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Amblyomma americanum

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Lone star tick
Adult female
Scientific classification Edit this classification
Kingdom: Animalia
Phylum: Arthropoda
Subphylum: Chelicerata
Class: Arachnida
Order: Ixodida
Family: Ixodidae
Genus: Amblyomma
Species:
A. americanum
Binomial name
Amblyomma americanum
Red indicates where the species is normally found; Blue indicates other locations where the species has been reported
Synonyms[1]
  • Acarus americanus Linnaeus, 1758
  • Acarus nigua De Geer, 1778
  • Amblyomma foreli Stoll, 1890
  • Amblyomma unipunctatum Thurow, 1891
  • Amblyomma unipunctum Packard, 1870
  • Euthesius americanus Gistel, 1848
  • Ixodes americanus Fabricius, 1805

Amblyomma americanum, also known as the lone star tick, northeastern water tick, turkey tick, and cricker tick,[2] is a type of tick indigenous to much of the eastern United States and Mexico that bites painlessly and commonly goes unnoticed, remaining attached to its host for as long as seven days until it is fully engorged with blood. It bites aggressively, and its larvae may transfer themselves to skin from discarded clothing that is put back on.[3][4] The sexually dimorphic adult female lone star tick bears a silvery-white, somewhat star-shaped spot near the center of the posterior portion of its dorsal shield (scutum); adult males conversely have varied white streaks or spots around the margins of their shields.[5]

It is to this spot, not to Texas, that A. americanum owes the name lone star tick,[6][7][8] while it owes the name turkey tick to the wild turkeys that are a common host in its immature stages in some Midwestern U.S. states.[5] It is the primary vector of Ehrlichia chaffeensis, which causes human monocytic ehrlichiosis, and Ehrlichia ewingii, which causes human and canine granulocytic ehrlichiosis.[9] Its bite may also cause a human to develop alpha-gal syndrome, an allergy to non-catarrhine mammalian meat. Other disease-causing bacterial agents isolated from lone star ticks include Francisella tularensis, Rickettsia amblyommii, and Coxiella burnetti.[10]

The distribution of the lone star tick (Amblyomma americanum) in the United States

Range and habitat

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The lone star tick is widely distributed across the East, Southeast, and Midwest United States.[11][12] It lives in wooded areas, particularly in second-growth forests with thick underbrush, where white-tailed deer (the primary host of mature ticks) reside.[5][12][13] Lone star ticks can also be found in ecotonal areas (transition zones between different biomes) such as those between forest and grassland ecosystems.[12][13] The lone star tick uses thick underbrush or high grass to attach to its host by way of questing, that is, climbing up a blade of grass or to the edges of leaves, stretching its front legs forward, and—in response to stimuli from biochemicals such as carbon dioxide, heat, and vibration from movement—mounting a passing host as it brushes against the tick's legs.[14] Once attached to its host, the tick will move around and select a preferred feeding site.[5]

The tick has also been reported outside of its range in Canada, in areas of Southern Ontario, including in London, Wellington County, and the Region of Waterloo.[15]

Development

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The lone star tick develops through four life stages: egg, six-legged larva, eight-legged nymph, and adult. Like many hard ticks, it is a three-host tick: the larva, nymph, and adult each take a blood meal, usually on a separate host, before dropping off to molt or reproduce.[16][17]

All mobile stages participate in questing, a host-seeking behavior in which ticks wait on vegetation or leaf litter with their front legs extended, and attach when a host brushes past.[18][19] After hatching, the larva undergo a quiescent (resting) period, followed by pursuit of a host via questing. Feeding for one to three days, the blood-engorged larave dislodge to digest their blood meal, and molt into nymphs. The nymph repeats this pattern, finding another host before dropping off and molting into an adult.

Mating occurs on the host animal after adult males and females have attached. The male feeds first, often taking repeated small blood meals, then detaches and moves across the host surface to find females. Males may mate repeatedly on the same host, while fertilized females continue feeding until fully engorged. After its final blood meal, the female drops to the ground and lays a single egg mass, typically consisting of several thousand eggs, and dies shortly after oviposition.[20] [21]

Engorged female with eggs. After feeding, the female drops from the host and lays an egg mass in leaf litter or another protected, humid site.

Fully engorged females can weigh several hundred milligrams, with one report using white-tailed deer as hosts finding a mean weight of about 0.63 g and a mean production of 5,873 eggs per female.[22] Eggs are typically laid in late spring to early summer.[23][24] Incubation varies with temperature and habitat conditions. In one field study, eggs in meadow habitat hatched after about 31–67 days in 1973 and 40–55 days in 1974, supporting a general incubation period of roughly one to two months under warm-season field conditions.[25]

The full life cycle can be completed in less than a year if hosts and environmental conditions are favorable, but development in the field usually takes up to two years, as a good deal of time is spent off-host while molting, questing, overwintering, or being delayed by diapause.[26] In one laboratory study, larvae fed for 4–9 days, nymphs for 3–8 days, and fertilized adult females completed engorgement in about 10–15 days. After dropping from the host, engorged larvae molted into nymphs after 3–4 weeks, and engorged nymphs molted into adults after about 5–6 weeks.[27]

Across much of its range south of New York, adults seek hosts from mid-March through late June, nymphs from mid-May through late July, and larvae from July through September. Fed larvae and nymphs commonly overwinter and molt the following spring.[28]

Hosts

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The lone star tick is an aggressive, generalist feeder; it actively pursues blood meals and is not specific about the species of host upon which it feeds.[5] As mentioned prior, A. americanum requires a separate animal or human host to complete each stage of its life cycle.[10]

Larval lone star ticks have been found attached to birds and small mammals, and nymphal ticks have been found on these two groups, as well as on small rodents.[5] Adult lone star ticks usually feed on medium and large mammals,[10] and are very frequently found on white-tailed deer.[4] Because adults commonly feed on white-tailed deer, deer abundance and movement can help maintain and disperse lone star tick populations.[29] Lone star ticks are known to feed on humans at any stage of development, with nymphs and adult females most frequently reported. [4]

Vector

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Amblyomma americanum is a known vector of several pathogens affecting humans and other animals, including Ehrlichia chaffeensis and Ehrlichia ewingii, which cause forms of ehrlichiosis, and Francisella tularensis, the agent of tularemia.[30][31] Bites from the species are also associated with southern tick-associated rash illness (STARI), a Lyme-like rash illness of unknown cause.[32] STARI can produce an expanding rash similar to the erythema migrans rash of Lyme disease, but studies show that it is not caused by Borrelia burgdorferi, the bacterium responsible for Lyme disease.[33]

Though the primary bacterium responsible for Lyme disease, Borrelia burgdorferi, has occasionally been isolated from lone star ticks, numerous vector competency tests have demonstrated that this tick is extremely unlikely to be capable of transmitting Lyme disease. Some evidence indicates A. americanum saliva inactivates B. burgdorferi more quickly than the saliva of Ixodes scapularis.[34] Recently the bacteria Borrelia andersonii and Borrelia americana have been linked to A. americanum.[35][36]

In 2013, in response to two cases of severe febrile illness occurring in two farmers in northwestern Missouri, researchers determined the lone star tick can transmit the heartland virus.[37] Six more cases were identified in 2012–2013 in Missouri and Tennessee.[38]

Meat allergy

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The bite of the lone star tick can cause a person to develop alpha-gal meat allergy, a delayed response to nonprimate mammalian meat and meat products.[39][40] The allergy manifests as anaphylaxis—a life-threatening allergic reaction characterized by constriction of airways and a drop in blood pressure.[39] This response is triggered by an IgE antibody to the mammalian oligosaccharide galactose-alpha-1,3-galactose (alpha-gal).[41] A study published in 2019 discovered alpha-gal in the saliva of the lone star tick.[42][43] As well as occurring in non-primate mammals, alpha-gal is also found in cat dander and in the drug cetuximab.[44][41] Allergic reactions to alpha-gal usually occur 3–6 hours after consuming red meat, unlike allergic reactions to other foods, whose onset following consumption is more or less immediate, making it more difficult to identify what caused the reaction.[39] Skin tests with standard meat test solutions are unreliable when testing for alpha-gal allergy, whereas skin tests with raw meat and/or pork kidney are more sensitive. Specific tests for determination of IgE to alpha-gal are available.[45]

See also

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  • Ticks of domestic animals
  • Surendra RS; Shahid Karim (2021). "Tick Saliva and the Alpha-Gal Syndrome: Finding a Needle in a Haystack". Frontiers in Cellular and Infection Microbiology. 11. doi:10.3389/fcimb.2021.680264. PMC 8331069. PMID 34354960.
  • Surendra RS; Choudhary S; Vorobiov J; Commins SP J; Shahid Karim (2024). "Tick bite-induced alpha-gal syndrome and immunologic responses in an alpha-gal deficient murine model". Frontiers in Immunology. 14. doi:10.3389/fimmu.2023.1336883. PMC 10882631. PMID 38390396.

References

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  1. 1 2 "Amblyomma americanum". The Encyclopedia of Life. Archived on 6 November 2022.
  2. ↑ Scott. "9 Types of Ticks Found In North Carolina! (ID GUIDE)". Bird Watching HQ. Retrieved 4 June 2025.
  3. ↑ "Preventing Tick Bites". CDC. February 20, 2026. Retrieved June 13, 2026.
  4. 1 2 3 Fisher, Emily J.; Mo, Jun; Lucky, Anne W. (2006-04-01). "Multiple Pruritic Papules From Lone Star Tick Larvae Bites". Archives of Dermatology. 142 (4): 491–4. doi:10.1001/archderm.142.4.491. ISSN 0003-987X. PMID 16618870.
  5. 1 2 3 4 5 6 "lone star tick - Amblyomma americanum (Linnaeus)". entnemdept.ufl.edu. Retrieved 2025-10-25.
  6. ↑ Stobbe, Mike (27 July 2023). "A meat allergy caused by tick spit is getting more common, CDC says". AP. Associated Press. Retrieved 3 July 2025.
  7. ↑ Franzblau, Lauren (4 October 2023). "Alpha-gal syndrome: How a tick bite can make you allergic to meat". UT Southwestern Medical Center. Retrieved 3 July 2025.
  8. ↑ "Rise of the lone star tick brings new disease threats". VaccinesWork. 12 February 2024. Retrieved 3 July 2025.
  9. ↑ "Ehrlichiosis | CDC". www.cdc.gov. 2018-09-25. Retrieved 2016-12-12.
  10. 1 2 3 "Amblyomma americanum (Lone star tick)". Wisconsin Ticks and Tick-borne Diseases. 2012-05-30. Retrieved 2016-12-12.
  11. ↑ "Lone Star Tick Surveillance". CDC. May 26, 2026. Retrieved June 13, 2026.
  12. 1 2 3 "CVBD - Lone Star Tick - Amblyomma americanum". www.cvbd.org. Retrieved 2016-12-12.
  13. 1 2 Soneshine, Daniel E. (1992). Biology of Ticks Volume I. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-505910-6.
  14. ↑ Vredevoe, Larisa. "Tick Biology: Background Information on the Biology of Ticks". UC Davis Department of Entomology and Nematology. Archived from the original on 2016-12-23.
  15. ↑ "3 tick that causes red meat allergy found in Waterloo region over last 3 years". CBC News. 2019-07-05.
  16. ↑ "Ticks: life cycles". Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Retrieved 17 June 2026.
  17. ↑ "Ticks". Kansas Department of Health and Environment. Retrieved 17 June 2026.
  18. ↑ "About ticks and tickborne disease". Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Retrieved 17 June 2026.
  19. ↑ Leal, B. (2020). "Questing by tick larvae (Acari: Ixodidae): a review of the influences that affect off-host survival". Ticks and Tick-borne Diseases. doi:10.1016/j.ttbdis.2020.101647.
  20. ↑ Gladney, W. J.; Drummond, R. O. (1970). "Mating behavior and reproduction of the lone star tick, Amblyomma americanum". Annals of the Entomological Society of America. 63 (4): 1036–1039. doi:10.1093/aesa/63.4.1036.
  21. ↑ Troughton, Danielle R.; Levin, Michael L. (2007). "Life Cycles of Seven Ixodid Tick Species (Acari: Ixodidae) Under Standardized Laboratory Conditions". Journal of Medical Entomology. 44 (5): 732–740. doi:10.1093/jmedent/44.5.732.
  22. ↑ Baker, A. S. (2023). "Feeding and reproductive parameters of adult female Ixodes scapularis and Amblyomma americanum ticks fed on white-tailed deer". Journal of Medical Entomology. doi:10.1093/jme/tjad146.
  23. ↑ "Lone Star Tick". University of Rhode Island TickEncounter Resource Center. Retrieved 17 June 2026.
  24. ↑ "Lone Star Tick". Texas A&M AgriLife Extension. Retrieved 17 June 2026.
  25. ↑ Patrick, Carl D.; Hair, Jakie A. (1979). "Oviposition behavior and larval longevity of the lone star tick, Amblyomma americanum (Acarina: Ixodidae), in different habitats". Annals of the Entomological Society of America. 72 (2): 308–312. doi:10.1093/aesa/72.2.308.
  26. ↑ Troughton, Danielle R.; Levin, Michael L. (2007). "Life Cycles of Seven Ixodid Tick Species (Acari: Ixodidae) Under Standardized Laboratory Conditions". Journal of Medical Entomology. 44 (5): 732–740. doi:10.1093/jmedent/44.5.732.
  27. ↑ Troughton, Danielle R.; Levin, Michael L. (2007). "Life Cycles of Seven Ixodid Tick Species (Acari: Ixodidae) Under Standardized Laboratory Conditions". Journal of Medical Entomology. 44 (5): 732–740. doi:10.1093/jmedent/44.5.732.
  28. ↑ Telford, Sam R. III; Buchthal, Joanna; Elias, Paul (2019). "Early Questing by Lone Star Tick Larvae, New York and Massachusetts, USA, 2018". Emerging Infectious Diseases. 25 (8). doi:10.3201/eid2508.181293. PMC 6649318.
  29. ↑ Rochlin, I. (2022). "The Original Scientific Description of the Lone Star Tick (Acari: Ixodidae) and Implications for the Species' Past and Future Geographic Distributions". Journal of Medical Entomology. doi:10.1093/jme/tjab222.
  30. ↑ "Clinical Overview of Ehrlichiosis". Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Retrieved 17 June 2026.
  31. ↑ "Where Ticks Live". Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Retrieved 17 June 2026.
  32. ↑ "About Southern Tick-Associated Rash Illness". Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Retrieved 17 June 2026.
  33. ↑ "About Southern Tick-Associated Rash Illness". Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Retrieved 17 June 2026.
  34. ↑ K. E. Ledin; N. S. Zeidner; J. M. C. Ribeiro; B. J. Biggerstaff; M. C. Dolan; G. Dietrich; L. VredEvoe; J. Piesman (March 2005). "Borreliacidal activity of saliva of the tick Amblyomma americanum". Medical and Veterinary Entomology. 19 (1): 90–95. doi:10.1111/j.0269-283X.2005.00546.x. PMID 15752182. S2CID 270178.
  35. ↑ Kerry L. Clark; Brian Leydet; Shirley Hartman (2013). "Lyme Borreliosis in Human Patients in Florida and Georgia, USA". Int J Med Sci. 10 (7): 915–931. doi:10.7150/ijms.6273. ISSN 1449-1907. PMC 3675506. PMID 23781138.
  36. ↑ Piesman, J.; Sinsky, R. J. (1988). "Ability of Ixodes scapularis, Dermacentor variabilis, and Amblyomma americanum (Acari: Ixodidae) to acquire, maintain, and transmit Lyme disease spirochetes (Borrelia burgdorferi)". Journal of Medical Entomology. 25 (5): 336–9. doi:10.1093/jmedent/25.5.336.
  37. ↑ Harry M. Savage; Marvin S. Godsey Jr.; Amy Lambert; Nickolas A. Panella; Kristen L. Burkhalter; Jessica R. Harmon; R. Ryan Lash; David C. Ashley; William L. Nicholson (22 July 2013). "First Detection of Heartland Virus (Bunyaviridae: Phlebovirus) from Field Collected Arthropods". Am J Trop Med Hyg. 89 (3): 445–452. doi:10.4269/ajtmh.13-0209. PMC 3771279. PMID 23878186.
  38. ↑ "CDC Reports More Cases of Heartland Virus Disease". CDC. January 2016. Retrieved 25 May 2016.
  39. 1 2 3 "NIAID scientists link cases of unexplained anaphylaxis to red meat allergy". National Institutes of Health (NIH). 2017-11-28. Archived from the original on November 28, 2017. Retrieved 2018-05-09.
  40. ↑ Commins, Scott P.; James, Hayley R.; Kelly, Libby A.; Pochan, Shawna L.; Workman, Lisa J.; Perzanowski, Matthew S.; Kocan, Katherine M.; Fahy, John V.; Nganga, Lucy W.; Ronmark, Eva; Cooper, Philip J.; Platts-Mills, Thomas A.E. (May 2011). "The relevance of tick bites to the production of IgE antibodies to the mammalian oligosaccharide galactose-α-1,3-galactose". The Journal of Allergy and Clinical Immunology. 127 (5): 1286–1293. doi:10.1016/j.jaci.2011.02.019. PMC 3085643. PMID 21453959. Retrieved 20 May 2014.
  41. 1 2 Steinke, John W; Platts-Mills, Thomas AE; Commins, Scott P (2015). "The alpha gal story: Lessons learned from connecting the dots". The Journal of Allergy and Clinical Immunology. 135 (3): 589–597. doi:10.1016/j.jaci.2014.12.1947. ISSN 0091-6749. PMC 4600073. PMID 25747720.
  42. ↑ Crispell, Gary; Commins, Scott P.; Archer-Hartman, Stephanie A.; Choudhary, Shailesh; Dharmarajan, Guha; Azadi, Parastoo; Karim, Shahid (17 May 2019). "Discovery of Alpha-Gal-Containing Antigens in North American Tick Species Believed to Induce Red Meat Allergy". Frontiers in Immunology. 10: 1056. doi:10.3389/fimmu.2019.01056. PMC 6533943. PMID 31156631.
  43. ↑ Sharma, Surendra Raj; Choudhary, Shailesh K.; Vorobiov, Julia; Commins, Scott P.; Karim, Shahid (2023). "Tick bite-induced alpha-gal syndrome and immunologic responses in an alpha-gal deficient murine model". Frontiers in Immunology. 14 1336883. doi:10.3389/fimmu.2023.1336883. ISSN 1664-3224. PMC 10882631. PMID 38390396.
  44. ↑ Gonzalez-Quintela, A.; Dam Laursen, A. S.; Vidal, C.; Skaaby, T.; Gude, F.; Linneberg, A. (August 2014). "IgE antibodies to alpha-gal in the general adult population: relationship with tick bites, atopy, and cat ownership". Clinical & Experimental Allergy. 44 (8): 1061–1068. doi:10.1111/cea.12326. hdl:20.500.11940/4640. ISSN 1365-2222. PMID 24750173. S2CID 388053.
  45. ↑ Bircher, Andreas J.; Hofmeier, Kathrin Scherer; Link, Susanne; Heijnen, Ingmar (2017-02-01). "Food allergy to the carbohydrate galactose-alpha-1,3-galactose (alpha-gal): four case reports and a review". European Journal of Dermatology. 27 (1): 3–9. doi:10.1684/ejd.2016.2908. ISSN 1952-4013. PMID 27873733. S2CID 2400078.
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