ref> The lowest point lies in [[Jowzjan Province]] along the Amu River bank, at {{convert|258|m|abbr=on}} above sea level.

[[File:Afghan topo en.jpg|thumb|upright=1.5|The mountainous [[topography]] of Afghanistan]]

Despite having numerous rivers and [[list of dams and reservoirs in Afghanistan|reservoirs]], large parts of the country are dry. The [[endorheic]] Sistan Basin is one of the driest regions in the world.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://postconflict.unep.ch/publications/sistan.pdf |title=History of Environmental Change in the Sistan Basin 1976–2005 |access-date=20 July 2007 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070807214557/http://postconflict.unep.ch/publications/sistan.pdf |archive-date=7 August 2007 |url-status=live}}</ref> The [[Amu Darya]] rises at the north of the Hindu Kush, while the nearby [[Hari Rud]] flows west towards [[Herat]], and the [[Arghandab River]] from the central region southwards. To the south and west of the Hindu Kush flow a number of streams that are tributaries of the [[Indus River]],<ref name="Fisher-2002"/> such as the [[Helmand River]]. The [[Kabul River]] flows in an easterly direction to the Indus ending at the Indian Ocean.<ref name="afghanistans.com-1">{{cite web|url=https://www.afghanistans.com/Information/RiversLakes.htm|title=Afghanistan Rivers Lakes – Afghanistan's Web Site|website=afghanistans.com|access-date=12 June 2020|archive-date=15 August 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210815172309/https://www.afghanistans.com/Information/RiversLakes.htm|url-status=dead}}</ref> Afghanistan receives heavy snow during the winter in the [[Hindu Kush]] and [[Pamir Mountains]], and the melting snow in the spring season enters the [[List of rivers of Afghanistan|rivers, lakes, and streams]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/NaturalHazards/view.php?id=16066 |title=Snow in Afghanistan: Natural Hazards |publisher=NASA | date=3 February 2006 |access-date=6 May 2012|url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131230235107/http://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/NaturalHazards/view.php?id=16066 |archive-date=30 December 2013 }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |url=http://in.reuters.com/article/afghanistan-snow-idINDEE80H0BR20120118 |work=Reuters |title=Snow may end Afghan drought, but bitter winter looms | date=18 January 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131230233432/http://in.reuters.com/article/2012/01/18/afghanistan-snow-idINDEE80H0BR20120118 |archive-date=30 December 2013}}</ref> However, two-thirds of the country's water flows into the neighboring countries of [[Iran]], Pakistan, and [[Turkmenistan]]. As reported in 2010, the state needs more than US$2&nbsp;billion to rehabilitate its irrigation systems so that the water is properly managed.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.csmonitor.com/World/Asia-South-Central/2010/0615/Afghanistan-s-woeful-water-management-delights-neighbors |title=Afghanistan's woeful water management delights neighbors |work=The Christian Science Monitor | date=15 June 2010 |access-date=14 November 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101114131338/http://www.csmonitor.com/World/Asia-South-Central/2010/0615/Afghanistan-s-woeful-water-management-delights-neighbors |archive-date=14 November 2010 |url-status=live}}</ref>

In Afghanistan, [[forest cover]] is around 2% of the total land area, equivalent to 1,208,440 hectares (ha) of forest in 2020, which was unchanged from 1990. In 2020, naturally regenerating forest covered 1,208,440 hectares (ha). Of the naturally regenerating forest, 0% was reported to be [[primary forest]] (consisting of native tree species with no clearly visible indications of human activity) and around 0% of the forest area was found within protected areas. For the year 2015, 100% of the forest area was reported to be under [[State ownership|public ownership]].<ref>{{Cite book |url=https://openknowledge.fao.org/server/api/core/bitstreams/a6e225da-4a31-4e06-818d-ca3aeadfd635/content |title=Terms and Definitions FRA 2025 Forest Resources Assessment, Working Paper 194 |publisher=Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations |year=2023}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Global Forest Resources Assessment 2020, Afghanistan |url=https://fra-data.fao.org/assessments/fra/2020/AFG/home/overview |website=Food Agriculture Organization of the United Nations}}</ref>

The northeastern Hindu Kush [[mountain range]], in and around the [[Badakhshan Province]] of Afghanistan, is in a [[natural environment#Geological activity|geologically active]] area where earthquakes may occur almost every year.<ref>{{cite tech report |last=Crone |first=Anthony J. |title=Earthquakes Pose a Serious Hazard in Afghanistan |url=http://pubs.usgs.gov/fs/2007/3027/pdf/FS07-3027_508.pdf |publisher=[[US Geological Survey]] |access-date=14 October 2011 |id=Fact Sheet FS 2007–3027 | date=April 2007|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130727072311/http://pubs.usgs.gov/fs/2007/3027/pdf/FS07-3027_508.pdf |archive-date=27 July 2013 }}</ref> They can be deadly and destructive, causing [[landslide]]s in some parts or [[2009 Afghan avalanches|avalanches]] during the winter.<ref>{{cite web|title=Earthquake Hazards |url=http://afghanistan.cr.usgs.gov/earthquake-hazards |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111004040745/http://afghanistan.cr.usgs.gov/earthquake-hazards |url-status=dead |archive-date=4 October 2011 |work=USGS Projects in Afghanistan |publisher=US Geological Survey |access-date=13 October 2011 | date=1 August 2011 }}</ref> In June 2022, a [[June 2022 Afghanistan earthquake|destructive 5.9 earthquake]] struck near the border with Pakistan, killing at least 1,150 people and sparking fears of a major humanitarian crisis.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Noroozi |first1=Ebrahim |title=Deadly quake a new blow to Afghans enervated by poverty |url=https://www.ctvnews.ca/world/deadly-quake-a-new-blow-to-afghans-enervated-by-poverty-1.5963026 |access-date=3 July 2022 |agency=[[Associated Press]] |publisher=[[CTV News]] |date=25 June 2022 |archive-date=3 July 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220703044828/https://www.ctvnews.ca/world/deadly-quake-a-new-blow-to-afghans-enervated-by-poverty-1.5963026 |url-status=live }}</ref> On 7 October 2023, a [[October 2023 Afghanistan earthquake|6.3 magnitude earthquake]] struck northwest of Herat, killing over 1,400 people.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://reliefweb.int/report/afghanistan/afghanistan-earthquakes-herat-province-health-situation-report-no-12-november-2023|website=reliefweb.int|title=Afghanistan: Earthquakes in Herat Province, Health Situation Report No. 12, November 2023|date=2 December 2023|access-date=19 February 2024|archive-date=5 April 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240405192018/https://reliefweb.int/report/afghanistan/afghanistan-earthquakes-herat-province-health-situation-report-no-12-november-2023|url-status=live}}</ref>

===Climate===
[[File:Koppen-Geiger Map AFG present.svg|thumb|upright=1.3|[[Köppen climate classification|Köppen climate map]] of Afghanistan<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Beck |first1=Hylke E. |last2=Zimmermann |first2=Niklaus E. |last3=McVicar |first3=Tim R. |last4=Vergopolan |first4=Noemi |last5=Berg |first5=Alexis |last6=Wood |first6=Eric F.|author6-link=Eric Franklin Wood |title=Present and future Köppen-Geiger climate classification maps at 1-km resolution |journal=Scientific Data |date=30 October 2018 |volume=5 |pages=180214 |doi=10.1038/sdata.2018.214 |pmid=30375988 |pmc=6207062 |bibcode=2018NatSD...580214B }}</ref>]]

Afghanistan has a [[continental climate]] with harsh winters in the [[Hazarajat|central highlands]], the glaciated northeast (around [[Nuristan]]), and the [[Wakhan Corridor]], where the average temperature in January is below {{convert|-15|C}} and can reach {{convert|-26|C}},<ref name="Fisher-2002"/> and hot summers in the low-lying areas of the [[Sistan Basin]] of the southwest, the [[Jalalabad]] basin in the east, and the [[Afghan Turkestan|Turkestan]] plains along the [[Amu River]] in the north, where temperatures average over {{convert|35|C}} in July<ref name="Factbook"/><ref>{{cite web|title=Afghanistan {{!}} History, Map, Flag, Capital, Population, & Languages|url=https://www.britannica.com/place/Afghanistan|access-date=23 March 2021|website=Encyclopædia Britannica|archive-date=11 November 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211111113403/https://www.britannica.com/place/Afghanistan|url-status=live}}</ref> and can go over {{convert|43|C}}.<ref name="Fisher-2002"/> The country is generally [[arid]] in the summers, with most rainfall falling between December and April. The lower areas of northern and western Afghanistan are the driest, with precipitation more common in the east. Although proximate to India, Afghanistan is mostly outside the [[monsoon]] zone,<ref name="Fisher-2002"/> except the [[Nuristan Province]] which occasionally receives summer monsoon rain.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=69V7DwAAQBAJ&pg=PA31|title=Terraced Landscapes|first=Drago|last=Kladnik|date=1 September 2017|publisher=Založba ZRC|isbn=9789610500193}}</ref>

===Biodiversity===
{{Main|Wildlife of Afghanistan}}
[[File:Schneeleopard- P1020498.jpg|thumb|The [[snow leopard]] is the official national animal of Afghanistan.]]

Several types of mammals exist throughout Afghanistan. [[Snow leopard]]s, [[Siberian tiger]]s and [[brown bear]]s live in the high elevation [[alpine tundra]] regions. The [[Marco Polo sheep]] exclusively live in the [[Wakhan Corridor]] region of north-east Afghanistan. Foxes, [[wolves]], [[otter]]s, [[deer]], [[wild sheep]], [[lynx]] and other big cats populate the mountain forest region of the east. In the semi-desert northern plains, wildlife include a variety of birds, [[hedgehog]]s, [[gopher]]s, and large carnivores such as [[Golden jackal|jackal]]s and [[Striped hyena|hyena]]s.<ref name="Gritzner-2009">{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=q5QY3vCg338C&pg=PA22|title=Afghanistan, Second Edition|first1=Jeffrey A.|last1=Gritzner|first2=John F.|last2=Shroder|date=14 June 2009|publisher=Infobase Publishing|isbn=9781438104805}}</ref>

[[Gazelle]]s, [[wild boar|wild pigs]] and jackals populate the [[steppe]] plains of the south and west, while [[mongoose]] and cheetahs exist in the semi-desert south.<ref name="Gritzner-2009"/> [[Marmot]]s and [[ibex]] also live in the high mountains of Afghanistan, and [[pheasant]]s exist in some parts of the country.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.afghanistans.com/Information/PlantAnimal.htm|title=Afghanistan Plant and Animal Life – Afghanistan's Web Site|website=afghanistans.com|access-date=14 June 2020|archive-date=11 July 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210711065504/http://www.afghanistans.com/information/PlantAnimal.htm|url-status=dead}}</ref> The [[Afghan hound]] is a native breed of dog known for its fast speed and its long hair; it is relatively known in the west.<ref name="Wahab-2007">{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=y20MTE0C9kwC&pg=PA10|title=A Brief History of Afghanistan|first1=Shaista|last1=Wahab|first2=Barry|last2=Youngerman|date=14 June 2007|publisher=Infobase Publishing|isbn=9781438108193}}</ref>

[[Endemic]] fauna of Afghanistan includes the [[Afghan flying squirrel]], [[Afghan snowfinch]], ''[[Paradactylodon]]'' (or the "[[Paghman]] mountain salamander"), ''[[Stigmella kasyi]]'', ''[[Vulcaniella kabulensis]]'', [[Afghan leopard gecko]], ''[[Wheeleria parviflorellus]]'', among others. Endemic flora include ''[[Iris afghanica]]''. Afghanistan has a wide variety of birds despite its relatively arid climate – an estimated 460 species of which 235 breed within.<ref name="Wahab-2007"/>

The forest region of Afghanistan has vegetation such as [[pine tree]]s, [[spruce tree]]s, [[fir tree]]s and [[larch]]es, whereas the steppe grassland regions consist of [[broadleaf tree]]s, short grass, [[perennial plant]]s and [[shrubland]]s. The colder high elevation regions are composed of hardy grasses and small flowering plants.<ref name="Gritzner-2009"/> Several regions are designated [[List of protected areas of Afghanistan|protected areas]]; there are three [[national parks]]: [[Band-e Amir]], [[Wakhan National Park|Wakhan]] and [[Nuristan National Park|Nuristan]]. Afghanistan had a 2018 [[Forest Landscape Integrity Index]] mean score of 8.85/10, ranking it 15th globally out of 172 countries.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Grantham|first1=H. S.|last2=Duncan|first2=A.|last3=Evans|first3=T. D.|last4=Jones|first4=K. R.|last5=Beyer|first5=H. L.|last6=Schuster|first6=R.|last7=Walston|first7=J.|last8=Ray|first8=J. C.|last9=Robinson|first9=J. G.|last10=Callow|first10=M.|last11=Clements|first11=T.|last12=Costa|first12=H. M.|last13=DeGemmis|first13=A.|last14=Elsen|first14=P. R.|last15=Ervin|first15=J.|last16=Franco|first16=P.|last17=Goldman|first17=E.|last18=Goetz|first18=S.|last19=Hansen|first19=A.|last20=Hofsvang|first20=E.|last21=Jantz|first21=P.|last22=Jupiter|first22=S.|last23=Kang|first23=A.|last24=Langhammer|first24=P.|last25=Laurance|first25=W. F.|last26=Lieberman|first26=S.|last27=Linkie|first27=M.|last28=Malhi|first28=Y.|last29=Maxwell|first29=S.|last30=Mendez|first30=M.|last31=Mittermeier|first31=R.|last32=Murray|first32=N. J.|last33=Possingham|first33=H.|last34=Radachowsky|first34=J.|last35=Saatchi|first35=S.|last36=Samper|first36=C.|last37=Silverman|first37=J.|last38=Shapiro|first38=A.|last39=Strassburg|first39=B.|last40=Stevens|first40=T.|last41=Stokes|first41=E.|last42=Taylor|first42=R.|last43=Tear|first43=T.|last44=Tizard|first44=R.|last45=Venter|first45=O.|last46=Visconti|first46=P.|last47=Wang|first47=S.|last48=Watson|first48=J. E. M.|title=Anthropogenic modification of forests means only 40% of remaining forests have high ecosystem integrity – Supplementary Material|journal=Nature Communications|volume=11|issue=1|year=2020|page=5978|issn=2041-1723|doi=10.1038/s41467-020-19493-3|pmid=33293507|pmc=7723057|bibcode=2020NatCo..11.5978G |doi-access=free}}</ref>

==Government and politics==
{{Main|Politics of Afghanistan}}
[[File:200229-D-AP390-1529 (49603221753).jpg|thumb|[[Arg, Kabul|The Arg]] (the Presidential palace) in Kabul, photographed in 2020]]

Following the effective collapse of the [[Islamic Republic of Afghanistan]] during the [[2021 Taliban offensive]], the Taliban declared the country an Islamic Emirate. A new caretaker government was announced on 7 September.<ref name="BBCHardliners"/> {{As of|2021|09|08}}, no other country had formally recognized the Islamic Emirate of Afghanistan as the ''de jure'' government of Afghanistan.<ref>{{cite web |title=Afghanistan: Taliban increasingly violent against protesters – UN |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/live/world-58279900 |access-date=25 November 2021 |publisher=BBC News |date=24 August 2021 |archive-date=20 August 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210820090407/https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/live/world-58279900 |url-status=live }}</ref> According to the [[V-Dem Democracy indices]] Afghanistan in 2023 was the third least [[Democracy in Asia|electoral democratic country in Asia]].<ref>{{cite web |last=V-Dem Institute |year=2023 |title=The V-Dem Dataset |url=https://www.v-dem.net/data/the-v-dem-dataset/ |access-date=14 October 2023 |archive-date=8 December 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221208183458/https://www.v-dem.net/data/the-v-dem-dataset/ |url-status=live }}</ref>

A traditional instrument of governance in Afghanistan is the ''[[loya jirga]]'' (grand assembly), a [[Pashtun]] consultative meeting that was mainly organized for choosing a new [[head of state]], adopting a new constitution, or to settle national or regional issue such as war.<ref>{{cite news | url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/south_asia/1782079.stm |publisher=BBC News |title=Q&A: What is a loya jirga? |date=1 July 2002 |access-date=2 June 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190523165931/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/south_asia/1782079.stm |archive-date=23 May 2019 |url-status=live}}</ref> Loya jirgas have been held since at least 1747,{{sfn|Barfield|2012|page=295}} with the most recent one occurring in August 2020.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://tolonews.com/index.php/afghanistan/politicians-express-mixed-reactions-loya-jirga|title=Politicians Express Mixed Reactions to Loya Jirga|publisher=TOLO News|date=7 August 2020|access-date=10 August 2020|archive-date=10 August 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200810023639/https://tolonews.com/index.php/afghanistan/politicians-express-mixed-reactions-loya-jirga|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://tolonews.com/afghanistan/loya-jirga-approves-release-400-taliban-prisoners|title=Loya Jirga Approves Release of 400 Taliban Prisoners|date=9 August 2020|access-date=10 August 2020|publisher=TOLO News|archive-date=10 August 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200810124524/https://tolonews.com/afghanistan/loya-jirga-approves-release-400-taliban-prisoners|url-status=live}}</ref>

===Development of Taliban government===
{{Main|Government of the Islamic Emirate of Afghanistan}}
{{See also|Cabinet of Afghanistan#Islamic Emirate (2021–present)}}
{{multiple image
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| caption_align = center
| image1 = Hasan Akhund.png
| caption1 = [[Hasan Akhund]]<br /><small>Acting [[Prime Minister of Afghanistan|Prime Minister]]</small>
| image2 = Sirajuddin Haqqani (cropped).png
| caption2 = [[Sirajuddin Haqqani]]<br /><small>First [[Deputy Leader of the Islamic Emirate of Afghanistan|Deputy Leader]] and Acting [[Interior Minister of Afghanistan|Interior Minister]]</small>
| image3 = Mullah Yaqoob in January 2022.png
| caption3 = [[Mullah Yaqoob]]<br /><small>Second Deputy Leader and Acting [[Ministry of Defense (Afghanistan)|Defense Minister]]</small>
| image4 = Abdul_Ghani_Baradar.jpg
| caption4 = [[Abdul Ghani Baradar]]<br /><small>Third Deputy Leader and Acting [[Prime Minister of Afghanistan|First Deputy Prime Minister]]</small>
}}

On 17 August 2021, the leader of the Taliban-affiliated [[Hezb-e Islami Gulbuddin|Hezb-e-Islami Gulbuddin]] party, [[Gulbuddin Hekmatyar]], met with both [[Hamid Karzai]], the former [[President of Afghanistan]], and [[Abdullah Abdullah]], the former chairman of the High Council for National Reconciliation and former [[Chief Executive (Afghanistan)|Chief Executive]], in [[Doha]], [[Qatar]], with the aim of forming a [[national unity government]].<ref>{{cite web|date=16 August 2021|title=Afghanistan's Hekmatyar says heading for Doha with Karzai, Abdullah Abdullah to meet Taliban – Al Jazeera|url=https://www.reuters.com/world/asia-pacific/afghanistans-hekmatyar-says-heading-doha-with-karzai-abdullah-abdullah-meet-2021-08-16/|access-date=18 August 2021|work=Reuters|archive-date=16 August 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210816202122/https://www.reuters.com/world/asia-pacific/afghanistans-hekmatyar-says-heading-doha-with-karzai-abdullah-abdullah-meet-2021-08-16/|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|last=AFP|date=18 August 2021|title=Taliban met ex-Afghan leader Karzai, Abdullah Abdullah|url=https://www.brecorder.com/news/40114270|access-date=18 August 2021|website=Brecorder|archive-date=18 August 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210818215958/https://www.brecorder.com/news/40114270|url-status=live}}</ref> President [[Ashraf Ghani]], having fled the country during the Taliban advance to either [[Tajikistan]] or [[Uzbekistan]], emerged in the United Arab Emirates and said that he supported such negotiations and was in talks to return to Afghanistan.<ref>{{cite web|last1=Macias|first2=Natasha |last2=Turak|first1= Amanda|date=18 August 2021|title=Ousted Afghan President Ashraf Ghani resurfaces in UAE after fleeing Kabul, Emirati government says|url=https://www.cnbc.com/2021/08/18/afghan-president-ashraf-ghani-is-in-uae-after-fleeing-afghanistan.html|access-date=19 August 2021|publisher=[[CNBC]]|archive-date=18 August 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210818141114/https://www.cnbc.com/2021/08/18/afghan-president-ashraf-ghani-is-in-uae-after-fleeing-afghanistan.html|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=Ghani says he backs talks as Taliban meet with Karzai, Abdullah|url=https://www.newagebd.net/article/146741/ghani-says-he-backs-talks-as-taliban-meet-with-karzai-abdullah|access-date=18 August 2021|website=New Age|archive-date=18 August 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210818215958/https://www.newagebd.net/article/146741/ghani-says-he-backs-talks-as-taliban-meet-with-karzai-abdullah|url-status=live}}</ref> Many figures within the Taliban generally agreed that continuation of the [[2004 Constitution of Afghanistan]] may, if correctly applied, be workable as the basis for the new religious state as their objections to the former government were political, and not religious.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Osman|first1=Borhan|url=https://cic.nyu.edu/sites/default/files/taliban_future_state_final.pdf |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/https://cic.nyu.edu/sites/default/files/taliban_future_state_final.pdf |archive-date=9 October 2022 |url-status=live|title=Taliban Views on a Future State|date=July 2016|publisher=[[New York University]]|page=7}}</ref>

Hours after the final flight of American troops left Kabul on 30 August, a Taliban official interviewed said that a new government would likely be announced as early as Friday 3 September after [[Jumu'ah]]. It was added that [[Hibatullah Akhundzada]] would be officially named [[Head of the Islamic Emirate of Afghanistan|Emir]], with cabinet ministers being revealed at the [[Arg (Kabul)|Arg]] in an official ceremony. Abdul Ghani Baradar would be named [[head of government]] as [[Prime Minister of Afghanistan|Prime Minister]], while other important positions would go to [[Sirajuddin Haqqani]] and [[Mullah Yaqoob]]. Beneath the supreme leader, day-to-day governance will be entrusted to the [[Cabinet of Afghanistan#Islamic Emirate (2021–present)|cabinet]].<ref>{{cite web|date=2 September 2021|title=Afghanistan: Taliban expected to announce new government|url=http://www.theguardian.com/world/2021/sep/02/afghanistan-taliban-expected-to-announce-new-government|access-date=2 September 2021|website=[[The Guardian]]|archive-date=2 September 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210902115607/http://www.theguardian.com/world/2021/sep/02/afghanistan-taliban-expected-to-announce-new-government|url-status=live}}</ref>

In a report by CNN-News18, sources said the new government was going to be governed similarly to Iran with Hibatullah Akhundzada as supreme leader similar to the role of [[Ali Khamenei|Saayid Ali Khamenei]], and would be based out of [[Kandahar]]. Baradar or Yaqoob would be head of government as [[Prime minister]]. The government's ministries and agencies will be under a cabinet presided over by the Prime Minister. The Supreme Leader would preside over an [[Executive (government)|executive body]] known as the Supreme Council with anywhere from 11 to 72 members. [[Abdul Hakim Haqqani]] is likely to be promoted to [[Chief justice]]. According to the report, the new government will take place within the framework of an amended [[1964 Constitution of Afghanistan]].<ref>{{cite web|date=31 August 2021|title=Taliban to Follow Iran Model in Afghanistan; Reclusive Hibatullah Akhundzada to be Supreme Leader|url=https://www.news18.com/news/world/talibans-govt-in-afghanistan-on-iran-model-reclusive-hibatullah-akhundzada-to-be-supreme-leader-4149431.html|access-date=3 September 2021|website=News18|archive-date=31 August 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210831155248/https://www.news18.com/news/world/talibans-govt-in-afghanistan-on-iran-model-reclusive-hibatullah-akhundzada-to-be-supreme-leader-4149431.html|url-status=live}}</ref> Government formation was delayed due to concerns about forming a broad-based government acceptable to the international community.<ref>{{Cite news|title=Taliban again postpone Afghan govt formation announcement|work=The Economic Times|url=https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/news/international/world-news/taliban-again-postpone-afghan-govt-formation-announcement/articleshow/85923976.cms?from=mdr|access-date=4 September 2021|archive-date=4 September 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210904171526/https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/news/international/world-news/taliban-again-postpone-afghan-govt-formation-announcement/articleshow/85923976.cms?from=mdr|url-status=live}}</ref> It was later added however that the Taliban's Rahbari Shura, the group's leadership council was divided between the hardline Haqqani Network and moderate Abdul Ghani Baradar over appointments needed to form an "inclusive" government. Reports claimed that this culminated in a skirmish which led to Baradar being injured and treated in Pakistan, however this was denied by Baradar himself.<ref>{{cite web|date=5 September 2021|title=New 'inclusive' Afghanistan government to be announced soon: Taliban|url=https://www.livemint.com/news/world/new-inclusive-afghanistan-government-to-be-announced-soon-taliban-11630841282911.html|access-date=5 September 2021|website=mint|archive-date=6 September 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210906081415/https://www.livemint.com/news/world/new-inclusive-afghanistan-government-to-be-announced-soon-taliban-11630841282911.html|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |date=15 September 2021 |title=Afghanistan: Taliban deputy denies reports of leadership row in new video |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-58555234 |access-date=1 July 2024}}</ref>

As of early September 2021 the Taliban were planning the cabinet to be men-only. Journalists and other human rights activists, mostly women, [[2021 Afghan protests|protested]] in [[Herat]] and Kabul, calling for women to be included.<ref>{{cite news|date=8 September 2021|title=Afghanistan: Women protest against all-male Taliban government|publisher=BBC News|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-58490819|access-date=9 September 2021|archive-date=8 September 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210908223524/https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-58490819|url-status=live}}</ref> The [[Cabinet of Afghanistan#Islamic Emirate (2021–present)|acting Cabinet]] announced on 7 September was men-only, and the [[Ministry of Women's Affairs (Afghanistan)|Ministry of Women's Affairs]] was abolished.<ref name="BBCHardliners">{{cite news|date=7 September 2021|title=Hardliners get key posts in new Taliban government|publisher=BBC News|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-58479750|access-date=9 September 2021|archive-date=7 September 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210907212403/https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-58479750|url-status=live}}</ref>

As of June 2024, no country has recognized the [[Taliban]] government as the legitimate authorities of Afghanistan, with the U.N adding that recognition was impossible so long as restrictions on female education and employment remained.<ref>{{Cite web |date=25 June 2024 |title=The Taliban confirm they will attend a UN-led meeting in Qatar on Afghanistan |url=https://apnews.com/article/taliban-delegation-doha-meeting-d3af51909b06aa7b086e44b25c464c77 |access-date=1 July 2024 |website=AP News}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Kumar |first=Ruchi |title=Why has China recognised Taliban's envoy to Beijing? |url=https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2024/2/14/is-chinas-recognition-of-afghanistan-envoy-a-diplomatic-win-for-taliban |access-date=1 July 2024 |publisher=Al Jazeera}}</ref> On 16 September 2024, the Taliban suspended polio vaccination campaigns in Afghanistan, as reported by the United Nations, posing a significant risk to global polio eradication efforts.<ref>{{cite news|title=Taliban have suspended polio vaccination campaigns in Afghanistan, the UN says|date=16 September 2024 |url=https://abcnews.go.com/International/wireStory/taliban-suspended-polio-vaccination-campaigns-afghanistan-113720519 |newspaper=ABC News|access-date=17 September 2024}}</ref>

===Administrative divisions===
{{Main|Provinces of Afghanistan|Districts of Afghanistan}}

Afghanistan is administratively divided into 34 provinces (''[[wilayat]]'').<ref>{{cite web|url=https://ariananews.co/en/afghanistan-provinces/|title=Afghanistan Provinces|access-date=4 July 2019|publisher=Ariana News|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190704210454/https://ariananews.co/en/afghanistan-provinces/|archive-date=4 July 2019|url-status=live}}</ref> Each province has a governor and a capital. The country is further divided into nearly 400 provincial [[Districts of Afghanistan|districts]], each of which normally covers a city or several villages. Each district is represented by a district governor.

The [[list of current governors of Afghanistan|provincial governors]] are now appointed by the [[Prime Minister of Afghanistan]], and the district governors are selected by the provincial governors.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2012/12/09/world/asia/for-afghan-officials-prospect-of-death-comes-with-territory.html|title=For Afghan Officials, Prospect of Death Comes With Territory|last=Ahmed|first=Azam|date=8 December 2012|work=The New York Times|access-date=7 April 2017|issn=0362-4331|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171019103603/http://www.nytimes.com/2012/12/09/world/asia/for-afghan-officials-prospect-of-death-comes-with-territory.html|archive-date=19 October 2017|url-status=live}}</ref> The provincial governors are representatives of the central government in Kabul and are responsible for all administrative and formal issues within their provinces. There are also provincial councils that are elected through direct and general elections for four years.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.iec.org.af/eng/content.php?id=5&cnid=24 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100827204439/http://www.iec.org.af/eng/content.php?id=5&cnid=24 |archive-date=27 August 2010 |title=Explaining Elections, Independent Election Commission of Afghanistan |publisher=Iec.org.af | date=9 October 2004 |access-date=4 February 2012}}</ref> The functions of provincial councils are to take part in provincial development planning and to participate in the monitoring and appraisal of other provincial governance institutions.

According to article 140 of the constitution and the presidential decree on electoral law, mayors of cities should be elected through free and direct elections for a four-year term. In practice however, mayors are appointed by the government.<ref>{{cite web|title=An Assessment of Afghanistan's Municipal Governance Framework|url=http://webarchive.urban.org/UploadedPDF/412448-An-Assessment-of-Afghanistans-Municipal-Governance-Framework.pdf|access-date=4 July 2019|publisher=Urban Institute Center on International Development and Governance|author1=Jamie Boex|author2=Grace Buencamino|author3=Deborah Kimble|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190704193403/http://webarchive.urban.org/UploadedPDF/412448-An-Assessment-of-Afghanistans-Municipal-Governance-Framework.pdf|archive-date=4 July 2019|url-status=live}}</ref>

[[File:Afghanistan provinces numbered.png|thumb|upright=1.5|Afghanistan is divided into [[provinces of Afghanistan|34 provinces]], which are further divided into a [[Districts of Afghanistan|number of districts]].]]

The 34 provinces in alphabetical order are:
{{colbegin|colwidth=15em}}
# [[Badakhshan Province|Badakhshan]]
# [[Badghis Province|Badghis]]
# [[Baghlan Province|Baghlan]]
# [[Balkh Province|Balkh]]
# [[Bamyan Province|Bamyan]]
# [[Daykundi Province|Daykundi]]
# [[Farah Province|Farah]]
# [[Faryab Province|Faryab]]
# [[Ghazni Province|Ghazni]]
# [[Ghor Province|Ghor]]
# [[Helmand Province|Helmand]]
# [[Herat Province|Herat]]
# [[Jowzjan Province|Jowzjan]]
# [[Kabul Province|Kabul]]
# [[Kandahar Province|Kandahar]]
# [[Kapisa Province|Kapisa]]
# [[Khost Province|Khost]]
# [[Kunar Province|Kunar]]
# [[Kunduz Province|Kunduz]]
# [[Laghman Province|Laghman]]
# [[Logar Province|Logar]]
# [[Nangarhar Province|Nangarhar]]
# [[Nimruz Province|Nimruz]]
# [[Nuristan Province|Nuristan]]
# [[Oruzgan Province|Oruzgan]]
# [[Paktia Province|Paktia]]
# [[Paktika Province|Paktika]]
# [[Panjshir Province|Panjshir]]
# [[Parwan Province|Parwan]]
# [[Samangan Province|Samangan]]
# [[Sar-e Pol Province|Sar-e Pol]]
# [[Takhar Province|Takhar]]
# [[Wardak Province|Wardak]]
# [[Zabul Province|Zabul]]
{{colend}}

===Foreign relations===
{{Main|Foreign relations of Afghanistan}}
{{See also|Ministry of Foreign Affairs (Afghanistan)}}

Afghanistan became a member of the United Nations in 1946.{{sfn|Dupree|1997|page=642}} Historically, Afghanistan had strong relations with Germany, one of the first countries to recognize Afghanistan's independence in 1919; the Soviet Union, which provided much aid and military training for Afghanistan's forces and includes the signing of a Treaty of Friendship in 1921 and 1978; and [[Afghanistan–India relations|India]], with which a friendship treaty was signed in 1950.<ref>{{cite web|title=Treaty of Friendship|url=https://www.mea.gov.in/bilateral-documents.htm?dtl/6584/Treaty+of+Friendship|access-date=31 December 2020|website=mea.gov.in|archive-date=19 January 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210119135256/https://www.mea.gov.in/bilateral-documents.htm?dtl/6584/Treaty+of+Friendship|url-status=live}}</ref> Relations with [[Afghanistan–Pakistan relations|Pakistan]] have often been tense for various reasons such as the [[Durand Line]] border issue and alleged Pakistani involvement in Afghan insurgent groups.

The present Islamic Emirate of Afghanistan is currently internationally [[Recognition of the Islamic Emirate of Afghanistan|unrecognized]], but has had notable unofficial ties with [[Afghanistan–China relations|China]], Pakistan, and Qatar.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2021-08-16/china-enters-high-stakes-relationship-with-post-u-s-afghanistan|title=China Embraces High-Stakes Taliban Relationship as U.S. Exits|date=16 August 2021|work=[[Bloomberg News]]|access-date=17 October 2021|archive-date=20 August 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210820193617/https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2021-08-16/china-enters-high-stakes-relationship-with-post-u-s-afghanistan|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2021/10/7/taliban-afghanistan-international-recognition|title=Taliban still struggling for international recognition|publisher=[[Al Jazeera Media Network]]|first=Ali M|last=Latifi|date=7 October 2021|access-date=15 October 2021|archive-date=13 October 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211013140538/https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2021/10/7/taliban-afghanistan-international-recognition|url-status=live}}</ref> Under the previous Islamic Republic of Afghanistan, it enjoyed cordial relations with a number of [[NATO]] and allied nations, particularly the [[Afghanistan–United States relations|United States]], [[Afghanistan–Canada relations|Canada]], [[Afghanistan–United Kingdom relations|United Kingdom]], [[Afghanistan–Germany relations|Germany]], Australia, and [[Afghanistan–Turkey relations|Turkey]]. In 2012, the United States and the then-republic in Afghanistan signed their [[US–Afghanistan Strategic Partnership Agreement|Strategic Partnership Agreement]] in which Afghanistan became a [[major non-NATO ally]].<ref>{{cite news|title=Hillary Clinton says Afghanistan 'major non-Nato ally'|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-asia-18750732|date=7 July 2012|publisher=BBC News|access-date=4 July 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190705181134/https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-asia-18750732|archive-date=5 July 2019|url-status=live}}</ref> Such qualification was rescinded by US President [[Joe Biden]] in July 2022.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Mizelle |first1=Shawna |last2=Fossum |first2=Sam |date=7 July 2022 |title=Biden will rescind Afghanistan's designation as a major non-NATO ally |url=https://www.cnn.com/2022/07/06/politics/afghanistan-major-non-nato-ally-designation-biden-rescind/index.html |access-date= |publisher=CNN |archive-date=10 August 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220810104553/https://www.cnn.com/2022/07/06/politics/afghanistan-major-non-nato-ally-designation-biden-rescind/index.html |url-status=live }}</ref>

===Military===
{{Main|Afghan Armed Forces}}

The [[Armed Forces of the Islamic Emirate of Afghanistan]] captured a large amount of weapons, hardware, vehicles, aerocrafts, and equipment from the [[Afghan National Security Forces]] following the [[2021 Taliban offensive]] and the [[Fall of Kabul (2021)|Fall of Kabul]]. The total value of the captured equipment has been estimated at US$83&nbsp;billion.<ref>{{cite web |date=12 October 2021 |title=White House defends letting billions in military equipment fall into Taliban hands |url=https://news.yahoo.com/white-house-defends-letting-billions-192700107.html |access-date=12 October 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211012095525/https://news.yahoo.com/white-house-defends-letting-billions-192700107.html |archive-date=12 October 2021}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last=Andrzejewski |first=Adam |title=Staggering Costs – U.S. Military Equipment Left Behind In Afghanistan |url=https://www.forbes.com/sites/adamandrzejewski/2021/08/23/staggering-costs--us-military-equipment-left-behind-in-afghanistan/ |access-date=12 October 2021 |website=Forbes |archive-date=11 October 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211011181932/https://www.forbes.com/sites/adamandrzejewski/2021/08/23/staggering-costs--us-military-equipment-left-behind-in-afghanistan/ |url-status=live }}</ref>

===Human rights===
{{See also|Human rights in Afghanistan|Women in Afghanistan|LGBT rights in Afghanistan|Treatment of women by the Taliban|Afghan refugees}}

Homosexuality is [[taboo]] in Afghan society;<ref>{{cite news |last=Ahmadzai |first=Aria |date=7 October 2016 |title=The LGBT community living under threat of death |publisher=BBC News |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-36884732 |access-date=13 June 2020 |archive-date=21 November 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221121132953/https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-36884732 |url-status=live }}</ref> according to the Penal Code, homosexual intimacy is punished by up to a year in prison.<ref>{{cite web |title=Afghanistan &#124; Human Dignity Trust |url=https://www.humandignitytrust.org./country-profile/afghanistan/ |website=humandignitytrust.org. |access-date=13 June 2020 |archive-date=14 April 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210414225749/https://www.humandignitytrust.org/country-profile/afghanistan/ |url-status=live }}</ref> Under [[Sharia law]] offenders can be [[Death penalty for homosexuality|punished by death]].<ref>{{Cite news |title='Fake Life': Being Gay in Afghanistan |url=https://www.rferl.org/a/afghanistan-being-gay-fake-life/28731934.html |website=RadioFreeEurope/RadioLiberty |last1=Bezhan |first1=Frud |access-date=12 June 2020 |archive-date=19 August 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210819061502/https://www.rferl.org/a/afghanistan-being-gay-fake-life/28731934.html |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |date=17 May 2016 |title=LGBT relationships are illegal in 74 countries, research finds |url=https://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/gay-lesbian-bisexual-relationships-illegal-in-74-countries-a7033666.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190614095346/https://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/gay-lesbian-bisexual-relationships-illegal-in-74-countries-a7033666.html |archive-date=14 June 2019 |access-date=3 June 2019 |work=[[The Independent]]}}</ref> However, an ancient tradition involving male homosexual acts between children and older men (typically wealthy warlords or elite people) called ''[[bacha bazi]]'' persists.

Religious minorities such as Sikhs,<ref>{{cite news |last=Kumar |first=Ruchi |date=28 March 2020 |title=For Afghan Sikhs, it's between violence and exodus|work=[[The Hindu]] |url=https://www.thehindu.com/news/international/for-afghan-sikhs-its-between-violence-and-exodus/article31194107.ece |access-date=11 September 2021 |issn=0971-751X |archive-date=3 April 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220403202634/https://www.thehindu.com/news/international/for-afghan-sikhs-its-between-violence-and-exodus/article31194107.ece |url-status=live }}</ref> Hindus,<ref>{{cite news |last1=Mashal |first1=Mujib |last2=Abed |first2=Fahim |date=19 July 2020 |title=India Offers Escape to Afghan Hindus and Sikhs Facing Attacks|work=The New York Times |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2020/07/19/world/asia/india-afghanistan-sikh-hindu.html |access-date=11 September 2021 |issn=0362-4331 |archive-date=3 April 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220403195219/https://www.nytimes.com/2020/07/19/world/asia/india-afghanistan-sikh-hindu.html |url-status=live }}</ref> and Christians have reportedly faced persecution.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Lyons |first1=Kate |last2=Blight |first2=Garry |date=27 July 2015 |title=Where in the world is the worst place to be a Christian? |url=http://www.theguardian.com/world/ng-interactive/2015/jul/27/where-in-the-world-is-it-worst-place-to-be-a-christian |work=[[The Guardian]] |access-date=26 April 2022 |archive-date=25 April 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220425220001/https://www.theguardian.com/world/ng-interactive/2015/jul/27/where-in-the-world-is-it-worst-place-to-be-a-christian |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{citation |title=Afghan clerics call for Christian convert to be killed despite Western outrage |date=23 March 2006 |url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=SY0IM-ZvDtM |publisher=[[AP Archive]] |access-date=26 April 2022 |archive-date=26 April 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220426074158/https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=SY0IM-ZvDtM |url-status=live }}</ref>

Since May 2022, all women in Afghanistan have been required by law to wear full-body coverings when in public (either a [[burqa]] or an [[abaya]] paired with a [[niqāb]], which leaves only the eyes uncovered).<ref>{{cite news |last=George |first=Susannah |title=Taliban orders head-to-toe coverings for Afghan women in public |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/world/2022/05/07/taliban-orders-head-toe-coverings-afghan-women-public/ |access-date=8 May 2022 |newspaper=The Washington Post |date=7 May 2022 |archive-date=7 May 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220507171800/https://www.washingtonpost.com/world/2022/05/07/taliban-orders-head-toe-coverings-afghan-women-public/ |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |last=Graham-Harrison |first=Emma |title=Taliban order all Afghan women to cover their faces in public |url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2022/may/07/taliban-order-all-afghan-women-to-wear-burqa |access-date=8 May 2022 |work=The Guardian |date=7 May 2022 |archive-date=14 May 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220514020908/https://www.theguardian.com/world/2022/may/07/taliban-order-all-afghan-women-to-wear-burqa |url-status=live }}</ref> First [[Deputy Leader of the Islamic Emirate of Afghanistan|Deputy Leader]] [[Sirajuddin Haqqani]] claimed the decree is only advisory and no form of [[hijab]] is compulsory in Afghanistan,<ref>{{cite news |last1=Shelley |first1=Jo |last2=Popalzai |first2=Ehsan |last3=Mengli |first3=Ahmet |last4=Picheta |first4=Rob |title=Top Taliban leader makes more promises on women's rights but quips 'naughty women' should stay home |url=https://www.cnn.com/2022/05/18/asia/amanpour-haqqani-taliban-women-interview-intl/index.html |access-date=20 May 2022 |publisher=CNN |date=19 May 2022 |location=Kabul, Afghanistan |archive-date=20 May 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220520015009/https://www.cnn.com/2022/05/18/asia/amanpour-haqqani-taliban-women-interview-intl/index.html |url-status=live }}</ref> though this contradicts the reality.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Zucchino |first1=David |last2=Akbary |first2=Yaqoob |title=The Taliban Pressure Women in Afghanistan to Cover Up |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2022/05/21/world/asia/taliban-afghanistan-women-hijab.html |access-date=22 May 2022 |work=The New York Times |date=21 May 2022 |location=Kabul, Afghanistan |archive-date=22 May 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220522011038/https://www.nytimes.com/2022/05/21/world/asia/taliban-afghanistan-women-hijab.html |url-status=live }}</ref> It has been speculated that there is a genuine internal policy division over women's rights between hardliners, including leader Hibatullah Akhundzada, and pragmatists, though they publicly present a united front.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Gannon |first1=Kathy |title=Taliban divisions deepen as Afghan women defy veil edict |url=https://apnews.com/article/afghanistan-religion-kabul-taliban-aec1a4bb5dc2a91fc19954093a5595e0 |access-date=20 May 2022 |work=[[Associated Press News]] |date=8 May 2022 |location=Kabul, Afghanistan |archive-date=20 May 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220520015011/https://apnews.com/article/afghanistan-religion-kabul-taliban-aec1a4bb5dc2a91fc19954093a5595e0 |url-status=live }}</ref> Another decree was issued shortly after the first, requiring female TV presenters to cover their faces during broadcasts.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Fraser |first1=Simon |title=Afghanistan's female TV presenters must cover their faces, say Taliban |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-61508072 |access-date=20 May 2022 |publisher=BBC News |date=19 May 2022 |archive-date=20 May 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220520005817/https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-61508072 |url-status=live }}</ref> Since the Taliban takeover, suicides among women have become more common, and the country could now be one of the few where the rate of suicide among women surpasses that among men.<ref>{{cite web |last=Nader |first=Zahra |title='Despair is settling in': female suicides on rise in Taliban's Afghanistan | website=The Guardian | date=28 August 2023 |url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2023/aug/28/despair-is-settling-in-female-suicides-on-rise-in-talibans-afghanistan |access-date=28 August 2023}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last=Thoms |first=Silja |title=How the Taliban are violating women's rights in Afghanistan |website=DW |date=8 July 2023 |url=https://www.dw.com/en/how-the-taliban-are-violating-womens-rights-in-afghanistan/a-66143514 |access-date=28 August 2023 |archive-date=28 August 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230828120349/https://www.dw.com/en/how-the-taliban-are-violating-womens-rights-in-afghanistan/a-66143514 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |first=Rabia |last=Ali |title=Activists sound alarm over surge in suicides among Afghan women |website=Anadolu Ajansı |date=1 August 2023 |url=https://www.aa.com.tr/en/asia-pacific/activists-sound-alarm-over-surge-in-suicides-among-afghan-women/2959080 |access-date=28 August 2023 |archive-date=28 August 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230828120350/https://www.aa.com.tr/en/asia-pacific/activists-sound-alarm-over-surge-in-suicides-among-afghan-women/2959080 |url-status=live }}</ref>

In May 2022, the Taliban dissolved Afghanistan's Human Rights Commission along with four other government departments, citing the country's budget deficit.<ref>{{cite news |title=Taliban dissolves Afghanistan's human rights commission as 'unnecessary' |url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2022/may/17/taliban-dissolves-afghanistans-human-rights-commission-as-unnecessary |access-date=20 May 2022 |agency=Reuters |work=[[The Guardian]] |date=16 May 2022 |archive-date=21 May 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220521122935/https://www.theguardian.com/world/2022/may/17/taliban-dissolves-afghanistans-human-rights-commission-as-unnecessary |url-status=live }}</ref>

==Economy==
{{Main|Economy of Afghanistan}}
[[File:Afghan pomegranate processing.jpg|thumb|Workers processing [[pomegranate production in Afghanistan|pomegranates]] (''anaar''), for which Afghanistan is famous in Asia]]

Afghanistan's nominal GDP was $20.1&nbsp;billion in 2020, or $81&nbsp;billion by [[purchasing power parity]] (PPP).<ref name="imf2"/> Its [[List of countries by GDP (PPP) per capita|GDP per capita]] is $2,459 (PPP) and $611 by nominal.<ref name="imf2"/> Despite having $1&nbsp;trillion or more in mineral deposits,<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2013-12-15/karzai-tells-investors-u-s-will-meet-his-security-pact-demands|title=Karzai Woos India Inc. as Delay on U.S. Pact Deters Billions|first=Kartikay|last=Mehrotra|publisher=[[Bloomberg News]]|date=16 December 2013|access-date=23 May 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171011222703/https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2013-12-15/karzai-tells-investors-u-s-will-meet-his-security-pact-demands|archive-date=11 October 2017|url-status=live}}</ref> it remains one of the world's [[least developed countries]]. Afghanistan's rough physical geography and its landlocked status has been cited as reasons why the country has always been among the least developed in the modern era – a factor where progress is also slowed by contemporary conflict and political instability.<ref name="Fisher-2002"/> The country imports over $7&nbsp;billion worth of goods but exports only $784&nbsp;million, mainly fruits and [[Nut (fruit)|nuts]]. It has $2.8&nbsp;billion in [[external debt]].<ref name="Factbook"/> The service sector contributed the most to the GDP (55.9%) followed by agriculture (23%) and industry (21.1%).<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/fields/214.html|title=Field Listing :: GDP – composition, by sector of origin – The World Factbook|publisher=Central Intelligence Agency|access-date=12 June 2020|archive-date=11 November 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201111214540/https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/fields/214.html|url-status=dead}}</ref>

[[Da Afghanistan Bank]] serves as the central bank of the nation<ref>{{Cite web| title = Interest Rate Cut in Place, Says Central Bank| work = TOLOnews| access-date = 28 May 2019| url = https://www.tolonews.com/business/interest-rate-cut-place-says-central-bank| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20190704193402/https://www.tolonews.com/business/interest-rate-cut-place-says-central-bank| archive-date = 4 July 2019| url-status = live}}</ref> and the [[Afghan afghani|Afghani]] (AFN) is the national currency, with an exchange rate of about 75 Afghanis to 1 US dollar.<ref>{{cite news|title=Afghani Falls Against Dollar By 3% In A Month|url=https://www.tolonews.com/business/afghani-falls-against-dollar-3-month|publisher=TOLOnews|date=18 April 2019|access-date=28 May 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190419141610/https://www.tolonews.com/business/afghani-falls-against-dollar-3-month|archive-date=19 April 2019|url-status=live}}</ref> A number of local and foreign banks operate in the country, including the [[Afghanistan International Bank]], [[New Kabul Bank]], [[Azizi Bank]], [[Pashtany Bank]], [[Standard Chartered Bank]], and the [[First MicroFinance Bank-Afghanistan|First Micro Finance Bank]].

[[File:Afghan carpets being sold.jpg|thumb|upright=1.35|[[Afghan rugs]] are one of Afghanistan's main exports.]]

One of the main drivers for the current economic recovery is the return of over 5&nbsp;million [[Afghan diaspora|expatriates]], who brought with them entrepreneurship and wealth-creating skills as well as much needed funds to start up businesses. Many Afghans are now involved in construction, which is one of the largest industries in the country.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2010/07/08/world/asia/08contract.html |title=Afghan Companies Say U.S. Did Not Pay Them |work=The New York Times|first=Carlotta |last=Gall | date=7 July 2010 |access-date=30 September 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130402005151/http://www.nytimes.com/2010/07/08/world/asia/08contract.html |archive-date=2 April 2013 }}</ref> Some of the major national construction projects include the $35&nbsp;billion New Kabul City next to the capital, the Aino Mena project in Kandahar, and the [[Ghazi Amanullah Khan Town]] near Jalalabad.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.dcda.gov.af/ |title=DCDA {{!}} Welcome to our Official Website |publisher=dcda.gov.af |access-date=4 February 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131230233634/http://www.dcda.gov.af/|archive-date=30 December 2013}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.najeebzarab.af/town_main.php |title=::Welcome to Ghazi Amanullah Khan Website:: |year=2009 |publisher=najeebzarab.af |access-date=15 August 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130429180506/http://www.najeebzarab.af/town_main.php |archive-date=29 April 2013 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.designmena.com/portfolio/aino-mina |title=Case study: Aino Mina |publisher=Designmena |first1= Oliver |last1=Ephgrave  |year=2011 |access-date=4 February 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140106003655/http://www.designmena.com/portfolio/aino-mina|archive-date=6 January 2014}}</ref> Similar development projects have also begun in [[Herat]], [[Mazar-e-Sharif]], and other cities.<ref>"[https://www.forbes.com/2009/09/02/mazar-i-sharif-khaled-amiri-opinions-21-century-cities-09-ann-marlowe.html A Humane Afghan City?]" by Ann Marlowe. ''[[Forbes]]''. 2 September 2009. {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131231001216/http://www.forbes.com/2009/09/02/mazar-i-sharif-khaled-amiri-opinions-21-century-cities-09-ann-marlowe.html | date=31 December 2013 }}.</ref> An estimated 400,000 people enter the labor market each year.<ref>{{cite web |author1=Michael Sprague |title=Afghanistan country profile |url=https://www.usaid.gov/sites/default/files/documents/1871/01%20Country%20Profile%20FINAL%20July%202016.pdf |website=USAID  |access-date=23 May 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170501062352/https://www.usaid.gov/sites/default/files/documents/1871/01%20Country%20Profile%20FINAL%20July%202016.pdf |archive-date=1 May 2017 |url-status=live }}</ref>

Several small companies and factories began operating in different parts of the country, which not only provide revenues to the government but also create new jobs. Improvements to the business environment have resulted in more than $1.5&nbsp;billion in [[Telecommunications|telecom]] investment and created more than 100,000 jobs since 2003.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://afghanistan.usaid.gov/en/programs/economic_growth#Tab=Description |title=Economic growth |publisher=USAID Afghanistan |access-date=25 September 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130929082351/http://afghanistan.usaid.gov/en/programs/economic_growth |archive-date=29 September 2013}}</ref> [[Afghan rug]]s are becoming popular again, allowing many carpet dealers around the country to hire more workers; in 2016–17 it was the fourth most exported group of items.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://uk.reuters.com/article/us-afghanistan-carpets-idUKKBN1HI2VL|title=Sales of Afghanistan's renowned carpets unravel as war intensifies |work=Reuters |date=12 April 2018 |last1=Nickel |first1=Rod |url-status=dead |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20200612214646/https://uk.reuters.com/article/us-afghanistan-carpets-idUKKBN1HI2VL |archive-date= 12 June 2020 }}</ref>

Afghanistan is a member of [[WTO]], [[SAARC]], [[Economic Cooperation Organization|ECO]], and [[OIC]]. It holds an observer status in [[Shanghai Cooperation Organisation|SCO]]. In 2018, a majority of imports come from either Iran, China, Pakistan and Kazakhstan, while 84% of exports are to Pakistan and India.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://wits.worldbank.org/CountryProfile/en/Country/AFG/Year/LTST/TradeFlow/EXPIMP/Partner/by-country |title= Afghanistan trade balance, exports and imports by country 2019  |website=World Integrated Trade Solution |access-date=13 June 2020}}</ref>

Since the Taliban's takeover of the country in August 2021, the United States has [[Afghan frozen assets|frozen about $9&nbsp;billion]] in assets belonging to the [[Da Afghanistan Bank|Afghan central bank]],<ref>{{cite news |title=Taliban blames U.S. as 1 million Afghan kids face death by starvation |url=https://www.cbsnews.com/news/afghanistan-taliban-blames-us-as-1-million-kids-face-starvation/ |publisher=[[CBS News]] |date=20 October 2021 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230712011202/https://www.cbsnews.com/news/afghanistan-taliban-blames-us-as-1-million-kids-face-starvation/ |archive-date= 12 July 2023 }}</ref> blocking the Taliban from accessing billions of dollars held in US bank accounts.<ref>{{cite news |title=Is the United States Driving Afghanistan Toward Famine? |url=https://messaging-custom-newsletters.nytimes.com/template/oakv2?campaign_id=30&emc=edit_int_20211029&instance_id=44044&nl=the-interpreter&productCode=INT&regi_id=57806557&segment_id=72971&te=1&uri=nyt%3A%2F%2Fnewsletter%2Fde4d3c8a-f805-5843-bf23-d2fd9a6bcf70&user_id=9aa4b6ac6a6bfa9626d966e353fed48b |work=The Interpreter |date=29 October 2021 |first1=Max |last1=Fisher |first2=Amanda |last2=Taub |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230326032707/https://messaging-custom-newsletters.nytimes.com/template/oakv2?campaign_id=30&emc=edit_int_20211029&instance_id=44044&nl=the-interpreter&productCode=INT&regi_id=57806557&segment_id=72971&te=1&uri=nyt%3A%2F%2Fnewsletter%2Fde4d3c8a-f805-5843-bf23-d2fd9a6bcf70&user_id=9aa4b6ac6a6bfa9626d966e353fed48b |archive-date= 26 March 2023 }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |title=Afghanistan's hunger crisis is a problem the U.S. can fix |url=https://www.msnbc.com/opinion/afghanistan-s-hunger-crisis-problem-u-s-can-fix-n1283618 |publisher=[[MSNBC]] |date=10 November 2021}}</ref>

The [[Economy of Afghanistan|GDP of Afghanistan]] is estimated to have dropped by 20% following the Taliban return to power. Following this, after months of free-fall, the Afghan economy began stabilizing, as a result of the Taliban's restrictions on smuggled imports, limits on banking transactions, and UN aid. In 2023, the Afghan economy began seeing signs of revival. This has also been followed by stable exchange rates, low inflation, stable revenue collection, and the rise of trade in exports.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Two Years into Taliban Rule, New Shocks Weaken Afghan Economy |url=https://www.usip.org/publications/2023/08/two-years-taliban-rule-new-shocks-weaken-afghan-economy |access-date=16 August 2023 |publisher=United States Institute of Peace}}</ref> In the third quarter of 2023, the [[Afghan afghani|Afghani]] rose to be the best performing currency in the world, climbing over 9% against the [[United States dollar|US dollar]].<ref>{{Cite news |date=25 September 2023 |title=Taliban Controls the World's Best Performing Currency This Quarter|work=Bloomberg.com |url=https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2023-09-25/taliban-controls-world-s-best-performing-currency-this-quarter |access-date=27 September 2023}}</ref>

===Agriculture===
[[File:Afghan Saffron.jpg|thumb|Afghan [[saffron]]]]

Agricultural production is the backbone of Afghanistan's economy<ref>{{cite web |url=http://afghanistan.usaid.gov/en/programs/agriculture |title=Agriculture |publisher=USAID |access-date=23 May 2017 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130929082220/http://afghanistan.usaid.gov/en/programs/agriculture |archive-date=29 September 2013 }}</ref> and has traditionally dominated the economy, employing about 40% of the workforce as of 2018.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.worldbank.org/en/country/afghanistan/publication/unlocking-potential-of-agriculture-for-afghanistan-growth |title=Unlocking the Potential of Agriculture for Afghanistan's Growth|publisher=World Bank}}</ref> The country is known for producing [[pomegranate production in Afghanistan|pomegranates]], grapes, apricots, melons, and several other fresh and dry fruits. Afghanistan also became the world's top producer of [[cannabis]] in 2010.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-afghanistan-cannabis-idUSTRE62U0IC20100331|title=Afghanistan now world's top cannabis source: U.N. |work=Reuters |date=31 March 2010 |last=Burch |first=Jonathon}}</ref> In March 2023, however, cannabis production was banned by a decree from Hibatullah Akhundzada.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Sultan |first=Abid |title=Taliban leader bans cannabis cultivation in Afghanistan |url=https://www.trtworld.com/asia/taliban-leader-bans-cannabis-cultivation-in-afghanistan-66283 |access-date=1 July 2024 |website=Taliban leader bans cannabis cultivation in Afghanistan}}</ref>

[[Saffron]], the most expensive spice, grows in Afghanistan, particularly [[Herat Province]]. In recent years, there has been an uptick in saffron production, which authorities and farmers are using to try to replace poppy cultivation. Between 2012 and 2019, the saffron cultivated and produced in Afghanistan was consecutively ranked the world's best by the International Taste and Quality Institute.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.arabnews.com/node/1602281/world|title=Afghanistan's red gold 'saffron' termed world's best|date=22 December 2019|website=Arab News}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://tolonews.com/afghanistan/28053-afghan-saffron-worlds-best|title=Afghan Saffron, World's Best|website=TOLOnews}}</ref> Production hit record high in 2019 (19,469&nbsp;kg of saffron), and one kilogram is sold domestically between $634 and $1147.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.xinhuanet.com/english/2019-12/25/c_138657013.htm|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191228193104/http://www.xinhuanet.com/english/2019-12/25/c_138657013.htm|url-status=dead|archive-date=28 December 2019|title=Saffron production hits record high in Afghanistan|agency=Xinhua News Agency}}</ref>

The availability of cheap diesel-powered water pumps imported from China and Pakistan, and in the 2010s, of cheap solar power to pump water, resulted in expansion of agriculture and population in the southwestern deserts of Afghanistan in [[Kandahar Province|Kandahar]], [[Helmand Province|Helmand]] and [[Nimruz Province|Nimruz]] provinces in the 2010s. Wells have gradually been deepened, but water resources are limited. Opium is the major crop, but as of 2022, was under attack by the new Taliban government which, to suppress opium production, was systematically suppressing water pumping.<ref>{{cite news |author1=Bryan Denton |author2=David Zucchino |author3=Yaqoob Akbary |title=Green Energy Complicates the Taliban's New Battle Against Opium: The multibillion-dollar trade has survived previous bans. Now, the Taliban are going after solar-powered water pumps to try to dry up poppy crops in the middle of a national economic crisis. |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2022/05/29/world/asia/afghanistan-opium-taliban.html |access-date=29 May 2022 |work=The New York Times |date=29 May 2022|quote=Do not destroy the fields, but make the fields dry out.... We are committed to fulfilling the opium decree.}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |author1=David Mansfield |title=When the Water Runs Dry: What is to be done with the 1.5 million settlers in the deserts of southwest Afghanistan when their livelihoods fail? |url=https://areu.org.af/when-the-water-runs-dry/ |website=areu.org.af |publisher=The Afghanistan Research and Evaluation Unit (AREU) |access-date=29 May 2022 |date=23 May 2022}}</ref> In a 2023 report, poppy cultivation in southern Afghanistan was reduced by over 80% as a result of Taliban campaigns to stop its use toward opium. This included a 99% reduction of opium growth in the [[Helmand Province]].<ref>{{Cite news |date=7 June 2023 |title=Poppy Cultivation in South of Afghanistan Down by 80%: Report |pages=1 |work=ToloNews |url=https://tolonews.com/afghanistan-183684 |access-date=8 June 2023}}</ref> In November 2023, a U.N report showed that in the entirety of Afghanistan, poppy cultivation dropped by over 95%, removing it from its place as being the world's largest opium producer.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Afghan opium poppy cultivation plunges by 95 percent under Taliban: UN |url=https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2023/11/5/afghan-opium-poppy-cultivation-plunges-by-95-percent-under-taliban-un |access-date=7 November 2023 |publisher=Al Jazeera}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=5 November 2023 |title=Opium cultivation declines by 95 per cent in Afghanistan: UN survey {{!}} UN News |url=https://news.un.org/en/story/2023/11/1143232 |access-date=7 November 2023 |publisher=United Nations}}</ref>

===Mining===
{{Main|Mining in Afghanistan}}
[[File:Lapis Lazuli from Afghanistan.jpg|thumb|[[Lapis lazuli]] stones]]

The country's natural resources include: coal, copper, iron ore, [[lithium]], [[uranium]], [[rare earth element]]s, [[chromite]], gold, [[zinc]], [[talc]], [[barite]], [[sulfur]], lead, [[marble]], precious and [[semi-precious stones]], natural gas, and petroleum.<ref name="peters2007">{{cite tech report |last=Peters |first=Steven G. |title=Preliminary Assessment of Non-Fuel Mineral Resources of Afghanistan, 2007 |url=http://pubs.usgs.gov/fs/2007/3063/fs2007-3063.pdf |publisher=USGS Afghanistan Project/[[US Geological Survey]]/Afghanistan Geological Survey |access-date=13 October 2011 |id=Fact Sheet 2007–3063 | date=October 2007|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130727053445/http://pubs.usgs.gov/fs/2007/3063/fs2007-3063.pdf |archive-date=27 July 2013 }}</ref><ref name="bgs" /> In 2010, US and Afghan government officials estimated that untapped mineral deposits located in 2007 by the [[US Geological Survey]] are worth at least {{nowrap|$1 trillion}}.<ref name="bbcminerals">{{cite news |title=Afghans say US team found huge potential mineral wealth |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/10311752 |access-date=13 October 2011 |publisher=BBC News |date=14 June 2010|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130809125352/http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/10311752 |archive-date=9 August 2013}}</ref>

[[Michael E. O'Hanlon]] of the [[Brookings Institution]] estimated that if Afghanistan generates about $10&nbsp;billion per year from its [[mining in Afghanistan|mineral deposits]], its [[gross national product]] would double and provide long-term funding for critical needs.<ref>O'Hanlon, Michael E. [http://www.brookings.edu/opinions/2010/0616_afghanistan_minerals_ohanlon.aspx "Deposits Could Aid Ailing Afghanistan"] ({{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110923172142/http://www.brookings.edu/opinions/2010/0616_afghanistan_minerals_ohanlon.aspx |date=23 September 2011 }}), [[The Brookings Institution]], 16 June 2010.</ref> The [[United States Geological Survey]] (USGS) estimated in 2006 that northern Afghanistan has an average {{convert|2.9|e9oilbbl|e6m3|abbr=unit|order=flip}} of [[crude oil]], {{convert|15.7|e12cuft|abbr=unit|order=flip}} of natural gas, and {{convert|562|e6USbbl|e9L|0|abbr=unit|order=flip}} of [[natural gas liquids]].<ref>{{cite tech report|last=Klett |first=T.R. |title=Assessment of Undiscovered Petroleum Resources of Northern Afghanistan, 2006 |url=http://pubs.usgs.gov/fs/2006/3031/pdf/FS-3031.pdf |publisher=USGS-Afghanistan Ministry of Mines & Industry Joint Oil & Gas Resource Assessment Team |access-date=13 October 2011 | date=March 2006 |id=Fact Sheet 2006–3031|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130727060903/http://pubs.usgs.gov/fs/2006/3031/pdf/FS-3031.pdf |archive-date=27 July 2013 }}</ref> In 2011, Afghanistan signed an oil exploration contract with [[China National Petroleum Corporation]] (CNPC) for the development of three oil fields along the Amu Darya river in the north.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://ph.news.yahoo.com/afghanistan-signs-7-bn-oil-deal-china-102107778.html |title=Afghanistan signs '$7 bn' oil deal with China | date=28 December 2011 |access-date=29 December 2013 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131230233953/http://ph.news.yahoo.com/afghanistan-signs-7-bn-oil-deal-china-102107778.html |archive-date=30 December 2013 }}</ref>

The country has significant amounts of [[lithium]], copper, gold, coal, iron ore, and other [[minerals]].<ref name=peters2007 /><ref name="bgs">{{cite web |url=http://www.bgs.ac.uk/AfghanMinerals/docs/Gold_A4.pdf#search='gold%20and%20copper%20discovered%20in%20afghanistan'|title=Minerals in Afghanistan |publisher=[[British Geological Survey]] |access-date=4 December 2010|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130726155518/http://www.bgs.ac.uk/AfghanMinerals/docs/Gold_A4.pdf |archive-date=26 July 2013}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.uvm.edu/ieds/node/568/ |title=Afghanistan's Mineral Fortune |publisher=Institute for Environmental Diplomacy and Security Report |year=2011 |access-date=16 December 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131212153853/http://www.uvm.edu/ieds/node/568 |archive-date=12 December 2013}}</ref> The [[Khanashin]] [[carbonatite]] in Helmand Province contains {{convert|1000000|t|lk=out}} of [[rare earth element]]s.<ref>{{cite tech report|last=Tucker |first=Ronald D. |title=Rare Earth Element Mineralogy, Geochemistry, and Preliminary Resource Assessment of the Khanneshin Carbonatite Complex, Helmand Province, Afghanistan |url=http://pubs.usgs.gov/of/2011/1207/pdf/ofr2011-1207.pdf |publisher=USGS |access-date=13 October 2011 |year=2011 |id=Open-File Report 2011–1207|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130727062511/http://pubs.usgs.gov/of/2011/1207/pdf/ofr2011-1207.pdf |archive-date=27 July 2013}}</ref> In 2007, a 30-year lease was granted for the [[Mes Aynak#Copper Mine|Aynak]] copper mine to the [[China Metallurgical Group]] for $3&nbsp;billion,<ref>"[http://www.dailyfinance.com/2010/06/14/china-us-afghanistan-mineral-mining/ China, Not U.S., Likely to Benefit from Afghanistan's Mineral Riches]". ''Daily Finance''. 14 June 2010 {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131231001630/http://www.dailyfinance.com/2010/06/14/china-us-afghanistan-mineral-mining/ |date=31 December 2013}}</ref> making it the biggest foreign investment and private business venture in Afghanistan's history.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2009/12/30/world/asia/30mine.html |title=China Willing to Spend Big on Afghan Commerce |work=The New York Times |date=29 December 2009 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110731145815/http://www.nytimes.com/2009/12/30/world/asia/30mine.html |archive-date=31 July 2011}}</ref> The state-run [[Steel Authority of India]] won the mining rights to develop the huge [[Hajigak Pass|Hajigak]] iron ore deposit in central Afghanistan.<ref>"[http://www.businessweek.com/news/2011-12-06/indian-group-wins-rights-to-mine-in-afghanistan-s-hajigak.html Indian Group Wins Rights to Mine in Afghanistan's Hajigak]" ({{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131010060446/http://www.businessweek.com/news/2011-12-06/indian-group-wins-rights-to-mine-in-afghanistan-s-hajigak.html |date=10 October 2013}}). ''Businessweek''. 6 December 2011</ref> Government officials estimate that 30% of the country's untapped mineral deposits are worth at least {{nowrap|$1 trillion}}.<ref name=bbcminerals /> One official asserted that "this will become the backbone of the Afghan economy" and a Pentagon memo stated that Afghanistan could become the "Saudi Arabia of lithium".<ref>{{cite news|last=Risen|first=James|author-link=James Risen|date=17 June 2010|title=U.S. Identifies Vast Riches of Minerals in Afghanistan|newspaper=The New York Times|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2010/06/14/world/asia/14minerals.html|url-status=live|access-date=14 November 2010|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100617204149/http://www.nytimes.com/2010/06/14/world/asia/14minerals.html|archive-date=17 June 2010}}</ref> The lithium reserves of 21 Mio. tons could amount to the ones of [[Bolivia]], which is currently viewed as the country with the largest lithium reserves.<ref name="Hosp-2021">{{Cite news|last=Hosp|first=Gerald|date=31 August 2021|title=Afghanistan: die konfliktreichen Bodenschätze|url=https://www.nzz.ch/wirtschaft/afghanistan-die-konfliktreichen-bodenschaetze-ld.1642056|access-date=1 September 2021|website=[[Neue Zürcher Zeitung]]|language=de}}</ref> Other larger deposits are the ones of [[bauxite]] and [[cobalt]].<ref name="Hosp-2021" />

Access to [[biocapacity]] in Afghanistan is lower than world average. In 2016, Afghanistan had 0.43 global hectares<ref name=footprintdata>{{cite web|url=http://data.footprintnetwork.org/#/countryTrends?cn=2&type=BCpc,EFCpc|title=Country Trends|publisher=Global Footprint Network|access-date= 23 June 2020}}</ref> of biocapacity per person within its territory, much less than the world average of 1.6 global hectares per person.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Lin|first1=David|last2=Hanscom|first2=Laurel|last3=Murthy|first3=Adeline|last4=Galli|first4=Alessandro|last5=Evans|first5=Mikel|last6=Neill|first6=Evan|last7=Mancini|first7=MariaSerena|last8=Martindill|first8=Jon|last9=Medouar|first9=FatimeZahra|last10=Huang|first10=Shiyu|last11=Wackernagel
|first11=Mathis|year=2018|title=Ecological Footprint Accounting for Countries: Updates and Results of the National Footprint Accounts, 2012–2018|journal=Resources|volume=7|issue=3|pages=58|doi=10.3390/resources7030058|doi-access=free}}</ref> In 2016 Afghanistan used 0.73 global hectares of biocapacity per person—their [[ecological footprint]] of consumption. This means they use just under double as much biocapacity as Afghanistan contains. As a result, Afghanistan is running a biocapacity deficit.<ref name=footprintdata/>

In September 2023, the [[Taliban]] signed mining contracts worth {{nowrap|$6.5 billion}}, with extractions based on gold, iron, lead, and zinc in the provinces of Herat, Ghor, Logar, and Takhar.<ref>{{Cite web |date=31 August 2023 |title=Taliban Sign Multibillion-Dollar Afghan Mining Deals |url=https://www.voanews.com/a/taliban-sign-multibillion-dollar-afghan-mining-deals/7249135.html |access-date=1 July 2024 |publisher=Voice of America}}</ref>

===Energy===
{{Main|Energy in Afghanistan|Renewable energy in Afghanistan}}
[[File:Afghanistan electricity production.svg|thumb|Afghanistan electricity supply (1980–2019)]]

According to the [[World Bank]], 98% of the rural population have access to electricity in 2018, up from 28% in 2008.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Access to electricity, rural (% of rural population) – Afghanistan {{!}} Data|url=https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/EG.ELC.ACCS.RU.ZS?end=2018&locations=AF&start=2005&view=chart|access-date=28 March 2021|publisher=World Bank}}</ref> Overall the figure stands at 98.7%.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/EG.ELC.ACCS.ZS?end=2018&locations=AF&start=2005&view=chart|title=Access to electricity (% of population) – Afghanistan|publisher=[[World Bank]]}}</ref> As of 2016, Afghanistan produces 1,400 [[megawatt]]s of power, but still imports the majority of electricity via transmission lines from Iran and the Central Asian states.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://tolonews.com/business/afghanistan-has-capacity-produce-310000mw-power|title=Afghanistan Has Capacity To Produce 310,000MW Power|website=TOLOnews}}</ref> The majority of electricity production is via [[hydropower]], helped by the amount of rivers and streams that flow from the mountains.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.worldbank.org/en/news/feature/2018/05/14/largest-plant-restarts-operations-in-first-step-developing-afghanistan-hydropower|title=Afghanistan Resurrects its Largest Hydropower Plant Toward a Brighter Future|publisher=World Bank}}</ref> However electricity is not always reliable and blackouts happen, including in Kabul.<ref name="Afghanistan Analysts Network – English-2015">{{Cite web|url=https://www.afghanistan-analysts.org/en/reports/economy-development-environment/power-to-the-people-how-to-extend-afghans-access-to-electricity/|title=Power to the People: How to extend Afghans' access to electricity|date=3 February 2015|website=Afghanistan Analysts Network – English}}</ref> In recent years an increasing number of [[Solar power|solar]], [[biomass]] and wind power plants have been constructed.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.af.undp.org/content/afghanistan/en/home/presscenter/IntheNews/renewable-energy-in-afghanistan-atn.html|title=The Power of Nature: How Renewable Energy is Changing Lives in Afghanistan|website=UNDP in Afghanistan|access-date=14 June 2020|archive-date=14 April 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210414230313/https://www.af.undp.org/content/afghanistan/en/home/presscenter/IntheNews/renewable-energy-in-afghanistan-atn.html|url-status=dead}}</ref> Currently under development are the [[CASA-1000]] project which will transmit electricity from Kyrgyzstan and Tajikistan, and the [[Turkmenistan-Afghanistan-Pakistan-India pipeline|Turkmenistan-Afghanistan-Pakistan-India]] (TAPI) gas pipeline.<ref name="Afghanistan Analysts Network – English-2015"/> Power is managed by the [[Da Afghanistan Breshna Sherkat]] (DABS, Afghanistan Electricity Company).

Important dams include the [[Kajaki Dam]], [[Dahla Dam]], and the [[Sardeh Band Dam]].<ref name="afghanistans.com-1"/>

===Tourism===
{{Main|Tourism in Afghanistan}}
[[File:Contrasts (4292970991).jpg|thumb|[[Band-e Amir National Park]]]]

Tourism is a small industry in Afghanistan due to security issues. Nevertheless, some 20,000 foreign tourists visit the country annually as of 2016.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.pajhwok.com/en/2016/09/27/20000-foreign-tourists-visit-afghanistan-annually |title=20,000 foreign tourists visit Afghanistan annually |publisher=Pajhwok Afghan News (PAN) |editor=Navid Ahmad Barakzai |date=27 September 2016 |access-date=15 May 2017 |archive-date=23 November 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161123022923/http://www.pajhwok.com/en/2016/09/27/20000-foreign-tourists-visit-afghanistan-annually |url-status=dead }}</ref> In particular an important region for domestic and international tourism is the picturesque [[Bamyan]] Valley, which includes lakes, canyons and historical sites, helped by the fact it is in a safe area away from insurgent activity.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.thenational.ae/world/asia/coronavirus-shatters-tourism-hopes-in-afghanistan-s-bamyan-province-1.1011018|title=Coronavirus shatters tourism hopes in Afghanistan's Bamyan province|website=The National|date=26 April 2020}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.pajhwok.com/en/2017/09/03/more-200000-tourists-visit-bamyan-year|title=More than 200,000 tourists visit Bamyan this year|website=pajhwok.com|date=3 September 2017|last1=Basharat|first1=Hakim}}</ref> Smaller numbers visit and trek in regions such as the [[Wakhan]] Valley, which is also one of the world's most remote communities.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.scmp.com/week-asia/society/article/2154951/where-instagramers-and-taliban-play-afghanistan|title=Where Instagramers and Taliban play|date=14 July 2018|website=South China Morning Post}}</ref> From the late 1960s onwards, Afghanistan was a popular stop on the famous [[hippie trail]], attracting many Europeans and Americans. Coming from Iran, the trail traveled through various Afghan provinces and cities including [[Herat]], [[Kandahar]] and [[Kabul]] before crossing to northern Pakistan, northern India, and [[Nepal]].<ref>{{cite web|url= https://www.richardgregory.org.uk/history/hippie-trail.htm|title= Origins of the hippie trail|website= richardgregory.org.uk|access-date= 13 June 2020|archive-date= 11 November 2020|archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20201111215149/https://www.richardgregory.org.uk/history/hippie-trail.htm|url-status= dead}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.richardgregory.org.uk/history/hippie-trail-03.htm |title=The hippie trail |website=richardgregory.org.uk |access-date=13 June 2020 |archive-date=8 March 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210308185419/https://www.richardgregory.org.uk/history/hippie-trail-03.htm |url-status=dead }}</ref> Tourism peaked in 1977, the year before the start of political instability and armed conflict.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/travel/destinations/middle-east/afghanistan/articles/when-afghanistan-was-just-the-laid-back-highlight-on-the-hippie-/ |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20220110/https://www.telegraph.co.uk/travel/destinations/middle-east/afghanistan/articles/when-afghanistan-was-just-the-laid-back-highlight-on-the-hippie-/ |archive-date=10 January 2022 |url-access=subscription |url-status=live|title=When Afghanistan was just a laid-back highlight on the hippie trail|first=Oliver|last= Smith|website=[[The Daily Telegraph]]|date=20 April 2018}}{{cbignore}}</ref>

[[File:Jam afghanistan ghorprovince islamic architecture.jpg|thumb|upright|The [[Minaret of Jam]], a UNESCO [[World Heritage Site]]]]

The city of [[Ghazni]] has significant history and historical sites, and together with [[Bamyan]] city have in recent years been voted Islamic Cultural Capital and South Asia Cultural Capital respectively.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.afghanistan-analysts.org/en/reports/context-culture/bamyan-first-ever-cultural-capital-of-south-asia-a-big-party-but-what-else/|title=Bamyan, First Ever Cultural Capital of South Asia: A big party, but what else?|date=8 June 2015|website=Afghanistan Analysts Network – English}}</ref> The cities of [[Herat]], [[Kandahar]], [[Balkh]], and [[Zaranj]] are also very historic. The [[Minaret of Jam]] in the [[Hari River, Afghanistan|Hari River]] valley is a [[UNESCO World Heritage Site]]. A cloak reputedly worn by Islam's prophet [[Muhammad]] is kept in the [[Shrine of the Cloak]] in Kandahar, a city founded by [[Alexander the Great]] and the first capital of Afghanistan. The [[citadel of Alexander]] in the western city of Herat has been renovated in recent years and is a popular attraction. In the north of the country is the [[Shrine of Ali]], believed by many to be the location where [[Ali]] was buried.{{sfn|Dupree|1997|page=115}} The [[National Museum of Afghanistan]] in Kabul hosts a large number of Buddhist, [[Bactria]]n Greek and early Islamic antiquities; the museum suffered greatly by civil war but has been slowly restoring since the early 2000s.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.bbc.com/travel/story/20200203-the-afghan-artefacts-that-survived-taliban-destruction|title=The Afghan artefacts that survived Taliban destruction|first=Ruchi|last=Kumar|publisher=[[BBC Travel]]}}</ref>

Unexpectedly, tourism has seen development in Afghanistan following the Taliban takeover. Active efforts by the Taliban has seen tourism increase from 691 tourists in 2021, to 2,300 in 2022. A sharp increase of over 120% was observed from 2022 to 2023, reaching nearly 5,200 tourists, with some estimates of between 7,000 and 10,000.<ref>{{Cite web |date=30 April 2024 |title=The Taliban are working to woo tourists to Afghanistan |url=https://apnews.com/article/afghanistan-taliban-tourism-women-7acb04bb78dd779e763a337790113cec |access-date=1 July 2024 |website=AP News}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Photos: Tourist numbers up in post-war Afghanistan |url=https://www.aljazeera.com/gallery/2024/4/2/tourist-numbers-up-in-post-war-afghanistan |access-date=1 July 2024 |publisher=Al Jazeera}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title='A remarkable development': How Western tourism is on the rise in this controversial nation |url=https://news.sky.com/story/a-remarkable-development-how-western-tourism-is-on-the-rise-in-afghanistan-13087329 |access-date=1 July 2024 |publisher=Sky News}}</ref> This is however, threatened from [[Islamic State – Khorasan Province|ISIS-K]], who held responsibility for attacks on tourists such as the [[2024 Bamyan shooting]].<ref>{{Cite web |date=20 May 2024 |title=Attack on tourists rocks fledgling Afghanistan tourism sector |url=https://www.france24.com/en/live-news/20240520-attack-on-tourists-rocks-fledgling-afghanistan-tourism-sector |access-date=1 July 2024 |publisher=France 24}}</ref>

===Communication===
{{Main|Communications in Afghanistan}}

Telecommunication services in Afghanistan are provided by [[Afghan Telecom]], [[Afghan Wireless]], [[Etisalat]], [[MTN Group]], and [[Roshan (telco)|Roshan]]. The country uses its own space [[satellite]] called [[Afghansat 1]], which provides services to millions of phone, internet, and television subscribers. By 2001 following years of civil war, telecommunications was virtually a non-existent sector, but by 2016 it had grown to a $2&nbsp;billion industry, with 22&nbsp;million mobile phone subscribers and 5&nbsp;million internet users. The sector employs at least 120,000 people nationwide.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://afghanistanembassy.org.uk/english/3155/|title=Connecting Afghanistan: The rise of technology in governance and society – The Embassy of Afghanistan in London|website=afghanistanembassy.org.uk|access-date=20 January 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180121125742/http://afghanistanembassy.org.uk/english/3155/|archive-date=21 January 2018|url-status=live}}</ref>

===Transportation===
{{Main|Transport in Afghanistan}}
{{See also|List of airports in Afghanistan|Rail transport in Afghanistan}}
[[File:Françoise Foliot - Afghanistan 043.jpg|thumb|left|The [[Salang Tunnel]]]]

Due to Afghanistan's geography, transport between various parts of the country has historically been difficult. The backbone of Afghanistan's road network is [[Highway 1 (Afghanistan)|Highway 1]], often called the "Ring Road", which extends for {{convert|2210|km}} and connects five major cities: Kabul, Ghazni, Kandahar, Herat and Mazar-i-Sharif,<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.afghanistan-analysts.org/going-in-circles-the-never-ending-story-of-afghanistans-unfinished-ring-road/|title=Going in Circles: The never-ending story of Afghanistan's unfinished Ring Road|publisher=Afghanistan Analysts Network|author=Qayoom Suroush|date=16 January 2015|access-date=7 July 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190707120451/https://www.afghanistan-analysts.org/going-in-circles-the-never-ending-story-of-afghanistans-unfinished-ring-road/|archive-date=7 July 2019|url-status=live}}</ref> with spurs to Kunduz and Jalalabad and various border crossings, while skirting around the mountains of the Hindu Kush.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=29bg7g1U6coC&pg=PA118|title=The Geography and Politics of Afghanistan|first=Ramamoorthy|last=Gopalakrishnan|date=13 June 1982|publisher=Concept Publishing Company}}</ref>

The Ring Road is crucially important for domestic and international trade and the economy.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.afghanistan-analysts.org/en/reports/economy-development-environment/going-in-circles-the-never-ending-story-of-afghanistans-unfinished-ring-road/|title=Going in Circles: The never-ending story of Afghanistan's unfinished Ring Road|date=16 January 2015|website=Afghanistan Analysts Network – English}}</ref> A key portion of the Ring Road is the [[Salang Tunnel]], completed in 1964, which facilitates travel through the Hindu Kush mountain range and connects northern and southern Afghanistan.<ref>{{cite book|author=Cary Gladstone|title=Afghanistan Revisited|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=aH_KCWVB6W0C&pg=PA122|year=2001|publisher=Nova Publishers|isbn=978-1-59033-421-8|page=122}}</ref> It is the only land route that connects Central Asia to the [[Indian subcontinent]].<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.reuters.com/article/idINIndia-46016020100209 |title=Afghan avalanches kill dozens, trap hundreds |date=9 February 2010 |work=Reuters |last=Azimy |first=Yousuf}}</ref> Several mountain passes allow travel between the Hindu Kush in other areas. Serious traffic accidents are common on Afghan roads and highways, particularly on the [[Kabul–Kandahar Highway|Kabul–Kandahar]] and the [[Kabul–Jalalabad Road]].<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2013/apr/26/afghan-bus-crash |title=Afghan bus crash kills 45 |work=[[The Guardian]]|date=26 April 2013 |access-date=4 November 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141105002154/http://www.theguardian.com/world/2013/apr/26/afghan-bus-crash |archive-date=5 November 2014 |url-status=live}}</ref> Traveling by bus in Afghanistan remains dangerous due to militant activities.<ref>{{cite web|title=Driving in Afghanistan|url=http://caravanistan.com/transport/driving/afghanistan/|website=Caravanistan|access-date=22 November 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160904001045/http://caravanistan.com/transport/driving/afghanistan/|archive-date=4 September 2016|url-status=live}}</ref>

[[File:Ariana Afghan A310-300 F-GEMO.jpg|thumb|An [[Ariana Afghan Airlines]] [[Airbus A310]] in 2006]]

Air transport in Afghanistan is provided by the national carrier, [[Ariana Afghan Airlines]],<ref>{{cite news |title=EU To Impose Ban on Afghan Planes |url=http://news.airwise.com/story/view/1290466447.html |publisher=Airwise News |date=22 November 2010 |quote=Kabul-based [[Safi Airways|Safi]] is the country's No. 2 airline after national carrier Ariana Afghan Airlines |access-date=28 May 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130524011714/http://news.airwise.com/story/view/1290466447.html |archive-date=24 May 2013 |url-status=live }}</ref> and by the private company [[Kam Air]]. Airlines from a number of countries also provide flights in and out of the country. These include [[Air India]], [[Emirates (airline)|Emirates]], [[Gulf Air]], [[Iran Aseman Airlines]], [[Pakistan International Airlines]], and [[Turkish Airlines]]. The country has four international airports: [[Kabul International Airport]] (formerly Hamid Karzai International Airport), [[Kandahar International Airport]], [[Herat International Airport]], and [[Mazar-e Sharif International Airport]]. Including domestic airports, there are 43.<ref name="Factbook"/> [[Bagram Air Base]] is a major military airfield.

The country has three rail links: one, a {{convert|75|km|adj=on}} line from [[Mazar-i-Sharif]] to the [[Afghanistan–Uzbekistan Friendship Bridge|Uzbekistan border]];<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.andrewgrantham.co.uk/afghanistan/railways/hairatan-to-mazar-i-sharif/|title=Hairatan to Mazar-i-Sharif railway – Railways of Afghanistan|website=andrewgrantham.co.uk|access-date=3 January 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171224182253/http://www.andrewgrantham.co.uk/afghanistan/railways/hairatan-to-mazar-i-sharif/|archive-date=24 December 2017|url-status=live}}</ref> a {{convert|10|km|adj=on}} long line from [[Toraghundi]] to the [[Turkmenistan]] border (where it continues as part of [[Turkmen Railways]]); and a short link from [[Aqina]] across the Turkmen border to [[Kerki]], which is planned to be extended further across Afghanistan.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.pajhwok.com/en/2016/11/28/afghan-turkmenistan-railroad-inaugurated|title=Afghan-Turkmenistan railroad inaugurated|website=pajhwok.com|date=28 November 2016|access-date=6 January 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170512234058/http://www.pajhwok.com/en/2016/11/28/afghan-turkmenistan-railroad-inaugurated|archive-date=12 May 2017|url-status=live|last1=Salehai|first1=Zarghona}}</ref> These lines are used for freight only and there is no passenger service. A rail line between [[Khaf, Iran|Khaf]], Iran and [[Herat]], western Afghanistan, intended for both freight and passengers, was under construction as of 2019.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.azernews.az/region/135859.html |title=Khaf-Herat railroad to be launched in Iran soon |date=7 August 2018 |quote="Iran-Afghanistan railway networks through Khaf-Herat Railroad will be completed in the next few months," Yazdani said, according to Mehr news agency on 3 August |access-date=27 September 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180928003514/https://www.azernews.az/region/135859.html |archive-date=28 September 2018 |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://ifpnews.com/exclusive/iran-strongly-condemns-herat-railway-mine-blast/|title=Iran Strongly Condemns Herat Railway Mine Blast|date=20 May 2019|access-date=7 July 2019|publisher=Iran Front Page|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190521080709/https://ifpnews.com/exclusive/iran-strongly-condemns-herat-railway-mine-blast/|archive-date=21 May 2019|url-status=live}}</ref> About {{convert|125|km}} of the line will lie on the Afghan side.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://financialtribune.com/articles/economy-domestic-economy/60378/rail-linkup-with-afghanistan-by-march-2018|title=Rail Linkup With Afghanistan by March 2018|date=25 February 2017|access-date=3 January 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180922112855/https://financialtribune.com/articles/economy-domestic-economy/60378/rail-linkup-with-afghanistan-by-march-2018|archive-date=22 September 2018|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Khaf-Herat railway |url=http://www.raillynews.com/2013/khaf-herat-railway/ |website=RaillyNews {{!}} Dailly Railway News in English |date=10 December 2013 |access-date=1 June 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171220114246/http://www.raillynews.com/2013/khaf-herat-railway/ |archive-date=20 December 2017 |url-status=dead}}</ref>

Private vehicle ownership has increased substantially since the early 2000s. Taxis are yellow and consist of both cars and [[auto rickshaw]]s.<ref>{{cite journal |url=https://www.jstage.jst.go.jp/article/eastsats/5/2/5_292/_pdf/-char/en |title=The Possibility of Introducing a Regular Bus System in Kandahar |last1=Rahmat |first1=Mohibullah |last2=Mizokami |first2=Shoshi |last3=Fujiwara |first3=Akimasa |journal=Asian Transport Studies |volume=5 |issue=2 |year=2018 |pages=292–309}}</ref> In rural Afghanistan, villagers often use donkeys, [[mule]]s or horses to transport or carry goods. Camels are primarily used by the Kochi nomads.<ref name="Wahab-2007"/> Bicycles are popular throughout Afghanistan.<ref>{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=2UEJDAAAQBAJ&pg=PA23 |title=Mason's World Encyclopedia of Livestock Breeds and Breeding, 2 Volume Pack |isbn=9781845934668 |last1=Porter |first1=Valerie |last2=Alderson |first2=Lawrence |last3=Hall |first3=Stephen J.G. |last4=Phillip Sponenberg |first4=D. |date=9 March 2016}}</ref>

==Demographics==
{{Main|Afghans|Demographics of Afghanistan|Afghan diaspora}}
[[File:Afghanistan ethnic groups 2005.jpg|thumb|upright=1.3|A Cold War-era CIA map showing traditional Afghan tribal territories. [[Pashtun tribes]] form the world's largest tribal society.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.ag-afghanistan.de/files/glatzer/tribal_system.pdf |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/http://www.ag-afghanistan.de/files/glatzer/tribal_system.pdf |archive-date=9 October 2022 |url-status=live |title=The Pashtun Tribal System |last1=Glatzer |first1=Bernt |year=2002 |publisher=Concept Publishers |location=New Delhi }}</ref>]]

===Population===
The population of Afghanistan was estimated at 32.9&nbsp;million as of 2019 by the Afghanistan Statistics and Information Authority,<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://tolonews.com/afghanistan/nsia-estimates-afghanistan-population-329m|title=NSIA Estimates Afghanistan Population at 32.9M|website=TOLOnews}}</ref> whereas the UN estimates over 38.0&nbsp;million.<ref>{{cite web | title=Afghanistan Population 2020 (Demographics, Maps, Graphs) | website=2020 World Population by Country | date=26 April 2020 | url=https://worldpopulationreview.com/countries/afghanistan-population/ | access-date=13 June 2020}}</ref> In 1979 the total population was reported to be about 15.5&nbsp;million.<ref>"[https://www.un.org/News/dh/latest/afghan/un-afghan-history.shtml United Nations and Afghanistan]". UN News Centre. {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131031084259/https://www.un.org/News/dh/latest/afghan/un-afghan-history.shtml |date=31 October 2013 }}</ref> About 23.9% of them are [[urban area|urbanite]], 71.4% live in rural areas, and the remaining 4.7% are nomadic.<ref name="Worldmeters-2020">{{cite web|url=https://www.worldometers.info/|title=Afghan Population Estimates 2020|publisher=Worldmeters|year=2020|access-date=27 November 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201127023212/https://www.worldometers.info/|archive-date=27 November 2020|url-status=bot: unknown}}</ref> An additional 3&nbsp;million or so Afghans are temporarily housed in neighboring [[Afghans in Pakistan|Pakistan]] and [[Afghans in Iran|Iran]], most of whom were born and raised in those two countries. As of 2013, Afghanistan was the largest refugee-producing country in the world, a title held for 32 years.

The current population growth rate is 2.37%,<ref name="Factbook"/> one of the highest in the world outside of Africa. This population is expected to reach 82&nbsp;million by 2050 if current population trends continue.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.prb.org/Countries/Afghanistan.aspx |title=Afghanistan&nbsp;– Population Reference Bureau |publisher=[[Population Reference Bureau]] |access-date=29 December 2009|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131202224051/http://www.prb.org/Countries/Afghanistan.aspx|archive-date=2 December 2013}}</ref> The population of Afghanistan increased steadily until the 1980s, when civil war caused millions to flee to other countries such as Pakistan.<ref>{{cite web|title=Afghan Households in Iran: Profile and Impact |url=http://www.unhcr.org/455835d92.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180223013910/https://www.unhcr.org/455835d92.pdf |archive-date=23 February 2018|first1=Piyasiri |last1=Wickramasekara |first2=Jag |last2=Sehgal |first3=Farhad |last3=Mehran |first4=Ladan |last4=Noroozi |first5=Saeid |last5=Eisazadeh |website=[[United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees]]}}</ref> Millions have since returned and the war conditions contribute to the country having the highest fertility rate outside Africa.<ref>{{Cite journal|title=Is recent Afghanistan survey data suitable for fertility analysis? A regional investigation based on fertility inhibiting determinants|first1=Jamal Abdul|last1=Nasir|first2=Sohail|last2=Akhtar|first3=Syed Arif Ahmed|last3=Zaidi|first4=Andleeb|last4=Rani|first5=Hina|last5=Bano|first6=Andrew|last6=Hinde|date=16 October 2019|journal=PLOS ONE|volume=14|issue=10|pages=e0223111|doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0223111|pmid=31618275|pmc=6795489|bibcode=2019PLoSO..1423111N|doi-access=free}}</ref> Afghanistan's healthcare has recovered since the turn of the century, causing falls in infant mortality and increases in life expectancy, although it has the lowest life expectance of any country outside Africa. This (along with other factors such as returning refugees) caused rapid population growth in the 2000s that has only recently started to slow down.{{Citation needed|date=October 2021}} The [[Gini coefficient]] in 2008 was 27.8.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SI.POV.GINI/ |title=Gini Index |publisher=World Bank |access-date=2 March 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140511044958/http://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SI.POV.GINI|archive-date=11 May 2014}}</ref>

====Fertility rate====
Afghanistan 2024 [[total fertility rate]] has been estimated at 4.4.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/field/total-fertility-rate/country-comparison/|title=Total fertility rate Comparison – The World Factbook|website=www.cia.gov}}</ref> In 2022 it was 4.5, about twice the world average rate.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SP.DYN.TFRT.IN?end=2022&start=1960&view=chart|title=World Bank Open Data|website=World Bank Open Data}}</ref> The rate has fallen since the early 1980s.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SP.DYN.TFRT.IN?end=2022&locations=AF&start=1983&view=chart|title=World Bank Open Data|website=World Bank Open Data}}</ref>

===Urbanization===
As estimated by the CIA World Factbook, 26% of the population was urbanized as of 2020. This is one of the lowest figures in the world; in Asia it is only higher than [[Cambodia]], [[Nepal]] and [[Sri Lanka]]. Urbanization has increased rapidly, particularly in the capital [[Kabul]], due to returning refugees from Pakistan and Iran after 2001, internally displaced people, and rural migrants.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://foreignpolicy.com/2015/03/20/can-cities-save-afghanistan/|title=Can Cities Save Afghanistan?|first=Ali|last=Karimi|date=20 March 2015 }}</ref> Urbanization in Afghanistan is different from typical urbanization in that it is centered on just a few cities.<ref name="aljazeera.com">{{Cite web|url=https://www.aljazeera.com/indepth/features/2014/10/unraveling-afghan-art-carpet-weaving-201410917826901821.html|title=Unravelling the Afghan art of carpet weaving|publisher=Al Jazeera}}</ref>

The only city with over a million residents is its capital, Kabul, located in the east of the country. The other large cities are located generally in the "ring" around the Central Highlands, namely [[Kandahar]] in the south, [[Herat]] in the west, [[Mazar-i-Sharif]], [[Kunduz]] in the north, and [[Jalalabad]] in the east.<ref name="Worldmeters-2020" />

{{Largest cities of Afghanistan}}

===Ethnicity and languages===
{{Main|Ethnic groups in Afghanistan|Languages of Afghanistan}}
{{See also|Afghans}}
[[File:US Army ethnolinguistic map of Afghanistan -- circa 2001-09.jpg|thumb|upright=1.3|Ethnolinguistic map of Afghanistan (2001)]]

[[Afghans]] are divided into several [[Ethnolinguistic group|ethnolinguistic]] groups. According to research data by several institutions in 2019, the [[Pashtuns]] are the largest ethnic group, comprising 42%, followed by [[Tajiks]], comprising 27%<ref name="Population Matters">{{Cite web |url=https://afghanistan.unfpa.org/en/node/15230 |title=Population Matters |date=3 March 2016 |access-date=18 September 2021 |archive-date=16 August 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210816021136/https://afghanistan.unfpa.org/en/node/15230 |url-status=dead}}</ref><ref name="timesofindia" /><ref name="Population 2021">{{cite web |url=https://worldpopulationreview.com/countries/afghanistan-population |title=Afghanistan Population 2021 |date=19 September 2021 |publisher=World Population Review}}</ref><ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.statista.com/statistics/1258799/afghanistan-share-of-population-by-ethnic-group/
| title=Distribution of Afghan population by ethnic group 2020|  date=20 August 2021}}</ref><ref name="reliefweb.int"/> of the country's population. The other two major ethnic groups are the [[Hazaras]] and [[Uzbeks]], each at 9%. A further 10 other ethnic groups are recognized and each are represented in the [[Afghan National Anthem]].<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.economist.com/the-economist-explains/2017/08/31/the-roots-of-afghanistans-tribal-tensions|title=The roots of Afghanistan's tribal tensions|newspaper=[[The Economist]]|date=31 August 2017}}</ref>

[[Dari]] and [[Pashto]] are the [[official language]]s of Afghanistan; [[bilingualism]] is very common.<ref>{{cite web|title=The Constitution of Afghanistan|url=https://www.mfa.gov.af/constitution/chapter-one-state.html|access-date=2 September 2020|website=Ministry of Foreign Affairs of the Islamic Republic of Afghanistan|archive-date=29 August 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210829115048/https://www.mfa.gov.af/constitution/chapter-one-state.html|url-status=dead}}</ref> Dari, which is also referred to as Eastern Persian as it is a variety of and mutually intelligible with [[Persian language|Persian]] (and very often called '[[Farsi]]' by some Afghans like in [[Iran]]), functions as the [[lingua franca]] in Kabul as well as in much of the northern and northwestern parts of the country.<ref>{{cite web|year=2004|title=Article Sixteen of the 2004 Constitution of Afghanistan|url=http://www.afghan-web.com/politics/current_constitution.html#preamble|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131028065437/http://www.afghan-web.com/politics/current_constitution.html|archive-date=28 October 2013|access-date=13 June 2012|quote=Pashto and Dari are the official languages of the state. Uzbek, Turkmen, Baluchi, Pashai, Nuristani and Pamiri are – in addition to Pashto and Dari – the third official language in areas where the majority speaks them}}</ref> Native speakers of Dari, of any ethnicity, are sometimes called [[Farsiwan]]s.<ref>The ''Encyc. Iranica'' makes clear in the article on Afghanistan&nbsp;— Ethnography that "The term Farsiwan also has the regional forms Parsiwan and Parsiban. In religion they are Imami Shia. In the literature they are often mistakenly referred to as Tajik." [https://referenceworks.brillonline.com/entries/encyclopaedia-iranica-online/afghanistan-COM_4803 Dupree, Louis (1982) "Afghanistan: (iv.) Ethnography", in ''Encyclopædia Iranica''] Online Edition 2006.</ref> Pashto is the native tongue of the [[Pashtuns]], although many of them are also fluent in Dari while some non-Pashtuns are fluent in Pashto. Despite the Pashtuns having been dominant in Afghan politics for centuries, Dari remained the preferred language for government and bureaucracy.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://english.alaraby.co.uk/english/indepth/2019/7/11/what-will-happen-to-afghanistans-national-languages|title=What will happen to Afghanistan's national languages?|first=Austin|last=Bodetti|website=alaraby|date=11 July 2019}}</ref> 
According to [[The World Factbook|CIA World Factbook]], Dari Persian is spoken by 78% ([[First language|L1]] + [[Second language|L2]]) and functions as the lingua franca, while [[Pashto]] is spoken by 50%, [[Uzbek language|Uzbek]] 10%, English 5%, [[Turkmen language|Turkmen]] 2%, [[Urdu]] 2%, [[Pashayi languages|Pashayi]] 1%, [[Nuristani languages|Nuristani]] 1%, [[Arabic]] 1%, and [[Balochi language|Balochi]] 1% (2021 est). Data represent the most widely spoken languages; shares sum to more than 100% because there is much bilingualism in the country and because respondents were allowed to select more than one language. There are a number of smaller regional languages, including Uzbek, Turkmen, Balochi, Pashayi, and Nuristani.<ref name="Factbook"/>

When it comes to foreign languages among the populace, many are able to speak or understand [[Hindustani language|Hindustani]] ([[Urdu]]-[[Hindi]]), partly due to returning [[Afghans in Pakistan|Afghan refugees]] from [[Pakistan]] and the popularity of [[Bollywood]] films respectively.<ref name="Afroz-2013">{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=SjYUAgAAQBAJ|title=Afghanistan – Culture Smart!: The Essential Guide to Customs & Culture|first1=Nazes|last1=Afroz|first2=Moska|last2=Najib|first3=Culture|last3=Smart!|date=1 December 2013|publisher=Kuperard|isbn=9781857336801}}</ref> English is also understood by some of the population,<ref>The Asia Foundation. [https://asiafoundation.org/wp-content/uploads/2018/12/2018_Afghan-Survey_fullReport-12.4.18.pdf ''Afghanistan in 2018: A Survey of the Afghan People''.] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190807211241/https://asiafoundation.org/wp-content/uploads/2018/12/2018_Afghan-Survey_fullReport-12.4.18.pdf |date=7 August 2019}}</ref> and has been gaining popularity as of the 2000s.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-34215293|title=Pakistan's confusing move to Urdu|first=M. Ilyas|last=Khan|publisher=BBC News |date=12 September 2015}}</ref> Some Afghans retain some ability in Russian, which was [[Russian occupation of Afghanistan|taught in public schools during the 1980s]].<ref name="Afroz-2013"/>

===Religion===
{{Main|Religion in Afghanistan}}
[[File:Mazar-e sharif - Steve Evans.jpg|thumb|[[Blue Mosque (Mazar-i-Sharif)|Blue Mosque]] in [[Mazar-i-Sharif]] is the largest mosque in Afghanistan.]]

The CIA estimated in 2009 that 99.7% of the Afghan population was Muslim<ref name="Factbook"/> and most are thought to adhere to the [[Sunni]] [[Hanafi]] school.<ref name="The Swedish Committee for Afghanistan (SCA)">{{cite web|url=https://swedishcommittee.org/afghanistan/religion|title=Religion in Afghanistan|website=The Swedish Committee for Afghanistan (SCA)}}</ref> According to [[Pew Research Center]], as much as 90% are of the Sunni denomination, 7% [[Shia]] and 3% [[Non-denominational Muslim|non-denominational]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.pewforum.org/2012/08/09/the-worlds-muslims-unity-and-diversity-1-religious-affiliation/#identity|title=Chapter 1: Religious Affiliation|date=9 August 2012|work=The World's Muslims: Unity and Diversity|publisher=[[Pew Research Center]]'s Religion & Public Life Project|access-date=22 August 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161226113158/http://www.pewforum.org/2012/08/09/the-worlds-muslims-unity-and-diversity-1-religious-affiliation/#identity|archive-date=26 December 2016|url-status=live}}</ref> The [[CIA]] Factbook variously estimates up to 89.7% Sunni or up to 15% Shia.<ref name="Factbook"/>

Afghan [[Sikhism in Afghanistan|Sikhs]] and [[Hinduism in Afghanistan|Hindus]] are also found in certain major cities (namely Kabul, Jalalabad, Ghazni, Kandahar)<ref>{{cite news |last=Majumder |first=Sanjoy |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/south_asia/3138282.stm |title=Sikhs struggle in Afghanistan |publisher=BBC News |date=25 September 2003 |access-date=19 May 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090222132753/http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/south_asia/3138282.stm |archive-date=22 February 2009}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |author=Lavina Melwani |url=http://www.hinduismtoday.com/archives/1994/4/1994-4-02.shtml |title=Hindus Abandon Afghanistan |work=Hinduism Today |access-date=19 May 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070111080626/http://www.hinduismtoday.com/archives/1994/4/1994-4-02.shtml |archive-date=11 January 2007}}</ref> accompanied by gurdwaras and mandirs.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://english.religion.info/2005/08/25/afghanistan-sikhs-rebuilding-gurdwaras/ |title=Afghanistan: Sikhs rebuilding gurdwaras |date=25 August 2005 |website=Religioscope}}</ref> According to [[Deutsche Welle]] in September 2021, 250 remain in the country after 67 were evacuated to India.<ref>{{cite news |last=Chabba |first=Seerat |title=Afghanistan: What does Taliban rule mean for Sikhs and Hindus? |url=https://www.dw.com/en/afghanistan-what-does-taliban-rule-mean-for-sikhs-and-hindus/a-59122249 |access-date=25 October 2021 |publisher=Deutsche Welle |date=8 September 2021}}</ref>

There was a small [[History of the Jews in Afghanistan|Jewish community in Afghanistan]], living mainly in Herat and Kabul. Over the years, this small community was forced to leave due to decades of warfare and religious persecution. By the end of the twentieth century, nearly the entire community had emigrated to Israel and the United States, with one known exception, Herat-born [[Zablon Simintov]]. He remained for years, being the caretaker of the only remaining Afghan synagogue. He left the country for the US after the second Taliban takeover. A woman who left shortly after him has since been identified as the likely last Jew in Afghanistan.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/articles/A39702-2005Jan26.html |title=Afghan Jew Becomes Country's One and Only |author=N.C. Aizenman |newspaper=The Washington Post |date=27 January 2005 |access-date=19 May 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110516090806/http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/articles/A39702-2005Jan26.html |archive-date=16 May 2011 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |url=https://english.alaraby.co.uk/news/last-jew-afghanistan-en-route-us-report |title=Last Jew in Afghanistan en route to US: report |work=The New Arab |date=7 September 2021 |access-date=17 September 2021}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |author1=Ben Zion Gad |title='Last Jew in Afghanistan' loses title to hidden Jewish family |url=https://www.jpost.com/diaspora/not-the-last-jew-in-afghanistan-after-all-683879 |access-date=7 February 2023 |work=[[The Jerusalem Post]] |date=1 December 2021}}</ref>

[[Afghan Christians]], who number 500–8,000, practice their faith secretly due to intense societal opposition, and there are no public churches.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Gebauer |first1=Matthias |date=20 March 2006 |title=Christians in Afghanistan: A Community of Faith and Fear |work=[[Der Spiegel]] |url=http://www.spiegel.de/international/0,1518,408781,00.html |url-status=live |access-date=25 April 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120127030841/http://www.spiegel.de/international/0,1518,408781,00.html |archive-date=27 January 2012}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |author=((USSD Bureau of Democracy, Human Rights, and Labor))| year=2009 |title=International Religious Freedom Report 2009 |url=http://www.state.gov/g/drl/rls/irf/2009/127362.htm |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091130031916/http://www.state.gov/g/drl/rls/irf/2009/127362.htm |url-status=dead |archive-date=30 November 2009 |access-date=6 March 2010}}</ref>

===Education===
{{Main|Education in Afghanistan}}
[[File:UNESCO Institute of Statistics Afghanistan Literacy Rate population plus15 1980-2018.png|thumb|upright=1.3|UNESCO Institute of Statistics Afghanistan Literacy Rate among population aged 15+ (1980–2018)]]

[[Education in Afghanistan]] is overseen by the [[Ministry of Education (Afghanistan)|Ministry of Education]] and the [[Ministry of Higher Education (Afghanistan)|Ministry of Higher Education]]. There are over 16,000 schools in the country and roughly 9&nbsp;million students. Of this, about 60% are males and 40% females. However, the new regime has thus far forbidden female teachers and female students from returning to secondary schools.<ref>{{cite news |date=18 September 2021|title=Afghanistan: Girls excluded as Afghan secondary schools reopen|publisher=BBC News|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-58607816 |access-date=20 September 2021}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|last1=Blue|first1=Victor J.|last2=Zucchino|first2=David|date=20 September 2021|title=A Harsh New Reality for Afghan Women and Girls in Taliban-Run Schools|work=The New York Times|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2021/09/20/world/asia/afghan-girls-schools-taliban.html |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20211228/https://www.nytimes.com/2021/09/20/world/asia/afghan-girls-schools-taliban.html |archive-date=28 December 2021 |url-access=limited|access-date=20 September 2021|issn=0362-4331}}{{cbignore}}</ref> Over 174,000 students are enrolled in different [[List of universities in Afghanistan|universities around the country]]. About 21% of these are females.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.usaid.gov/afghanistan/education |title=Education |publisher=[[USAID]] |access-date=26 May 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181110231403/https://www.usaid.gov/afghanistan/education |archive-date=10 November 2018 |url-status=live}}</ref> Former Education Minister [[Ghulam Farooq Wardak]] had stated that construction of 8,000 schools is required for the remaining children who are deprived of [[formal learning]].<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.pajhwok.com/en/2013/05/18/wardak-seeks-3b-aid-school-buildings |title=Wardak seeks $3b in aid for school buildings |publisher=Pajhwok Afghan News |date=18 May 2013 |access-date=13 August 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131230234222/http://www.pajhwok.com/en/2013/05/18/wardak-seeks-3b-aid-school-buildings |archive-date=30 December 2013|last1=Adina |first1=Mohammad Sabir}}</ref> As of 2018 the literacy rate of the population age 15 and older is 43.02% (males 55.48% and females 29.81%).<ref>{{cite web |title=UNESCO UIS: Afghanistan |url=http://uis.unesco.org/ |access-date=6 August 2020 |publisher=UNESCO}}</ref>

The top universities in Afghanistan are the [[American University of Afghanistan]] (AUAF) followed by [[Kabul University]] (KU), both of which are located in Kabul. The [[National Military Academy of Afghanistan]], modeled after the [[United States Military Academy]] at West Point, was a four-year military development institution dedicated to graduating officers for the [[Afghan Armed Forces]]. The [[Afghan Defense University]] was constructed near [[Qargha]] in Kabul. Major universities outside of Kabul include [[Kandahar University]] in the south, [[Herat University]] in the northwest, [[Balkh University]] and [[Kunduz University]] in the north, [[Nangarhar University]] and [[Khost University]] in the east.

After the Taliban regained power in 2021, it became unclear to what extent female education would continue in the country. In March 2022, after they had been closed for some time, it was announced that secondary education would be reopened shortly. However, shortly before reopening, the order was rescinded and schools for older girls remained closed.<ref>{{Cite news |title=Taliban reverses decision, barring Afghan girls from attending school beyond 6th grade|publisher=[[NPR]]|url=https://www.npr.org/2022/03/23/1088202759/taliban-afghanistan-girls-school |access-date=5 April 2022}}</ref> Despite the ban, six provinces, [[Balkh Province|Balkh]], [[Kunduz Province|Kunduz]], [[Jowzjan Province|Jowzjan]], [[Sar-e Pol Province|Sar-I-Pul]], [[Faryab Province|Faryab]], and the [[Daykundi Province|Day Kundi]], still allow girl's schools from grade 6 and up.<ref>{{Cite web |date=1 January 2023 |title=Afghanistan: Six provinces keep schools open for girls despite nationwide ban |url=https://amu.tv/en/30372/ |access-date=17 February 2023 |publisher=AmuTV}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Neda Safi |first=Tooba |date=17 February 2023 |title=Girls return to high school in some regions of Afghanistan |url=https://genevasolutions.news/explorations/dispatches-from-women-in-afghanistan/girls-return-to-high-school-in-some-regions-of-afghanistan |access-date=17 February 2023 |website=Geneva Solutions}}</ref> In December 2023, investigations were being held by the United Nations on the claim that Afghan girls of all ages were allowed to study at religious schools.<ref>{{Cite web |date=20 December 2023 |title=UN is seeking to verify that Afghanistan's Taliban are letting girls study at religious schools |url=https://www.seattletimes.com/nation-world/nation/un-is-seeking-to-verify-that-afghanistans-taliban-are-letting-girls-study-at-religious-schools/ |access-date=21 December 2023 |website=The Seattle Times}}</ref>

===Health===
{{Main|Health in Afghanistan}}
[[File:Kabul Military Hospital - panoramio.jpg|thumb|The [[Daoud Khan Military Hospital]] in Kabul is one of the largest [[list of hospitals in Afghanistan|hospitals]] in Afghanistan.]]

According to the [[Human Development Index]], Afghanistan is the [[List of countries by Human Development Index|15th least developed country in the world]]. The average [[List of countries by life expectancy|life expectancy]] is estimated to be around 60 years.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://apps.who.int/iris/bitstream/10665/136852/1/ccsbrief_afg_en.pdf |title=Afghanistan |publisher=[[World Health Organization]] (WHO) |access-date=17 May 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170722191648/http://apps.who.int/iris/bitstream/10665/136852/1/ccsbrief_afg_en.pdf |archive-date=22 July 2017 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name="UNESCO-2016">{{cite web |publisher=UNESCO  |title=Afghanistan |date=27 November 2016 |url=https://uis.unesco.org/en/country/af |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170623093810/http://uis.unesco.org/en/country/af |archive-date=23 June 2017}}</ref> The country's [[maternal mortality]] rate is 396 deaths/100,000 live births and its [[infant mortality]] rate is 66<ref name="UNESCO-2016"/> to 112.8 deaths in every 1,000 live births.<ref name="Factbook"/> The [[Ministry of Public Health (Afghanistan)|Ministry of Public Health]] plans to cut the infant mortality rate to 400 for every 100,000 live births before 2020. The country has more than 3,000 [[midwifery|midwives]], with an additional 300 to 400 being trained each year.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://news.yahoo.com/childbirth-maternal-health-improve-afghanistan-160657704.html |title=Childbirth and maternal health improve in Afghanistan |first=Tom A. |last=Peter |newspaper=The Christian Science Monitor | date=17 December 2011 |access-date=12 January 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131231002243/http://news.yahoo.com/childbirth-maternal-health-improve-afghanistan-160657704.html |archive-date=31 December 2013 }}</ref>

There are over 100 [[hospitals in Afghanistan]],<ref>{{Cite news|url=http://pdf.usaid.gov/pdf_docs/pnaea825.pdf|title=Afghanistan National Hospital Survey|date=August 2004|publisher=Afghan Ministry of Health|access-date=28 May 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190807231748/https://pdf.usaid.gov/pdf_docs/pnaea825.pdf|archive-date=7 August 2019|url-status=live}}</ref> with the most advanced treatments being available in Kabul. The [[French Medical Institute for Children]] and [[Indira Gandhi Children's Hospital]] in Kabul are the leading [[children's hospital]]s in the country. Some of the other leading hospitals in Kabul include the [[Jamhuriat Hospital]] and [[Jinnah Hospital (Kabul)|Jinnah Hospital]].<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.voanews.com/a/pakistan-funded-afghan-hospital-begins-operations/4884454.html|title=Pakistan-funded Afghan Hospital Begins Operations|work=VOA News|first=Ayaz|last=Gul|date=20 April 2019|access-date=28 May 2019|quote=It opens a new chapter in the friendship of the two countries... This is the second-largest hospital [in Afghanistan] built with your support that will serve the needy," Feroz told the gathering.|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190423111329/https://www.voanews.com/a/pakistan-funded-afghan-hospital-begins-operations/4884454.html|archive-date=23 April 2019|url-status=live}}</ref> In spite of all this, many Afghans travel to Pakistan and India for advanced treatment.

It was reported in 2006 that nearly 60% of the Afghan population lives within a two-hour walk of the nearest health facility.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://afghanistan.usaid.gov/en/programs/health |title=Health |publisher=[[United States Agency for International Development]] (USAID) |access-date=20 October 2010|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130929082306/http://afghanistan.usaid.gov/en/programs/health|archive-date=29 September 2013}}</ref> The [[disability]] rate is also high in Afghanistan due to the decades of war.<ref>{{cite web |first=Anne-Marie |last=DiNardo |author2=LPA/PIPOS |url=http://www.usaid.gov/stories/afghanistan/fp_afghan_disabled.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20040508140406/http://www.usaid.gov/stories/afghanistan/fp_afghan_disabled.html |archive-date=8 May 2004|title=Empowering Afghanistan's Disabled Population&nbsp;– 31 March 2006 |publisher=Usaid.gov | date=31 March 2006 |access-date=19 May 2012}}</ref> It was reported recently that about 80,000 people are missing limbs.<ref>{{cite news |first =Richard |last=Norton-Taylor |url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2008/feb/13/afghanistan |title=Afghanistan's refugee crisis 'ignored' |work=[[The Guardian]] | date=13 February 2008 |access-date=19 May 2012 |location=London|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101215150225/http://www.guardian.co.uk/world/2008/feb/13/afghanistan |archive-date=15 December 2010}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.irinnews.org/report.aspx?reportid=26520 |title=Afghanistan: People living with disabilities call for integration |work=The New Humanitarian |url-status=live |date=2 December 2004 |access-date=28 June 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110920142752/http://www.irinnews.org/report.aspx?reportid=26520 |archive-date=20 September 2011}}</ref> Non-governmental charities such as [[Save the Children]] and [[Mahboba's Promise]] assist orphans in association with governmental structures.<ref>{{cite web |first=Virginia |last=Haussegger |title=Mahboba's Promise |date=2 July 2009 |url=http://www.abc.net.au/7.30/content/2009/s2615472.htm |publisher=ABC News|location=Australia |access-date=15 July 2009 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130726123857/http://www.abc.net.au/7.30/content/2009/s2615472.htm |archive-date=26 July 2013}}</ref>

==Culture==
{{Main|Culture of Afghanistan}}
[[File:CH-NB - Afghanistan, Kulm (Khulm, Kholm)- Menschen - Annemarie Schwarzenbach - SLA-Schwarzenbach-A-5-21-110.jpg|thumb|An Afghan family near [[Kholm, Afghanistan|Kholm]], 1939 – most Afghans are tribal.]]

[[Afghans]] have both common cultural features and those that differ between the regions of Afghanistan, each with distinctive cultures partly as a result of geographic obstacles that divide the country.<ref name="Fisher-2002"/> Family is the mainstay of Afghan society and families are often headed by a [[patriarch]].<ref name="afghanistans.com">{{cite web|url=https://www.afghanistans.com/Information/People/WayofLife.htm|title=Afghanistan Way of Life &#124; Afghanistan's Web Site|website=afghanistans.com|access-date=14 June 2020|archive-date=8 March 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210308140824/https://www.afghanistans.com/Information/People/WayofLife.htm|url-status=dead}}</ref> In the southern and eastern region, the people live according to the [[Pashtun culture]] by following [[Pashtunwali]] (the Pashtun way).<ref>{{citation-attribution |{{cite encyclopedia |url=http://lcweb2.loc.gov/frd/cs/aftoc.html |title=Afghanistan: a country study |year=1998 |publisher=[[Library of Congress]], [[Federal Research Division]] |editor-last=Blood |editor-first=Peter R. |location=Washington, D.C. |oclc=904447770 |entry=Pashtun |entry-url=https://webharvest.gov/peth04/20041031011222/http://lcweb2.loc.gov/cgi-bin/query/r?frd/cstdy:@field(DOCID+af0037) |access-date=23 January 2021}}}}</ref> Key tenets of Pashtunwali include [[Melmastia|hospitality]], the provision of [[Nanawatai|sanctuary]] to those seeking refuge, and revenge for the shedding of blood.{{sfn|Dupree|1997|page=126}} The Pashtuns are largely connected to the culture of Central Asia and the [[Iranian Plateau]]. The remaining Afghans are culturally [[Persianization|Persian]] and [[Turkic peoples|Turkic]]. Some non-Pashtuns who live in proximity with Pashtuns have adopted Pashtunwali in a process called [[Pashtunization]], while some Pashtuns have been [[Persianized]]. Those who have lived in Pakistan and Iran over the last 30 years have been further influenced by the cultures of those neighboring nations. The Afghan people are known to be strongly religious.<ref name="The Swedish Committee for Afghanistan (SCA)"/>

Afghans, particularly Pashtuns, are noted for their tribal solidarity and high regard for personal honor.{{sfn|Barfield|2012|page=59}} There are various [[ethnic groups in Afghanistan|Afghan tribes]], and an estimated 2–3&nbsp;million [[Kochi people|nomads]].<ref>"[http://www.irinnews.org/Report.aspx?ReportId=76794 Afghanistan: Kuchi nomads seek a better deal]". [[The New Humanitarian|IRIN]] Asia. 18 February 2008. {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110910205256/http://www.irinnews.org/Report.aspx?ReportId=76794 |date=10 September 2011}}</ref> Afghan culture is deeply [[Islamic culture|Islamic]],{{sfn|Barfield|2012|page=40–41}} but pre-Islamic practices persist.{{sfn|Dupree|1997|page=104}} [[Child marriage in Afghanistan|Child marriage]] is prevalent;<ref>{{cite journal|last=Bahgam|first=S|author2=Mukhatari|title=Study on Child Marriage in Afghanistan|journal=Medica Mondiale|year=2004|pages=1–20|url=http://www.medicamondiale.org/fileadmin/content/07_Infothek/Afghanistan/Afghanistan_Child_marriage_medica_mondiale_study_2004_e.pdf|access-date=15 March 2014|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120506222217/http://www.medicamondiale.org/fileadmin/content/07_Infothek/Afghanistan/Afghanistan_Child_marriage_medica_mondiale_study_2004_e.pdf|archive-date=6 May 2012}}</ref> the legal age for marriage is 16.<ref>{{cite web|title=Afghanistan Has a Tougher Law on Child Marriage than Florida|url=https://www.hrw.org/news/2017/10/20/afghanistan-has-tougher-law-child-marriage-florida|publisher=Human Rights Watch|date=20 October 2017|quote=In Afghanistan girls can marry at 16, or at 15 with permission from their father or a judge.|access-date=15 September 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190725072232/https://www.hrw.org/news/2017/10/20/afghanistan-has-tougher-law-child-marriage-florida|archive-date=25 July 2019|url-status=live}}</ref> The most preferred marriage in Afghan society is to one's [[parallel cousin]], and the groom is often expected to pay a [[bride price]].{{sfn|Dupree|1997|page=122, 198}}

[[File:Kuchi Village.jpg|thumb|A house occupied by nomadic ''kochi'' people in [[Nangarhar Province]]]]

In the villages, families typically occupy [[mudbrick]] houses, or compounds with mudbrick or [[stone wall]]ed houses. Villages typically have a headman (''malik''), a master for water distribution (''mirab'') and a religious teacher (''mullah''). Men would typically work on the fields, joined by women during harvest.<ref name="afghanistans.com"/> About 15% of the population are [[nomadic]], locally called ''[[Kochi people|kochis]]''.<ref name="Fisher-2002"/> When nomads pass villages they often buy supplies such as tea, wheat and [[kerosene]] from the villagers; villagers buy [[wool]] and milk from the nomads.<ref name="afghanistans.com"/>

[[Afghan clothing]] for both men and women typically consists of various forms of [[shalwar kameez]], especially ''[[perahan tunban]]'' and ''[[khet partug]]''. Women would normally wear a ''[[chador]]'' for head covering; some women, typically from highly conservative communities, wear the ''[[burqa]]'', a full body covering. These were worn by some women of the Pashtun community well before Islam came to the region, but the [[Taliban]] enforced this dress on women when they were in power.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=z7ATBAAAQBAJ&pg=PA61|title=What Is Veiling?|first=Sahar|last=Amer|date=2 September 2014|publisher=UNC Press Books|isbn=9781469617763}}</ref> Another popular dress is the ''[[chapan]]'' which acts as a coat. The ''[[Karakul (hat)|karakul]]'' is a hat made from the fur of a specific regional breed of sheep. It was favored by former kings of Afghanistan and became known to much of the world in the 21st century when it was constantly worn by President [[Hamid Karzai]].<ref>{{Cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/south_asia/1956862.stm|title=Karzai heads for hat trouble|date=28 April 2002|publisher=BBC News}}</ref> The ''[[pakol]]'' is another traditional hat originating from the far east of the country; it was popularly worn by the guerrilla leader [[Ahmad Shah Massoud]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.afghan-web.com/culture/clothes/|title=Traditional Afghan Clothes|date=12 March 2018|access-date=13 June 2020|archive-date=13 August 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210813151029/https://www.afghan-web.com/culture/clothes/|url-status=dead}}</ref> The ''[[Mazari hat]]'' originates from northern Afghanistan.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.voanews.com/extremism-watch/hats-proliferate-symbol-pashtun-protest-movement|title=Hats Proliferate as Symbol of Pashtun Protest Movement|publisher=Voice of America}}</ref>

===Architecture===
{{Main|Architecture of Afghanistan}}
[[File:Kabul Skyline.jpg|thumb|upright=1.2|Kabul skyline, displaying both historical and contemporary buildings]]

The nation has a complex history that has survived either in its current cultures or in the form of various languages and monuments. Afghanistan contains many remnants from all ages, including [[Ancient Greece|Greek]] and [[Buddhist]] stupas, monasteries, monuments, temples, and Islamic minarets. Among the most well known are the [[Great Mosque of Herat]], the [[Blue Mosque (Mazar-i-Sharif)|Blue Mosque]], the [[Minaret of Jam]], the [[Chil Zena]], the Qala-i Bost in [[Lashkargah]], the ancient Greek city of [[Ai-Khanoum]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.afghanistans.com/Information/People/ArtArchitecture.htm|title=Afghanistan Art and Architecture &#124; Afghanistan's Web Site|website=afghanistans.com|access-date=14 June 2020|archive-date=7 March 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210307212319/https://www.afghanistans.com/Information/People/ArtArchitecture.htm|url-status=dead}}</ref> However, many of its historic monuments have been damaged in modern times due to the civil wars.<ref>G.V. Brandolini. ''Afghanistan [[cultural heritage]]''. Orizzonte terra, [[Bergamo]]. 2007. p. 64.</ref> The two famous [[Buddhas of Bamiyan]] were destroyed by the Taliban, who regarded them as [[idolatrous]]. As there was no colonialism in the modern era in Afghanistan, European-style architecture is rare but does exist: the Victory Arch at [[Paghman]] and the [[Darul Aman Palace]] in Kabul were built in this style in the 1920s. Afghan architecture also ranges [[Indo-Islamic architecture|deep into India]] such as the city of [[Agra]],<ref>{{Cite journal |last=ud-Din |first=Hameed |year=1960 |title=THE AFGHAN ARCHITECTURE OF INDIA: An historical study, 1451–1526 |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/41922907 |journal=Rivista degli studi orientali |volume=35 |pages=149–155 |jstor=41922907 |issn=0392-4866}}</ref> and the [[tomb of Sher Shah Suri]], an [[Sur Empire|Afghan Emperor of India]].<ref>{{cite book|title=Medieval India the study of a civilization|first=Irfan|last=Habib|page=228|publisher=National Book Trust, India|isbn=978-81-237-5255-6|year=2007}}</ref>

===Art and ceramics===
{{Main|Afghan art}}
[[File:Traditional Afghan Embroidery Style.jpg|thumb|A traditional Afghan [[embroidery]] pattern]]

Carpet [[weaving]] is an ancient practice in Afghanistan, and many of these are still [[Handicraft|handmade]] by tribal and nomadic people today.<ref name="aljazeera.com"/> Carpets have been produced in the region for thousands of years and traditionally done by women.<ref>{{Cite journal|url=https://khorasanrugs.com/post/1033364869875/in-afghanistan-weaving-ancient-industry|title=In Afghanistan, weaving ancient industry back into global market|date=21 August 2019|journal=The Christian Science Monitor}}</ref> Some crafters express their feelings through the designs of rugs; for example after the outbreak of the [[Soviet–Afghan War]], "[[war rugs]]", a variant of [[Afghan rug]]s, were created with designs representing pain and misery caused by the conflict.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://speri.dept.shef.ac.uk/2020/01/15/selling-war-commodifying-the-insecurity-of-afghan-women/|title=Selling war: commodifying the (in)security of Afghan women|date=15 January 2020|website=SPERI}}</ref> Every province has its own specific characteristics in making rugs.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.gounesco.com/weaving-culture-through-the-afghan-rug/|title=Weaving Culture through the Afghan rug|date=7 December 2017|access-date=13 June 2020|archive-date=30 August 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210830215415/https://www.makeheritagefun.com/weaving-culture-through-the-afghan-rug/|url-status=dead}}</ref> In some of the Turkic-populated areas in the north-west, bride and wedding ceremony prices are driven by the bride's weaving skills.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.afghanistan-analysts.org/en/reports/context-culture/rug-weavers-and-bride-prices-in-the-northwest-still-expensive-in-spite-of-government-and-taleban-rules/|title=Rug Weavers and Bride Prices in the Northwest: Still expensive in spite of government and Taleban rules|date=12 May 2019|website=Afghanistan Analysts Network – English}}</ref>

[[Pottery]] has been crafted in Afghanistan for millennia. The village of [[Istalif]], north of Kabul, is in particular a major center, known for its unique turquoise and green pottery,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://seretandsons.org/giving-back|title=Giving Back – Seret and Sons}}</ref> and their methods of crafting have remained the same for centuries.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.khaama.com/the-potter-crafting-afghanistans-future-9899/|title=The Potter: Crafting Afghanistan's future|date=27 January 2015|website=The Khaama Press News Agency}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2016/08/19/world/asia/afghanistan-istalif-pottery.html |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20220101/https://www.nytimes.com/2016/08/19/world/asia/afghanistan-istalif-pottery.html |archive-date=1 January 2022 |url-access=limited|title=War and Pillaging Couldn't Break an Afghan Village, but a Tumbling Economy May|first=Kareem|last=Fahim|newspaper=The New York Times|date=18 August 2016}}{{cbignore}}</ref> Much of ''[[lapis lazuli]]'' stones were earthed in modern-day Afghanistan which were used in [[Chinese porcelain]] as [[cobalt blue]], later used in ancient [[Mesopotamia]] and Turkey.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.cnn.com/style/article/how-the-color-blue-changed-art-forever/index.html|title=How the quest for the 'perfect blue' changed art forever|first=Isambard |last=Wilkinson|publisher=CNN|date=14 June 2018}}</ref>

The lands of Afghanistan have a long history of art, with the world's earliest known usage of [[oil painting]] found in cave murals in the country.<ref>{{cite web |title=First-ever oil paintings found in Afghanistan |url=http://edition.cnn.com/2008/WORLD/asiapcf/04/24/afghanistan.painting/ |date=24 April 2008 |access-date=3 December 2012 |publisher=CNN}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=World's Oldest Oil Paintings Found in Afghanistan |url=http://www.foxnews.com/story/0,2933,352342,00.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080427021547/http://www.foxnews.com/story/0,2933,352342,00.html |url-status=dead |archive-date=27 April 2008 |date=24 April 2008 |access-date=3 December 2012 |publisher=[[Fox News]]}}</ref> A notable art style that developed in Afghanistan and eastern Pakistan is [[Gandhara Art]], produced by a fusion of [[Greco-Roman]] art and [[Buddhist art]] between the 1st and 7th centuries CE.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia | url=https://www.britannica.com/art/Gandhara-art |title=Gandhara art |encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica |access-date=22 August 2018}}</ref> Later eras saw increased use of the [[Persian miniature]] style, with [[Kamaleddin Behzad]] of [[Herat]] being one of the most notable miniature artists of the [[Timurid dynasty|Timurid]] and early [[Safavid]] periods. Since the 1900s, the nation began to use Western techniques in art. [[Abdul Ghafoor Breshna]] was a prominent Afghan painter and sketch artist from Kabul during the 20th century.

===Literature===
{{See also|Poetry of Afghanistan}}

Classic [[Persian literature|Persian]] and [[Pashto poetry]] are a cherished part of Afghan culture. Poetry has always been one of the major educational pillars in the region, to the level that it has integrated itself into culture.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://news.un.org/en/story/2017/10/567862-feature-western-afghanistan-ancient-love-poetry-thrives-again|title=FEATURE: In Western Afghanistan, an ancient love of poetry thrives again|date=5 October 2017|website=UN News}}</ref> One of the poetic styles is called [[Landay (poetry)|landay]]. A popular theme in Afghan folklore and mythology are [[Dev (mythology)|Divs]], monstrous creatures.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=kXnEDAAAQBAJ&pg=PA4|title=American Myths, Legends, and Tall Tales: An Encyclopedia of American Folklore [3 volumes]: An Encyclopedia of American Folklore (3 Volumes)|first1=Christopher R.|last1=Fee|first2=Jeffrey B.|last2=Webb|date=29 August 2016|publisher=ABC-CLIO|isbn=9781610695688}}</ref> Thursdays are traditionally "poetry night" in the city of [[Herat]] when men, women and children gather and recite both ancient and modern poems.<ref>{{cite news |title=Afghanistan: 10 facts you may not know |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-south-asia-13931608 |url-status=live |publisher=BBC News |date=6 July 2011 |access-date=21 June 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180304072803/http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-south-asia-13931608 |archive-date=4 March 2018}}</ref>

Three mystical authors are considered true national glories (although claimed with equal ardor by Iran), namely: [[Khwaja Abdullah Ansari]] of Herat, a great mystic and [[Sufi]] saint in the 11th century, [[Sanai]] of [[Ghazni]], author of mystical poems in the 12th century, and, finally, [[Rumi]] of [[Balkh]], in the 13th century, considered the greatest mystical poet of the Muslim world. The Afghan Pashto literature, although quantitatively remarkable and in great growth in the last century, has always had an essentially local meaning and importance, feeling the influence of both Persian literature and the contiguous literatures of India. Both main literatures, from the second half of the nineteenth century, have shown themselves to be sensitive to genres, movements and stylistic features imported from Europe.

[[Khushal Khan Khattak]] of the 17th century is considered the national poet. Other notable poets include [[Rabi'a Balkhi]], [[Jami]], [[Rahman Baba]], [[Khalilullah Khalili]], and [[Parween Pazhwak]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.afghan-web.com/culture/poetry/cpoets.html |title=Classical Dari and Pashto Poets |publisher=Afghan-web.com |access-date=4 February 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140412113451/http://www.afghan-web.com/culture/poetry/cpoets.html|archive-date=12 April 2014}}</ref>

===Music===
{{Main|Music of Afghanistan}}
[[File:Afghan rubab.jpg|thumb|left|The Afghan [[Rubab (instrument)|rubab]]]]

Afghan classical music has close historical links with [[Indian classical music]] and use the same Hindustani terminology and theories like [[raga]]. Genres of this style of music include [[ghazal]] (poetic music) and instruments such as the Indian [[tabla]], [[sitar]] and [[harmonium]], and local instruments like [[zerbaghali]], as well as [[dayereh]] and [[tanbur]] which are also known in Central Asia, the Caucasus and the Middle East. The [[Rubab (instrument)|rubab]] is the country's national instrument and precurses the Indian [[sarod]] instrument. Some of the famous artists of classical music include [[Ustad Sarahang]] and [[Abdul Rahim Sarban|Sarban]].<ref name="Songlines">{{cite web|url=https://www.songlines.co.uk/explore/guides-and-lists/the-rough-guide-to-world-music-afghanistan|title=Afghanistan – The Rough Guide to World Music|website=Songlines}}</ref>

Pop music developed in the 1950s through [[Radio Kabul]] and was influential in social change. During this time female artists also started appearing, at first [[Mermon Parwin]].<ref name="Songlines"/> Perhaps the most famous artist of this genre was [[Ahmad Zahir]], who synthesized many genres and continues to be renowned for his voice and rich lyrics long after his death in 1979.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://daily.redbullmusicacademy.com/2016/06/ahmad-zahir-the-afghan-elvis|title=Ahmad Zahir: The Voice of Afghanistan|website=daily.redbullmusicacademy.com}}</ref><ref name="Songlines"/> Other notable masters of traditional or popular Afghan music include [[Nashenas]], [[Ubaidullah Jan]], [[Mahwash]], [[Ahmad Wali]], [[Farhad Darya]], and [[Naghma (singer)|Naghma]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.afghanland.com/entertainment/music/bio.html |title=Artist Biographies |publisher=Afghanland.com |access-date=17 October 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130809214750/http://www.afghanland.com/entertainment/music/bio.html |archive-date=9 August 2013}}</ref>

[[Attan]] is the national dance of Afghanistan, a group dance popularly performed by Afghans of all backgrounds.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://wadsam.com/arts-culture/afghanistans-traditional-dance-attan-3090/|title=Afghanistan's Traditional Dance-Attan|date=7 July 2012}}</ref> The dance is considered part of Afghan identity.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.afghanzariza.com/article/articledetail/attan--the-fascinating-national-dance-of-afghanistan|title=Attan – the fascinating national dance of Afghanistan|website=Afghan Zariza|access-date=14 June 2020|archive-date=8 March 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210308040731/https://www.afghanzariza.com/article/articledetail/attan--the-fascinating-national-dance-of-afghanistan|url-status=dead}}</ref>

===Media and entertainment===
{{Main|Media of Afghanistan}}

Afghanistan has around 350 [[List of radio stations in Afghanistan|radio stations]] and over 200 television stations.<ref name=TOLO-2019>{{cite news|title=Suspects Sentenced To Death For Killing Journalist in Kandahar|url=https://www.tolonews.com/afghanistan/suspects-sentenced-death-killing-journalist-kandahar|publisher=[[TOLOnews]]|date=16 April 2019|access-date=28 July 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190417161248/https://www.tolonews.com/afghanistan/suspects-sentenced-death-killing-journalist-kandahar|archive-date=17 April 2019|url-status=live}}</ref> [[Radio Television Afghanistan]], originating from 1925, is the state public broadcaster. Television programs began airing in the 1970s and today there are many private television channels such as [[TOLO (TV channel)|TOLO]] and [[Shamshad TV]]. The first Afghan newspaper was published in 1873,{{sfn|Dupree|1997|page=405}} and there are hundreds of print outlets today.<ref name="TOLO-2019"/> By the 1920s, [[Radio Kabul]] was broadcasting local radio services.<ref>{{cite book|author=Monica Whitlock|title=Land Beyond the River: The Untold Story of Central Asia|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=OW1tAwAAQBAJ&pg=PA127|date=24 October 2003|publisher=St. Martin's Press|isbn=978-0-312-27727-7|page=127}}</ref> [[Voice of America]], [[BBC World Service|BBC]], and [[Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty]] (RFE/RL) broadcast in both of Afghanistan's official languages on radio.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://freedomhouse.org/report/freedom-press/2016/afghanistan|title=Freedom of the Press 2016: Afghanistan|publisher=Freedom House|year=2016|access-date=28 July 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170205122939/https://freedomhouse.org/report/freedom-press/2016/afghanistan|archive-date=5 February 2017|url-status=live}}</ref> Press restrictions have been gradually relaxed and private media diversified since 2002, after more than two decades of tight controls.

Afghans have long been accustomed to watching Indian [[Bollywood]] films and listening to its [[filmi]] songs.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.himalmag.com/encounters-bollywood-kabul/|title=Encounters with Bollywood in Kabul|date=14 September 2013|website=Himal Southasian}}</ref> It has been claimed that Afghanistan is among the biggest markets for the Hindi film industry.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2019/12/panipat-irks-afghans-founding-father-portrayal-191210053601818.html|title=Bollywood's Panipat irks Afghans over founding father's portrayal|publisher=Al Jazeera}}</ref> The stereotypes of [[Afghans in India]] (''Kabuliwala'' or ''Pathani'') have also been represented in some Bollywood films by actors.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.telegraphindia.com/entertainment/period-films-like-padmaavat-kesari-and-now-panipat-have-crassly-stereotyped-and-vilified-afghans/cid/1717346|title=Vilifying Afghans in Bollywood|website=The Telegraph|location=India}}</ref> Many Bollywood film stars have roots in Afghanistan, including [[Salman Khan]], [[Saif Ali Khan]], [[Aamir Khan]], [[Feroz Khan (Indian actor)|Feroz Khan]], [[Kader Khan]], [[Naseeruddin Shah]], [[Zarine Khan]], [[Celina Jaitly]], and a number of others. Several Bollywood films have been shot inside Afghanistan, including ''[[Dharmatma]]'', ''[[Khuda Gawah]]'', ''[[Escape from Taliban]]'', and ''[[Kabul Express]]''.

===Cuisine===
{{Main|Afghan cuisine}}
[[File: Bread of Afghanistan in 2010.jpg|thumb|[[Naan|Non]], the most widely consumed bread in Afghanistan]]

Afghan cuisine is largely based upon the nation's chief crops, such as wheat, maize, [[barley]] and rice. Accompanying these staples are native fruits and vegetables as well as dairy products such as milk, [[yogurt]], and [[whey]]. [[Kabuli palaw]] is the [[national dish]] of Afghanistan.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.foodrepublic.com/2012/07/31/everything-you-need-know-about-afghan-food|title=Everything You Need To Know About Afghan Food |date=31 July 2012 |publisher=foodrepublic |first=Tanveer |last=Ali|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130213232915/https://www.foodrepublic.com/2012/07/31/everything-you-need-know-about-afghan-food|archive-date=13 February 2013}}</ref> The nation's culinary specialties reflect its ethnic and geographic diversity.<ref>{{cite book|last=Brittin|first=Helen|title=The Food and Culture Around the World Handbook|year=2011|publisher=Prentice Hall|location=Boston|pages=20–21}}</ref> Afghanistan is known for its high-quality [[Pomegranate production in Afghanistan|pomegranates]], grapes, and sweet melons.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.rareseeds.com/afghan-honeydew-melon/|title=Rare Heirloom Seeds – Baker Creek Heirloom Seeds|website=Baker Creek Heirloom Seeds|access-date=28 October 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304063844/http://www.rareseeds.com/afghan-honeydew-melon/|archive-date=4 March 2016|url-status=dead}}</ref> Tea is a favorite drink among Afghans. A typical Afghan diet consists of [[naan]], yogurt, rice, and meat.<ref name="afghanistans.com"/>

===Holidays and festivals===
[[File:هفت میوه.jpg|thumb|upright|Haft Mewa (Seven Fruit Syrup), popularly consumed during Nowruz]]

Afghanistan's official New Year starts with [[Nowruz]], an ancient tradition that started as a [[Zoroastrian]] celebration in present-day Iran, and with which it shares the annual celebration along with several other countries. It occurs every year at the [[March equinox|vernal equinox]]. [[Nauruz in Afghanistan|In Afghanistan]], Nowruz is typically celebrated with music and dance, as well as holding [[buzkashi]] tournaments.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.iexplore.com/articles/travel-guides/middle-east/afghanistan/festivals-and-events |title=Afghanistan Holidays and Festivals |website=iexplore.com}}</ref>

[[Yaldā]], another nationally celebrated ancient tradition,<ref>{{cite news |url=http://en.mehrnews.com/news/112907/Yalda-Iranian-celebration-of-winter-solstice |last=Rezaian |first=Lachin |agency=[[Mehr News Agency]] |date=20 December 2015 |title=Yalda: Iranian celebration of winter solstice}}</ref> commemorates the ancient goddess [[Mithra]] and marks the longest night of the year on the eve of the [[winter solstice]] ({{transliteration|fa|čelle ye zemestān}}; usually falling on 20 or 21 December),<ref>{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=yonOicJi5BEC |title=No More "us" and "them": Classroom Lessons and Activities to Promote Peer Respect |last=Roessing |first=Lesley |date=2012 |page=89 |publisher=R&L Education |isbn=978-1-61048-812-9}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.latimes.com/local/la-me-adv-persian-winter-solstice-20131221-story.html |title=In ancient tradition, Iranians celebrate winter solstice |last=Hamedy |first= Saba |newspaper=[[Los Angeles Times]] |date=20 December 2013}}</ref> during which families gather together to recite poetry and eat fruit.<ref>{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Ti24AwAAQBAJ |title=Religions of Iran: From Prehistory to the Present |last=Foltz |first= Richard |publisher=Oneworld Publications |date=2013 |page=29|isbn=978-1-78074-307-3 |author-link=Foltz, Richard}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Alavi |first=Nasrin |url=https://archive.org/details/weareiranpersian0000alav/page/134/mode/2up |title=We Are Iran: The Persian Blogs |date=8 November 2015 |publisher=Soft Skull Press |page=135 |isbn=978-1-55192-871-5 |url-access=registration}}</ref>

As a predominantly Muslim country, Islamic events and festivals such as [[Ramadan]], [[Eid al-Fitr]] and [[Ashura]] are widely celebrated annually in Afghanistan. The Sikh festival of [[Vaisakhi]] is celebrated by the Sikh community<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.pajhwok.com/en/2013/04/11/sikhs-throng-temples-celebrate-vaisakhi|title=Sikhs throng temples to celebrate Vaisakhi|website=pajhwok.com|date=11 April 2013|last1=Mahbob|first1=Mahbob Shah}}</ref> and the Hindu festival [[Diwali]] by the Hindu community.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.thenational.ae/world/asia/afghan-hindus-and-sikhs-celebrate-diwali-without-pomp-and-splendour-amid-fear-1.668735|title=Afghan Hindus and Sikhs celebrate Diwali without 'pomp and splendour' amid fear|website=The National|date=19 October 2017}}</ref>

[[Afghan Independence Day|National Independence Day]] is celebrated on 19 August to mark the [[Anglo-Afghan Treaty of 1919]] and the country's full independence.<ref name="Factbook"/> Several international celebrations are also officially held in Afghanistan, such as [[International Workers' Day]],<ref>{{Cite web |date=30 April 2024 |title=International Workers Day 2024: List of Countries that Celebrate Labor Day on 1st May, Check Here |url=https://www.jagranjosh.com/general-knowledge/international-workers-day-1714484773-1 |access-date=1 July 2024 |website=Jagranjosh.com}}</ref> and [[International Women's Day]].<ref>{{Cite web |last=Ellingwood |first=Anselma |date=11 March 2024 |title=International Women's Day: Afghan Women Endure Gender Apartheid |url=https://feminist.org/news/international-womens-day-afghan-women-endure-gender-apartheid/ |access-date=1 July 2024 |website=Feminist Majority Foundation}}</ref> Some regional festivals include the [[Nowruz#Afghanistan|Red Flower Festival]] (during Nowruz) in [[Mazar-i-Sharif]],<ref>{{Cite web |date=24 March 2022 |title=Nowruz celebration in Afghanistan |url=https://en.mehrnews.com/news/184697/Nowruz-celebration-in-Afghanistan |access-date=1 July 2024 |agency=Mehr News Agency}}</ref> and the Damboora Festival in [[Bamyan Province]].<ref>{{Cite news |date=30 June 2018 |title=Traditional Dambora Musical Festival organized in Bamyan province |url=https://www.khaama.com/traditional-dambora-musical-festival-organized-in-bamyan-province-05461/ |access-date=1 July 2024 |work=Khaama Press}}</ref>

===Sports===
{{Main|Sport in Afghanistan}}
{{See also|Traditional games of Afghanistan}}
[[File:Buzkashi game in Afghanistan.jpg|thumb|left|The ancient national sport of Afghanistan, [[Buzkashi]]]]

Sport in Afghanistan is managed by the [[Afghan Sports Federation]]. [[Cricket]] and association football are the two most popular sports in the country.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.thehindu.com/sport/cricket/%E2%80%98Cricket-is-now-the-biggest-sport-in-Afghanistan%E2%80%99/article13994180.ece|title=Cricket is now the biggest sport in Afghanistan|work=The Hindu|access-date=4 July 2019|date=11 January 2016|author=Uthra Ganesan}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.topendsports.com/world/countries/afghanistan.htm|title=Sport in Afghanistan|access-date=4 July 2019|publisher=Top End Sports|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180711025603/https://www.topendsports.com/world/countries/afghanistan.htm|archive-date=11 July 2018|url-status=live}}</ref> The Afghan Sports Federation promotes cricket, association football, basketball, volleyball, golf, [[team handball|handball]], [[boxing]], [[taekwondo]], [[Olympic weightlifting|weightlifting]], [[bodybuilding]], track and field, [[ice skating|skating]], [[bowling]], [[snooker]], [[chess]], and other sports.

The [[Afghanistan national basketball team]] won the first team sports title at the [[2010 South Asian Games]].<ref>{{cite news|url=http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/sports/tournaments/South-Asian-Games-Shooters-swimmers-shine-as-India-consolidate-dominance/articleshow/5540143.cms|title=South Asian Games: Shooters, swimmers shine as India consolidate dominance|newspaper=The Times of India|date=5 February 2010|access-date=28 May 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190613093112/https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/sports/tournaments/South-Asian-Games-Shooters-swimmers-shine-as-India-consolidate-dominance/articleshow/5540143.cms|archive-date=13 June 2019|url-status=live}}</ref> In 2012, the country's [[Afghanistan national 3x3 team|3x3 basketball team]] won the gold medal at the [[3-on-3 basketball at the 2012 Asian Beach Games|2012 Asian Beach Games]]. In 2013, Afghanistan's [[Afghanistan national football team|football team]] followed as it won the [[SAFF Championship]].<ref name="SAFF2013">{{cite news |last=Lyse |first=Doucet |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-asia-24074786 |title=Precious moments of unity touch Afghans after football triumph |publisher=BBC News |date=12 September 2013 |access-date=28 May 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130925172338/http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-asia-24074786 |archive-date=25 September 2013 |url-status=live}}</ref>

The [[Afghan national cricket team]], which was formed in 2001, won the [[2009–10 ICC Intercontinental Cup]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.cricketeurope4.net/CRICKETEUROPE/DATABASE/2009/TOURNAMENTS/INTERCONTINENTAL/about.shtml |title=2009–10 Intercontinental Cup |website=CricketEurope |access-date=28 May 2019 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130224153614/http://www.cricketeurope4.net/CRICKETEUROPE/DATABASE/2009/TOURNAMENTS/INTERCONTINENTAL/about.shtml |archive-date=24 February 2013}}</ref>  It won the [[ACC Twenty20 Cup]] in 2007, 2009, 2011 and 2013. The team played in the [[2015 Cricket World Cup|2015]], [[2019 Cricket World Cup|2019]], and [[2023 Cricket World Cup]]s.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://globalvoices.org/2015/02/20/afghanistan-makes-history-in-cricket-world-cup-despite-debut-loss-to-bangladesh/|title=Afghanistan Makes History in Cricket World Cup, Despite Debut Loss to Bangladesh|date=20 February 2015|access-date=28 May 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190528232428/https://globalvoices.org/2015/02/20/afghanistan-makes-history-in-cricket-world-cup-despite-debut-loss-to-bangladesh/|archive-date=28 May 2019|url-status=live}}</ref> The [[Afghanistan Cricket Board]] (ACB) is the official governing body of the sport and is headquartered in Kabul. The [[Alokozay Kabul International Cricket Ground]] serves as the nation's main cricket stadium. There are several other stadiums throughout the country, including the [[Ghazi Amanullah Khan International Cricket Stadium]] near [[Jalalabad]]. Domestically, cricket is played between teams from different provinces.

The [[Afghanistan national football team]] has been competing in international [[Association football|football]] since 1941.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.teammelli.com/matchdata/details/matchdetails.php?id=53|title=Statistics: Iran|access-date=28 May 2019|publisher=Team Melli|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191103153545/http://www.teammelli.com/matchdata/details/matchdetails.php?id=53|archive-date=3 November 2019|url-status=live}}</ref> The national team plays its home games at the [[Ghazi Stadium]] in Kabul, while [[football in Afghanistan]] is governed by the [[Afghanistan Football Federation]]. The national team has never competed or qualified for the [[FIFA World Cup]] but won an international football trophy in 2013.<ref name="SAFF2013"/> The country also has a national team in the sport of futsal, a 5-a-side variation of football.

The traditional and the national sport of Afghanistan is [[buzkashi]], particularly popular in the north.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.thehindu.com/news/international/afghanistans-buzkashi-horses-prepare-for-the-game-of-courage/article22457652.ece|title=Afghanistan's buzkashi horses prepare for the game of courage|newspaper=The Hindu|date=17 January 2018}}</ref> It is similar to [[polo]], played by horsemen in two teams, each trying to grab and hold a goat carcass.<ref>{{cite news|last1=Abi-Habib|first1=Maria|last2=Fazly|first2=Walid|title=In Afghanistan's National Pastime, It's Better to Be a Hero Than a Goat|url=https://www.wsj.com/articles/SB10001424052748703841904576256632384932122|access-date=13 April 2011|newspaper=[[The Wall Street Journal]]|date=13 April 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150526095017/http://www.wsj.com/articles/SB10001424052748703841904576256632384932122|archive-date=26 May 2015|url-status=live}}</ref> The [[Afghan Hound]] (a type of running dog) originated in Afghanistan and was used in [[wolf hunting with dogs|wolf hunting]].<ref>{{cite book|first=Rory|last=Stewart|author-link=Rory Stewart|title=The Places in Between|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Nz_2AwAAQBAJ|date=2007|publisher=HMH Books|isbn=978-0-15-603593-4|page=100}}</ref>

==See also==
{{Portal|Afghanistan|Asia}}
* [[Outline of Afghanistan]]

==Explanatory notes==
{{Notelist|refs=
<!--
{{Efn|name=fn1|The phoneme {{IPA|/f/}} ف occurs only in loanwords in Pashto, it tends to be replaced with {{IPA|/p/}} پ. {{IPA|[b]}} is also an allophone of {{IPA|/p/}} before voiced consonants; {{IPA|[v]}} is an allophone of {{IPA|/f/}} before voiced consonants in loanwords.}}-->
}}

==References==

===Citations===
{{Reflist}}

===General and cited sources===
{{Refbegin}}
* {{cite book|title=Advanced Study in the History of Modern India 1707–1813|last=Mehta|first=Jaswant Lal|date=January 2005|isbn=9781932705546|publisher=Sterling Publishers|ref={{sfnref|Mehta}}}}
{{Refend}}

==Further reading==
{{Main|Bibliography of Afghanistan}}
{{See also|Bibliography of the history of Central Asia}}
{{Refbegin}}
{{Div col|content=
* {{cite book |last=Barfield|first=Thomas|title=Afghanistan: A Cultural and Political History|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=tg45ygAACAAJ|date=2012|publisher=Princeton University Press|isbn=978-0-691-15441-1}}
* {{cite book |last1=Bleaney |first1=C. H. |last2=Gallego |first2=María Ángeles |url={{Google books |plainurl=yes |id=qCh41lAvg8oC}} |title=Afghanistan: a bibliography |publisher=BRILL |year=2006 |isbn=978-90-04-14532-0}}
* {{cite book |last=Clements |first=Frank |url={{Google books |plainurl=yes |id=bv4hzxpo424C}} |title=Conflict in Afghanistan: A Historical Encyclopedia |publisher=ABC-CLIO |year=2003 |isbn=978-1-85109-402-8}}
* {{cite book |last=Dupree|first=Louis|author-link=Louis Dupree (professor)|title=Afghanistan|publisher=Oxford Pakistan Paperbacks|edition=2nd|year=1997|isbn=978-0-19-577634-8}}
* {{cite book |title=Afghanistan: A Short History of Its People and Politics|last=Ewans|first=Martin|publisher=Curzon Press|date=2002|isbn=0060505087}}
* {{cite book |last=Fowler |first=Corinne |url={{Google books |plainurl=yes |id=o4IrhX7n66YC}} |title=Chasing Tales: Travel Writing, Journalism and the History of British Ideas About Afghanistan |publisher=Rodopi |year=2007 |isbn=978-90-420-2262-1}}
* {{cite book |last=Griffiths |first=John C |url={{Google books |plainurl=yes |id=M7nMtaXdAS8C}} |title=Afghanistan: a History of Conflict |publisher=Carlton Books |year=2001 |isbn=978-1-84222-597-4}}
* {{cite book |last=Habibi |first=Abdul Hai |author-link=Abdul Hai Habibi |year=2003 |title=Afghanistan: An Abridged History |publisher=Fenestra Books |isbn=978-1-58736-169-2}}
* {{cite book |last=Hopkins |first=B.D. |url={{Google books |plainurl=yes |id=FOMUAQAAIAAJ}} |title=The Making of Modern Afghanistan |publisher=Palgrave Macmillan |year=2008 |isbn=978-0-230-55421-4}}
* {{cite book |last=Johnson |first=Robert |title=The Afghan Way of War: How and Why They Fight |year=2011 |url={{Google books |plainurl=yes |id=lNuH5YQJr6UC}} |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-979856-8}}
* {{cite book |last=Levi |first=Peter |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=KakcAAAAMAAJ |title=The Light Garden of the Angel King: Journeys in Afghanistan |publisher=Collins |year=1972 |isbn=978-0-00-211042-6}}
* {{cite book |last=Malleson |first=George Bruce |author-link=George Bruce Malleson |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=pqNGBEmHUd4C |title=History of Afghanistan, from the Earliest Period to the Outbreak of the War of 1878 |edition=Elibron Classic Replica |publisher=Adamant Media Corporation |year=2005 |isbn=978-1-4021-7278-6}}
* {{cite book |last=Olson |first=Gillia M |url=https://archive.org/details/afghanistan0000olso |url-access=registration |title=Afghanistan |publisher=Capstone Press |year=2005 |isbn=978-0-7368-2685-3}}
* {{cite book |last1=Omrani |first1=Bijan |last2=Leeming |first2=Matthew |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=VVu_NwAACAAJ|title=Afghanistan: A Companion and Guide |publisher=Odyssey Publications |edition=2nd |year=2011 |isbn=978-962-217-816-8}}
* {{cite book |last=Reddy |first=L.R. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=NubtDf2T3cAC |title=Inside Afghanistan: End of the Taliban Era? |publisher=APH Publishing |year=2002 |isbn=978-81-7648-319-3}}
* {{cite book |last=Runion |first=Meredith L. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=aZk9XzqCFGUC |title=The History of Afghanistan |publisher=Greenwood Publishing Group |year=2007 |isbn=978-0-313-33798-7}}
}}
{{Refend}}

==External links==
{{Sister project links|voy=Afghanistan|Afghanistan|s=Portal:Afghanistan|collapsible=collapsed}}
* [https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/afghanistan/ Afghanistan]. ''[[The World Factbook]]''. [[Central Intelligence Agency]].
* {{GovPubs|Afghanistan}}
* {{Wikiatlas|Afghanistan}}
* [http://uiuc.libguides.com/afghanistan_research_guide Research Guide to Afghanistan] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150823112103/http://uiuc.libguides.com/afghanistan_research_guide |date=23 August 2015}}

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