Latin conjugation
| Latin grammar |
|---|
Conjugation has two meanings.[1] One meaning is the creation of derived forms of a verb from basic forms, or principal parts. It may be affected by person, number, gender, tense, mood, aspect, voice, or other language-specific factors.
The second meaning of the word conjugation is a group of verbs which all have the same pattern of inflections. Thus all those Latin verbs which have 1st singular -ō, 2nd singular -ās, and infinitive -āre are said to belong to the 1st conjugation, those with 1st singular -eō, 2nd singular -ēs and infinitive -ēre belong to the 2nd conjugation, and so on. The number of conjugations of regular verbs is usually said to be four.
The word "conjugation" comes from the Latin coniugātiō, a calque of the Greek συζυγία suzugía, literally "yoking together (horses into a team)".
For simple verb paradigms, see the appendix pages for first conjugation, second conjugation, third conjugation, and fourth conjugation.
Number of conjugations
The ancient Romans themselves, beginning with Varro (1st century BC), originally divided their verbs into three conjugations (coniugationes verbis accidunt tres: prima, secunda, tertia "there are three different conjugations for verbs: the first, second, and third" (Donatus), 4th century A.D.), according to whether the ending of the 2nd person singular had an a, an e or an i in it.[2] However, others, such as Sacerdos (3rd century AD), Dositheus (4th century A.D.) and Priscian[3] (c. 500 A.D.), recognised four different groups.[4]
Modern grammarians[5] generally recognise four conjugations, according to whether their active present infinitive has the ending -āre, -ēre, -ere, or -īre (or the passive equivalent of these), for example: (1) amō, amāre "to love", (2) videō, vidēre "to see", (3) regō, regere "to rule" and (4) audiō, audīre "to hear". There are also some verbs of mixed conjugation, having some endings like the 3rd and others like the 4th conjugation, for example, capiō, capere "to capture" and orior, orīrī "to arise".
In addition to regular verbs, which belong to one or other of the four conjugations, there are also a few irregular verbs, which have a different pattern of endings. The most important of these is the verb sum, esse "to be". There also exist deponent and semi-deponent Latin verbs (verbs with a passive form but active meaning), as well as defective verbs (verbs in which some of the tenses are missing).
Principal parts
The grouping in conjugations is based on the behaviour of the verb in the present system; the stems for other tenses cannot be inferred from the present stem, so several forms of the verb are necessary to be able to produce the full range of forms for any particular verb.
In a dictionary, Latin verbs are therefore listed with four "principal parts" (or fewer for deponent and defective verbs) which allow the reader to deduce the other conjugated forms of the verbs. These are:
- the first person singular of the present indicative active
- the present infinitive active
- the first person singular of the perfect indicative active
- the supine or, in some grammars, the perfect passive participle, which uses the same stem. (Texts that list the perfect passive participle use the future active participle for intransitive verbs.) Some verbs lack this principal part altogether.
First conjugation
The first conjugation is characterized by the vowel ā and can be recognized by the -āre ending of the present active infinitive form. The principal parts usually adhere to one of the following patterns:
- perfect has the suffix –āvī. The majority of first-conjugation verbs adhere to this pattern, which is considered to be "regular", for example:
- portō, portāre, portāvī, portātum, "to carry, to bring";
- amō, amāre, amāvī, amātum, "to love, to be fond of";
- perfect has the suffix –uī, for example:
- secō, secāre, secuī, sectum, "to cut, to divide";
- fricō, fricāre, fricuī, frictum, "to rub";
- vetō, vetāre, vetuī, vetitum, "to forbid, to prohibit";
- perfect has the suffix –ī and vowel lengthening in the stem, for example:
- lavō, lavāre, lāvī, lautum, "to wash, to bathe";
- iuvō, iuvāre, iūvī, iūtum, "to help, to assist";
- perfect is reduplicated, for example:
- stō, stāre, stetī, statum, "to stand";
- dō, dare, dedī, datum, "to give"; this verb is irregular, since except in the 2nd singular (dā, dās) the a is short (dăre, dătum, dăbō etc.)
Deponent verbs in this conjugation all follow the pattern below, which is the passive of the first type above:[6]
- arbitror, arbitrārī, arbitrātus sum (to think)
- cōnor, cōnārī, cōnātus sum (to try)
- cūnctor, cūnctāri, cūnctātus sum (to hesitate)
Second conjugation
The second conjugation is characterized by the vowel ē, and can be recognized by the -eō ending of the first person present indicative and the -ēre ending of the present active infinitive form. The principal parts usually adhere to one of the following patterns:
- perfect has the suffix –uī. Verbs which adhere to this pattern are considered to be "regular". Examples:
- terreō, terrēre, terruī, territum (to frighten, to deter)
- doceō, docēre, docuī, doctum (to teach, to instruct)
- teneō, tenēre, tenuī, tentum (to hold, to keep)
- perfect has the suffix –ēvī. Examples:
- dēleō, dēlēre, dēlēvī, dēlētum (to destroy, to efface)
- cieō, ciēre, cīvī, citum (to arouse, to stir)
- perfect has the suffix –sī (which combines with a preceding c or g to –xī). Examples:
- augeō, augēre, auxī, auctum (to increase, to enlarge)
- iubeō, iubēre, iussī, iussum (to order, to bid)
- perfect is reduplicated with –ī. Examples:
- mordeō, mordēre, momordī, morsum (to bite, to nip)
- spondeō, spondēre, spopondī, spōnsum (to vow, to promise)
- perfect has suffix –ī and vowel lengthening in the stem. Examples:
- videō, vidēre, vīdī, vīsum (to see, to notice)
- foveō, fovēre, fōvī, fōtum (to caress, to cherish)
- perfect has suffix –ī and no perfect passive participle. Examples:
- strīdeō, strīdēre, strīdī (to hiss, to creak)
- ferveō, fervēre, fervī (sometimes fervuī or ferbuī) (to boil, to seethe)
Deponent verbs in this conjugation are few. They mostly go like the passive of terreō, but fateor and confiteor have a perfect participle with ss:[7]
- mereor, merērī, meritus sum (to deserve)
- polliceor, pollicērī, pollicitus sum (to promise)
- fateor, fatērī, fassus sum (to confess)
Third conjugation
The third conjugation is characterized by a short thematic vowel, which alternates between e, i, and u in different environments. Verbs of this conjugation end in –ere in the present active infinitive. There is no regular rule for constructing the perfect stem of third-conjugation verbs, but the following patterns are used:
- perfect has suffix –sī (–xī when c or h comes at the end of the root). Examples:
- carpō, carpere, carpsī, carptum (to pluck, to select)
- trahō, trahere, trāxī, trāctum (to drag, to draw)
- gerō, gerere, gessī, gestum (to wear, to bear)
- flectō, flectere, flexī, flexum (to bend, to twist)
- perfect is reduplicated with suffix –ī. Examples:
- currō, currere, cucurrī, cursum (to run, to race)
- caedō, caedere, cecīdī, caesum (to kill, to slay)
- tangō, tangere, tetigī, tāctum (to touch, to hit)
- pellō, pellere, pepulī, pulsum (to beat, to drive away)
- perfect has suffix -vī. Examples:
- petō, petere, petīvī, petītum (to seek, to attack)
- linō, linere, līvī, lītum (to smear, to befoul)
- serō, serere, sēvī, satum (to sow, to plant)
- terō, terere, trīvī, trītum (to rub, to wear out)
- sternō, sternere, strāvī, strātus (to spread, to stretch out)
- perfect has suffix –ī and vowel lengthening in the stem. Examples:
- agō, agere, ēgī, āctum (to do, to drive)
- legō, legere, lēgī, lēctum (to collect, to read)
- emō, emere, ēmī, ēmptum (to buy, to purchase)
- vincō, vincere, vīcī, victum (to conquer, to master)
- fundō, fundere, fūdī, fūsum (to pour, to utter)
- perfect has suffix –ī only. Examples:
- īcō, īcere, īcī, īctum (to strike, to smite)
- vertō, vertere, vertī, versum (to turn, to alter)
- vīsō, vīsere, vīsī, vīsum (to visit)
- perfect has suffix –uī. Examples:
- metō, metere, messuī, messum (to reap, to harvest)
- vomō, vomere, vomuī, vomitum (to vomit)
- colō, colere, coluī, cultum (to cultivate, to till)
- texō, texere, texuī, textum (to weave, to plait)
- gignō, gignere, genuī, genitum (to beget, to cause)
- Present tense indicative first person singular form has suffix with –scō. Examples:
- nōscō, nōscere, nōvī, nōtum (to get to know, to learn)
- adolēscō, adolēscere, adolēvī (to grow up, to mature)
- flōrēscō, flōrēscere, flōruī (to begin to flourish, to blossom)
- haerēscō, haerēscere, haesī, haesum (to adhere, to stick)
- pāscō, pāscere, pāvī, pāstum (to feed upon, to feed (an animal))
Deponent verbs in the 3rd conjugation include the following:
- lābor, lābī, lāpsus sum (to glide)
- loquor, loquī, locūtus sum (to speak)
- oblīvīscor, oblīvīscī, oblītus sum (to forget)
- sequor, sequī, secūtus sum (to follow)
- ūtor, ūtī, ūsus sum (to use)
Third conjugation –iō verbs
Intermediate between the third and fourth conjugation are the third-conjugation verbs with suffix –iō. These resemble the fourth conjugation in some forms. Some examples are:
- capiō, capere, cēpī, captum (to take, capture)
- faciō, facere, fēcī, factum (to do, to make)
- rapiō, rapere, rapuī, raptum (to plunder, seize)
- cupiō, cupere, cupīvī, cupītum (to desire, long for)
Deponent verbs in this group include:
- morior, morī, mortuus sum (to die)
- patior, patī, passus sum (to suffer, to allow)
- aggredior, aggredī, aggressus sum (to attack)
They resemble the fourth conjugation in the following parts of the verb:
- Present indicative (first person singular, third person plural): capiō, capiunt.
- Indicative imperfect: capiēbam, capiēbāmus.
- Indicative future: capiam, capiēmus.
- Subjunctive present: capiam, capiāmus
- Imperative future (third person plural): capiuntō
- Present Active Participle: capiēns, -entis
- Gerund: capiendī, capiendum (also capiundī)
- Gerundive: capiendus, –a, –um (also capiundus)
Fourth conjugation
The fourth conjugation is characterized by the vowel ī and can be recognized by the –īre ending of the present active infinitive. Principal parts of verbs in the fourth conjugation generally adhere to the following patterns:
- perfect has suffix –vī. Verbs which adhere to this pattern are considered to be "regular". Examples:
- audiō, audīre, audīvī, audītum (to hear, listen (to))
- mūniō, mūnīre, mūnīvī, mūnītum (to fortify, to build)
- perfect has suffix –uī. Examples:
- aperiō, aperīre, aperuī, apertum (to open, to uncover)
- perfect has suffix –sī (-xī when c comes at the end of the root). Examples:
- saepiō, saepīre, saepsī, saeptum (to surround, to enclose)
- sanciō, sancīre, sānxī, sānctum (to confirm, to ratify)
- sentiō, sentīre, sēnsī, sēnsum (to feel, to perceive)
- perfect has suffix –ī and vowel lengthening in the stem. Examples:
- veniō, venīre, vēnī, ventum (to come, to arrive)
Deponent verbs in the 4th conjugation include the following:[8]
- assentior, assentīrī, assēnsus sum (to assent)
- largior, largīrī, largītus sum (to bestow)
- mentior, mentīrī, mentītus sum (to tell a lie)
- mētior, mētīrī, mēnsus sum (to measure)
- sortior, sortīrī, sortītus sum (to cast lots)
The verb orior, orīrī, ortus sum (to arise) is also regarded as 4th conjugation, although some parts, such as the 3rd singular present tense oritur and imperfect subjunctive orerer, have a short vowel like the 3rd conjugation. But its compound adorior (to rise up, attack) is entirely 4th conjugation.
Personal endings
Personal endings are used in all tenses. The present, imperfect, future, pluperfect and future perfect use the same personal endings in the active voice. The perfect has its own endings. In the perfect, future perfect, and pluperfect passive, the tenses are formed from a perfect participle and the appropriate part of sum, e.g. portātus sum 'I was carried'.
The third person plural alternative ending -ēre is common in poetry, but not often used in prose.
The 2nd person singular passive alternative ending -re can be used in the future and imperfect, but not usually in the present, where there might be confusion with the infinitive (portāre). In early Latin -re was the most usual form.[9]
| Active voice | Passive voice | ||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Singular | Plural | Singular | Plural | ||
| Present tense, etc. | First person | –ō, –m | –mus | –or, –r | –mur |
| Second person | –s | –tis | –ris/-re | –minī | |
| Third person | –t | –nt | –tur | –ntur | |
| Perfect | First person | –ī | –imus | ||
| Second person | –istī | –istis | |||
| Third person | –it | –ērunt / -ēre | |||
Present-tense system
The tenses of the present-tense system are the present, imperfect, and future tenses. As examples, the following verbs will be used here:
- the first conjugation verb portō, portāre, portāvī, portātum (to carry, to bring)
- the second conjugation verb terreō, terrēre, terruī, territum (to frighten, to deter)
- the third conjugation verb petō, petere, petīvī, petītum (to seek, to attack)
- the fourth conjugation verb audiō, audīre, audīvī, audītum (to hear, to listen (to))
In all the conjugations except for the third conjugation, the –re is removed from the second principal part (for example, portāre without the suffix –re becomes portā–) to form the present stem, which is used for all of the tenses in the imperfective aspect. In the third conjugation, the –ō ending of the present indicative is dropped in order to form the present stem (for example, the present indicative form of petere is petō, and without the -ō it is the present stem, pet–).[10] Occasionally, the terminating vowel of the stem is lengthened and/or shortened, and sometimes completely changed. This is often true both in the third conjugation and in the subjunctive mood of all conjugations.
Present tense
The present tense (Latin tempus praesēns) is used to show an uncompleted action that happens in the current time. The present tense does not have a tense sign. Instead, the personal endings are added to the bare present stem. However, in this tense the thematic vowel, most notably the ě in the third conjugation, changes the most frequently.
Present indicative
A present tense like portō can be translated as "I carry," "I do carry," or "I am carrying". In all but the third conjugation, the thematic vowel of the stem is used. In the third conjugation, the linking vowel varies between e, i and u. The first person singular of the indicative active present is the first principal part of the verb.
| Present active indicative | ||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| portāre | terrēre | petere | audīre | |||||
| Singular | Plural | Singular | Plural | Singular | Plural | Singular | Plural | |
| First person | portō | portāmus | terreō | terrēmus | petō | petimus | audiō | audīmus |
| Second person | portās | portātis | terrēs | terrētis | petis | petitis | audīs | audītis |
| Third person | portat | portant | terret | terrent | petit | petunt | audit | audiunt |
The passive voice portor can be translated as "I am carried," or "I am being carried".
| Present passive indicative | ||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| portāre | terrēre | petere | audīre | |||||
| Singular | Plural | Singular | Plural | Singular | Plural | Singular | Plural | |
| First person | portor | portāmur | terreor | terrēmur | petor | petimur | audior | audīmur |
| Second person | portāris | portāminī | terrēris | terrēminī | peteris | petiminī | audīris | audīminī |
| Third person | portātur | portantur | terrētur | terrentur | petitur | petuntur | audītur | audiuntur |
Present subjunctive
The present subjunctive portem can be translated as "I may carry", "I would carry", "I should carry", "May I carry", "Let me carry", or in subordinate clauses simply as "I carry". Portēmus can be "Let us carry".
The vowels of the verb endings in the present subjunctive differ from the indicative:
- The first conjugation uses e or ē instead of ā.
- The second conjugation uses ea and eā.
- The third conjugation uses a or ā.
- The fourth conjugation uses ia or iā.
| Present active subjunctive | ||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| portāre | terrēre | petere | audīre | |||||
| Singular | Plural | Singular | Plural | Singular | Plural | Singular | Plural | |
| First person | portem | portēmus | terream | terreāmus | petam | petāmus | audiam | audiāmus |
| Second person | portēs | portētis | terreās | terreātis | petās | petātis | audiās | audiātis |
| Third person | portet | portent | terreat | terreant | petat | petant | audiat | audiant |
The passive subjunctive porter can be translated as "I may be carried", "I would be carried", "I should be carried", "Let me be carried", "May I be carried" or in subordinate clauses simply as "I am carried". Portēmur can be "Let us be carried".
| Present passive subjunctive | ||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| portāre | terrēre | petere | audīre | |||||
| Singular | Plural | Singular | Plural | Singular | Plural | Singular | Plural | |
| First person | porter | portēmur | terrear | terreāmur | petar | petāmur | audiar | audiāmur |
| Second person | portēris | portēminī | terreāris | terreāminī | petāris | petāminī | audiāris | audiāminī |
| Third person | portētur | portentur | terreātur | terreantur | petātur | petantur | audiātur | audiantur |
Present imperative
The present imperative conveys commands, pleas and recommendations. Portā can be translated as "(You) Carry" or simply, "Carry". The imperative present occurs only in the second person.
- The second person singular in the active voice uses only the bare stem, and does not add an imperative ending.
| Present active imperative | ||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| portāre | terrēre | petere | audīre | |||||
| Singular | Plural | Singular | Plural | Singular | Plural | Singular | Plural | |
| Second person | portā | portāte | terrē | terrēte | pete | petite | audī | audīte |
The imperative present of the passive voice is rarely used, except in the case of deponent verbs, whose passive forms carry active meaning. Portāminī can be translated as "(You) Be carried". The deponent sequiminī, on the other hand, means "(You) Follow!".
- The singular uses the alternate form of the present passive indicative (which looks like the present active infinitive) and the plural uses the present passive indicative form of the second person plural.
| Present passive imperative | ||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| portāre | terrēre | petere | audīre | |||||
| Singular | Plural | Singular | Plural | Singular | Plural | Singular | Plural | |
| Second person | portāre | portāminī | terrēre | terrēminī | petere | petiminī | audīre | audīminī |
Imperfect
The imperfect (Latin tempus praeteritum imperfectum) indicates a perpetual, but incomplete action in the past. It is recognized by the tense signs bă and bā in the indicative, and re and rē in the subjunctive.
Imperfect indicative
The imperfect indicative simply expresses an action in the past that was not completed. Portābam can be translated to mean, "I was carrying," "I carried," or "I used to carry".
- In the indicative, the imperfect employs its tense signs ba and bā before personal endings are added.
| Imperfect active indicative | ||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| portāre | terrēre | petere | audīre | |||||
| Singular | Plural | Singular | Plural | Singular | Plural | Singular | Plural | |
| First person | portābam | portābāmus | terrēbam | terrēbāmus | petēbam | petēbāmus | audiēbam | audiēbāmus |
| Second person | portābās | portābātis | terrēbās | terrēbātis | petēbās | petēbātis | audiēbās | audiēbātis |
| Third person | portābat | portābant | terrēbat | terrēbant | petēbat | petēbant | audiēbat | audiēbant |
As with the present tense, active personal endings are taken off, and passive personal endings are put in their place. Portābar can be translated as "I was being carried," "I kept being carried," or "I used to be carried".
| Imperfect passive indicative | ||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| portāre | terrēre | petere | audīre | |||||
| Singular | Plural | Singular | Plural | Singular | Plural | Singular | Plural | |
| First person | portābar | portābāmur | terrēbar | terrēbāmur | petēbar | petēbāmur | audiēbar | audiēbāmur |
| Second person | portābāris | portābāminī | terrēbāris | terrēbāminī | petēbāris | petēbāminī | audiēbāris | audiēbāminī |
| Third person | portābātur | portābantur | terrēbātur | terrēbantur | petēbātur | petēbantur | audiēbātur | audiēbantur |
Imperfect subjunctive
In the subjunctive, the imperfect is quite important, especially in subordinate clauses. Independently, it is largely translated conditionally. Portārem can mean, "I should carry," or "I would carry".
- Unlike the indicative, the subjunctive does not modify the thematic vowel. The third conjugation's thematical remains short as an e, and the fourth conjugation does not use an iē before the imperfect signs. It keeps its ī.
- In the subjunctive, the imperfect employs its tense signs re and rē before personal endings.
- The verb esse (to be) has two imperfect subjunctives: one using the present infinitive (essem, esses, esset, essemus, essetis, essent) and one using the future infinitive (forem, fores, foret, foremus, foretis, forent).
| Imperfect active subjunctive | ||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| portāre | terrēre | petere | audīre | |||||
| Singular | Plural | Singular | Plural | Singular | Plural | Singular | Plural | |
| First person | portārem | portārēmus | terrērem | terrērēmus | peterem | peterēmus | audīrem | audīrēmus |
| Second person | portārēs | portārētis | terrērēs | terrērētis | peterēs | peterētis | audīrēs | audīrētis |
| Third person | portāret | portārent | terrēret | terrērent | peteret | peterent | audīret | audīrent |
As with the indicative subjunctive, active endings are removed, and passive endings are added. Portārer may be translated as "I should be carried," or "I would be carried."
| Imperfect passive subjunctive | ||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| portāre | terrēre | petere | audīre | |||||
| Singular | Plural | Singular | Plural | Singular | Plural | Singular | Plural | |
| First person | portārer | portārēmur | terrērer | terrērēmur | peterer | peterēmur | audīrer | audīrēmur |
| Second person | portārēris | portārēminī | terrērēris | terrērēminī | peterēris | peterēminī | audīrēris | audīrēminī |
| Third person | portārētur | portārentur | terrērētur | terrērentur | peterētur | peterentur | audīrētur | audīrentur |
Future tense
The future tense (Latin tempus futūrum simplex) expresses an uncompleted action in the future. It is recognized by its tense signs bō, bi, bu, a and ē in the indicative and the vowel ō in the imperative mood.
Future indicative
The future tense always refers to an incomplete action. In addition, the future tense is stricter in usage temporally in Latin than it is in English. Standing alone, portābō can mean, "I shall carry," or "I will carry."
- The first and second conjugations append -b- and then add third conjugation present endings.
- The third and fourth conjugations replace their thematic vowels with a, ě and ē. The fourth conjugation inserts an ǐ before the a, e and ē.
| Future active indicative | ||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| portāre | terrēre | petere | audīre | |||||
| Singular | Plural | Singular | Plural | Singular | Plural | Singular | Plural | |
| First person | portābō | portābimus | terrēbō | terrēbimus | petam | petēmus | audiam | audiēmus |
| Second person | portābis | portābitis | terrēbis | terrēbitis | petēs | petētis | audiēs | audiētis |
| Third person | portābit | portābunt | terrēbit | terrēbunt | petet | petent | audiet | audient |
As with all imperfective system tenses, active personal endings are removed, and passive personal endings are put on. Portābor translates as, "I shall be carried."
| Future passive indicative | ||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| portāre | terrēre | petere | audīre | |||||
| Singular | Plural | Singular | Plural | Singular | Plural | Singular | Plural | |
| First person | portābor | portābimur | terrēbor | terrēbimur | petar | petēmur | audiar | audiēmur |
| Second person | portāberis | portābiminī | terrēberis | terrēbiminī | petēris | petēminī | audiēris | audiēminī |
| Third person | portābitur | portābuntur | terrēbitur | terrēbuntur | petētur | petentur | audiētur | audientur |
Future imperative
The future imperative is used to instruct someone to do something at a later time, or if something else happens first (e.g. "write (scrībitō) to me if anything happens"). It can also be used in recipes. The 3rd person is mainly used in laws (e.g. "censors shall hold (habentō) office for five years").[11] A few verbs, such as mementō "remember" and scītō "know", use this form as their only imperative.
Portātō can be translated as "carry" or "you should carry".
| Future active imperative | ||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| portāre | terrēre | petere | audīre | |||||
| Singular | Plural | Singular | Plural | Singular | Plural | Singular | Plural | |
| Second person | portātō | portātōte | terrētō | terrētōte | petitō | petitōte | audītō | audītōte |
| Third person | portantō | terrentō | petuntō | audiuntō | ||||
The ending -or marks the passive voice in the future imperative. Portātor translates as "You shall be carried." The second person plural is exceptionally rare and only occurs in Plautus with select deponent verbs: arbitrāminō, opperīminō, and not attested with any second conjugation verbs at all.
| Future passive imperative | ||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| portāre | terrēre | petere | audīre | |||||
| Singular | Plural | Singular | Plural | Singular | Plural | Singular | Plural | |
| Second person | portātor | portāminō | terrētor | —— | petitor | petiminō | audītor | audīminō |
| Third person | portantor | terrentor | petuntor | audiuntor | ||||
Perfect-tense system
The tenses of the perfect system, which are the perfect, pluperfect and future perfect tenses, are used to express actions that have been, had been, or will have been completed. The verbs used for explanation are:
- 1st conjugation: portō, portāre, portāvī, portātum – to carry, bring
- 2nd conjugation: terreō, terrēre, terruī, territum – to frighten, deter
- 3rd conjugation: petō, petere, petīvī, petītum – to seek, attack
- 4th conjugation: audiō, audīre, audīvī, audītum – to hear, listen (to)
To find the stem for the three perfect tenses active in all of the conjugations, the –ī is removed from the 3rd principal part. For example, from portāvī, portāv- is formed.
Deponent and passive verbs, however, use the perfect passive participle together with part of the verb esse "to be" to make the perfect tenses. The participle is formed by taking the 4th principal part and changing the ending to the appropriate gender and number, e.g. audītus est "he was heard", audītī sunt "they were heard".
Unlike the present-system tenses, inflection is the same in every conjugation.
Perfect
The perfect (Latin tempus praeteritum perfectum) refers to an action completed in the past. Tense signs are only used in this tense with the indicative. The tense signs of the subjunctive are eri and erī.
Perfect indicative
The indicative perfect expresses a finished action in the past. Portāvī is translated as "I carried," "I did carry," or "I have carried."
- The perfect indicative perfect in the active voice has its special personal endings which are not used with any other tense.
| Perfect active indicative | ||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| portāre | terrēre | petere | audīre | |||||
| Singular | Plural | Singular | Plural | Singular | Plural | Singular | Plural | |
| First person | portāvī | portāvimus | terruī | terruimus | petīvī | petīvimus | audīvī | audīvimus |
| Second person | portāvistī | portāvistis | terruistī | terruistis | petīvistī | petīvistis | audīvistī | audīvistis |
| Third person | portāvit | portāvērunt | terruit | terruērunt | petīvit | petīvērunt | audīvit | audīvērunt |
In the passive voice, the perfect passive participle is used with the auxiliary verb esse. It uses the present indicative form of esse. Portātus sum translates as "I was carried," or "I have been carried."
| Perfect passive indicative | ||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| portāre | terrēre | petere | audīre | |||||
| Singular | Plural | Singular | Plural | Singular | Plural | Singular | Plural | |
| First person | portātus sum | portātī sumus | territus sum | territī sumus | petītus sum | petītī sumus | audītus sum | audītī sumus |
| Second person | portātus es | portātī estis | territus es | territī estis | petītus es | petītī estis | audītus es | audītī estis |
| Third person | portātus est | portātī sunt | territus est | territī sunt | petītus est | petītī sunt | audītus est | audītī sunt |
Note the participle changes from singular to plural when the subject changes respectively. The participle must also be declined for gender in the same way as an adjective.
Perfect subjunctive
Like the imperfect subjunctive, the perfect subjunctive is largely used in subordinate clauses. Independently, it is usually translated as the potential subjunctive (quis crediderit? 'who would have believed it?/who would believe it?') With nē it makes a negative command: nē timuerītis "do not fear". In subordinate clauses such as indirect questions, portāverim usually means "I carried" or "I have carried". [12]
| Perfect active subjunctive | ||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| portāre | terrēre | petere | audīre | |||||
| Singular | Plural | Singular | Plural | Singular | Plural | Singular | Plural | |
| First person | portāverim | portāverīmus | terruerim | terruerīmus | petīverim | petīverīmus | audīverim | audīverīmus |
| Second person | portāveris | portāverītis | terrueris | terruerītis | petīveris | petīverītis | audīverīs | audīverītis |
| Third person | portāverit | portāverint | terruerit | terruerint | petīverit | petīverint | audīverit | audīverint |
The passive voice uses the perfect passive participle with the subjunctive present forms of esse. Portātus sim means, "I may have been carried."
| Perfect passive subjunctive | ||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| portāre | terrēre | petere | audīre | |||||
| Singular | Plural | Singular | Plural | Singular | Plural | Singular | Plural | |
| First person | portātus sim | portātī sīmus | territus sim | territī sīmus | petītus sim | petītī sīmus | audītus sim | audītī sīmus |
| Second person | portātus sīs | portātī sītis | territus sīs | territī sītis | petītus sīs | petītī sītis | audītus sīs | audītī sītis |
| Third person | portātus sit | portātī sint | territus sit | territī sint | petītus sit | petītī sint | audītus sit | audītī sint |
Pluperfect
The pluperfect (Latin tempus praeteritum plūsquamperfectum) expresses an action which was completed before another completed action. It is recognized by the tense signs era and erā in the indicative and isse and issē in the subjunctive.
Pluperfect indicative
As with English, in Latin, the pluperfect indicative is used to assert an action that was completed before another (perfect). Portāveram translates as "I had carried."
- The tense sign erā is employed before adding the personal endings, with the long ā following the usual rules for shortening before final -m, -t, and -nt.
| Pluperfect active indicative | ||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| portāre | terrēre | petere | audīre | |||||
| Singular | Plural | Singular | Plural | Singular | Plural | Singular | Plural | |
| First person | portāveram | portāverāmus | terrueram | terruerāmus | petīveram | petīverāmus | audīveram | audīverāmus |
| Second person | portāverās | portāverātis | terruerās | terruerātis | petīverās | petīverātis | audīverās | audīverātis |
| Third person | portāverat | portāverant | terruerat | terruerant | petīverat | petīverant | audīverat | audīverant |
In the passive voice, the perfect passive participle is used with esse in the imperfect indicative. Portātus eram is translated as "I had been carried."
| Pluperfect passive indicative | ||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| portāre | terrēre | petere | audīre | |||||
| Singular | Plural | Singular | Plural | Singular | Plural | Singular | Plural | |
| First person | portātus eram | portātī erāmus | territus eram | territī erāmus | petītus eram | petītī erāmus | audītus eram | audītī erāmus |
| Second person | portātus erās | portātī erātis | territus erās | territī erātis | petītus erās | petītī erātis | audītus erās | audītī erātis |
| Third person | portātus erat | portātī erant | territus erat | territī erant | petītus erat | petītī erant | audītus erat | audītī erant |
Pluperfect subjunctive
The pluperfect subjunctive is to the perfect subjunctive as the imperfect subjunctive is to the present subjunctive. Simply put, it is used with the perfect subjunctive in subordinate clauses. Like the imperfect subjunctive, it is translated conditionally independently. Portāvissem is translated as "I should have carried," or "I would have carried."
- The tense signs isse and issē are used before the personal endings.
| Pluperfect active subjunctive | ||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| portāre | terrēre | petere | audīre | |||||
| Singular | Plural | Singular | Plural | Singular | Plural | Singular | Plural | |
| First person | portāvissem | portāvissēmus | terruissem | terruissēmus | petīvissem | petīvissēmus | audīvissem | audīvissēmus |
| Second person | portāvissēs | portāvissētis | terruissēs | terruissētis | petīvissēs | petīvissētis | audīvissēs | audīvissētis |
| Third person | portāvisset | portāvissent | terruisset | terruissent | petīvisset | petīvissent | audīvisset | audīvissent |
As always, the passive voice uses the perfect passive participle. The imperfect subjunctive of esse is used here. Portātus essem may mean "I should have been carried," or "I could have been carried," in the conditional sense.
| Pluperfect passive subjunctive | ||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| portāre | terrēre | petere | audīre | |||||
| Singular | Plural | Singular | Plural | Singular | Plural | Singular | Plural | |
| First person | portātus essem | portātī essēmus | territus essem | territī essēmus | petītus essem | petītī essēmus | audītus essem | audītī essēmus |
| Second person | portātus essēs | portātī essētis | territus essēs | territī essētis | petītus essēs | petītī essētis | audītus essēs | audītī essētis |
| Third person | portātus esset | portātī essent | territus esset | territī essent | petītus esset | petītī essent | audītus esset | audītī essent |
Future perfect
Probably the least used of all the tenses, the future perfect (Latin tempus futūrum exāctum) conveys an action that will have been completed before another action. It is signified by the tense signs erō and eri. The future perfect is the only tense that occurs in a single mood.
Future perfect indicative
As said, the future perfect is used to mention an action that will have been completed in futurity before another action. It is often used with the future tense. In simple translation, portāverō means, "I will have carried," or "I shall have carried."
- The tense signs erō and eri or erī are used before the personal endings.
| Future perfect active indicative | ||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| portāre | terrēre | petere | audīre | |||||
| Singular | Plural | Singular | Plural | Singular | Plural | Singular | Plural | |
| First person | portāverō | portāverīmus | terruerō | terruerīmus | petīverō | petīverīmus | audīverō | audīverīmus |
| Second person | portāverīs | portāverītis | terruerīs | terruerītis | petīverīs | petīverītis | audīverīs | audīverītis |
| Third person | portāverit | portāverint | terruerit | terruerint | petīverit | petīverint | audīverit | audīverint |
Endings with short -i- (e.g. portāveris, portāverimus, portāveritis) are found in the 2nd singular and 1st and 2nd person plural in some authors, e.g. Terence, Eunuchus 592, but Cicero and Catullus preferred the form with long -i-, e.g. Catullus 5.10 (with Fordyce's note).
As with all perfective aspect tenses, the perfect passive participle is used in the passive voice. However, the future perfect uses the future indicative of esse as the auxiliary verb. Portātus erō is "I will have been carried," or "I shall have been carried."
| Future perfect passive indicative | ||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| portāre | terrēre | petere | audīre | |||||
| Singular | Plural | Singular | Plural | Singular | Plural | Singular | Plural | |
| First person | portātus erō | portātī erimus | territus erō | territī erimus | petītus erō | petītī erimus | audītus erō | audītī erimus |
| Second person | portātus eris | portātī eritis | territus eris | territī eritis | petītus eris | petītī eritis | audītus eris | audītī eritis |
| Third person | portātus erit | portātī erunt | territus erit | territī erunt | petītus erit | petītī erunt | audītus erit | audītī erunt |
Non-finite forms
The non-finite forms of verbs are participles, infinitives, supines, gerunds and gerundives. The verbs used are:
- 1st conjugation: portō, portāre, portāvī, portātum – to carry, bring
- 2nd conjugation: terreō, terrēre, terruī, territum – to frighten, deter
- 3rd conjugation: petō, petere, petīvī, petītum – to seek, attack
- 4th conjugation: audiō, audīre, audīvī, audītum – to hear, listen (to)
Participles
There are four participles: present active, perfect passive, future passive, and future active.
- The present active participle is declined like a third declension adjective with one ending.
- In the first and second conjugations, the present active is formed by taking the present stem and adding an –ns. The genitive singular form adds an –ntis, and the thematicals ā and ē are shortened.
- In the third conjugation, the e of the present stem is lengthened. In the genitive, the ē is short again.
- In the fourth conjugation, the ī is shortened, and an ē is placed. Of course, this ē is short in the genitive.
- Puer portāns translates into "carrying boy."
- The perfect passive participle is declined like a first and second declension adjective.
- In all conjugations, the perfect participle is formed by removing the –um from the supine, and adding a –us (masculine nominative singular).
- Puer portātus translates into "carried boy."
- The future active participle is declined like a first and second declension adjective.
- In all conjugations the –um is removed from the supine, and an –ūrus (masculine nominative singular) is added.
- Puer portātūrus translates into "boy going to carry," or "boy who is going to carry."
- The future passive participle is formed by taking the present stem, adding "-nd-", and then the adjective ending "-us, -a, -um". Thus "laudare" forms "laudandus".
- The literal translation is "about to be praised", but this often extends a sense of obligation, thus "must be praised". Thus the "future passive participle" is often cross-listed as the "gerundive" (see below).
| Participles | ||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| portāre | terrēre | petere | audīre | |||||
| Present active | portāns, –antis | terrēns, –entis | petēns, –entis | audiēns, –entis | ||||
| Perfect passive | portātus, –a, –um | territus, –a, –um | petītus, –a, –um | audītus, –a, –um | ||||
| Future active | portātūrus, –a, –um | territūrus, –a, –um | petītūrus, –a, –um | audītūrus, –a, –um | ||||
| Future passive | portandus, –a, –um | terrendus, –a, –um | petendus, –a, –um | audiēndus, –a, –um | ||||
Infinitives
There are six infinitives. They are in the present active, present passive, perfect active, perfect passive, future active and future passive.
- The present active infinitive is the second principal part (in regular verbs). It plays an important role in the syntactic construction of Accusativus cum infinitivo, for instance.
- Portāre means, "to carry."
- The present passive infinitive is formed by adding a –rī to the present stem. This is only so for the first, second and fourth conjugations. In the third conjugation, the thematical vowel, e, is taken from the present stem, and an –ī is added.
- Portārī translates into "to be carried."
- The perfect active infinitive is formed by adding an –isse onto the perfect stem.
- Portāvisse translates into "to have carried."
- The perfect passive infinitive uses the perfect passive participle along with the auxiliary verb esse. The perfect passive infinitive must agree with what it is describing in number and gender.
- Portātus esse means, "to have been carried."
- The future active infinitive uses the future active participle with the auxiliary verb esse.
- Portātūrus esse means, "to be going to carry." The future active infinitive must agree with what it is describing in number and gender.
- Esse has two future infinitives: futurus esse and fore (fore is mostly used in a substitute expression for the Future Passive Infinitive)
- The future passive infinitive uses the supine with the auxiliary verb īrī.
- Portātum īrī is translated as "to be going to be carried." This is normally used in indirect speech. For example: Omnēs senātōres dīxērunt templum conditum īrī. "All of the senators said that a temple would be built."
| Infinitives | |||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| portāre | terrēre | petere | audīre | ||
| Present active | portāre | terrēre | petere | audīre | |
| Present passive | portārī | terrērī | petī | audīrī | |
| Perfect active | portāvisse | terruisse | petīvisse | audīvisse | |
| Perfect passive | portātus esse | territus esse | petītus esse | audītus esse | |
| Future active | portātūrus esse | territūrus esse | petītūrus esse | audītūrus esse | |
| Future passive | portātum īrī | territum īrī | petītum īrī | audītum īrī | |
The Future Passive Infinitive was actually not very commonly used (Wheelock's Latin mentions it exists but makes it a point to avoid using it in any practice examples). In practice, the Romans themselves often used an alternate expression, "fore ut" followed by a subjunctive clause.
Supine
The supine is the fourth principal part of the verb, as given in Latin dictionaries. It resembles a masculine noun of the fourth declension. Supines only occur in the accusative and ablative cases.
- The accusative form ends in a –um, and is used with a verb of motion in order to show purpose. Thus it is only used with verbs like īre "to go", venīre "to come", etc. The accusative form of a supine can also take an object if needed.
- Pater vēnit portātum līberōs suōs. – The father came to carry his children.
- The ablative, which ends in a –ū, is used with the Ablative of Specification.
- Arma haec facillima portātū erant. – These arms were the easiest to carry.
| Supine | |||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| portāre | terrēre | petere | audīre | ||
| Accusative | portātum | territum | petītum | audītum | |
| Ablative | portātū | territū | petītū | audītū | |
Gerund
The gerund is formed similarly to the present active participle. However, the –ns becomes an –ndus, and the preceding ā or ē is shortened. Gerunds are neuter nouns of the second declension, but the nominative case is not present. The gerund is a noun, meaning "the act of doing (the verb)", and forms a suppletive paradigm to the infinitive, which cannot be declined. For example, the genitive form portandī can mean "of carrying", the dative form portandō can mean "to carrying", the accusative form portandum can mean "carrying", and the ablative form portandō can mean "by carrying", "in respect to carrying", etc.
| Gerund | |||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| portāre | terrēre | petere | audīre | ||
| Accusative | portandum | terrendum | petendum | audiendum | |
| Genitive | portandī | terrendī | petendī | audiendī | |
| Dative | portandō | terrendō | petendō | audiendō | |
| Ablative | |||||
One common use of the gerund is with the preposition ad to indicate purpose. For example, paratus ad oppugnandum could be translated as "ready to attack". However the gerund was avoided when an object was introduced, and a passive construction with the gerundive was preferred. For example, for "ready to attack the enemy" the construction paratus ad hostes oppugnandos is preferred over paratus ad hostes oppugnandum.[13]
Gerundive
The gerundive has a form similar to that of the gerund, but it is a first and second declension adjective, and functions as a future passive participle (see § Participles above). It means "(which is) to be ...ed". Often, the gerundive is used with an implicit esse, to show obligation.
- Puer portandus "The boy to be carried"
- Oratio laudanda est means "The speech is to be praised". In such constructions a substantive in dative may be used to identify the agent of the obligation (dativus auctoris), as in Oratio nobis laudanda est meaning "The speech is to be praised by us" or "We must praise the speech".
| Gerundive | |||
|---|---|---|---|
| portāre | terrēre | petere | audīre |
| portandus, –a, –um | terrendus, –a, –um | petendus, –a, –um | audiendus, –a, –um |
For some examples of uses of Latin gerundives, see the Gerundive article.
Periphrastic conjugations
There are two periphrastic conjugations. One is active, and the other is passive.
Active
The first periphrastic conjugation uses the future participle. It is combined with the forms of esse. It is translated as "I am going to carry," "I was going to carry", etc.
| Conjugation | Translation | |
|---|---|---|
| Pres. ind. | portātūrus sum | I am going to carry |
| Imp. ind. | portātūrus eram | I was going to carry |
| Fut. ind. | portātūrus erō | I shall be going to carry |
| Perf. ind. | portātūrus fuī | I have been going to carry |
| Plup. ind. | portātūrus fueram | I had been going to carry |
| Fut. perf. ind. | portātūrus fuerō | I shall have been going to carry |
| Pres. subj. | portātūrus sim | I may be going to carry |
| Imp. subj. | portātūrus essem | I should be going to carry |
| Perf. subj. | portātūrus fuerim | I may have been going to carry |
| Plup. subj. | portātūrus fuissem | I should have been going to carry |
Passive
The second periphrastic conjugation uses the gerundive. It is combined with the forms of esse and expresses necessity. It is translated as "I am to be carried," "I was to be carried", etc., or as "I have to (must) be carried," "I had to be carried," etc.
| Conjugation | Translation | |
|---|---|---|
| Pres. ind. | portandus sum | I am to be carried |
| Imp. ind. | portandus eram | I was to be carried |
| Fut. ind. | portandus erō | I will deserve to be carried |
| Perf. ind. | portandus fuī | I was to be carried |
| Plup. ind. | portandus fueram | I had deserved to be carried |
| Fut. perf. ind. | portandus fuerō | I will have deserved to be carried |
| Pres. subj. | portandus sim | I may deserve to be carried |
| Imp. subj. | portandus essem | I should deserve to be carried |
| Perf. subj. | portandus fuerim | I may have deserved to be carried |
| Plup. subj. | portandus fuissem | I should have deserved to be carried |
| Pres. inf. | portandus esse | To deserve to be carried |
| Perf. inf. | portandus fuisse | To have deserved to be carried |
Peculiarities
Irregular verbs
There are a few irregular verbs in Latin that are not grouped into a particular conjugation (such as esse and posse), or deviate slightly from a conjugation (such as ferre, īre, and dare). It consists of the following list and their compounds (such as conferre). Many irregular verbs lack a fourth principal part.
- sum, esse, fuī, futūrum[1] – to be, exist
- possum, posse[2], potuī – to be able, can
- eō, īre, īvī / īī, ītum – to go
- volō, velle, voluī – to wish, want
- nōlō, nōlle, nōluī – not to want, refuse
- mālō, mālle, māluī – to prefer
- ferō, ferre, tulī, lātum – to bear, endure, carry, bring
- fīō, fierī, factus sum – to become, happen, be made
- edō, ēsse, ēdī, ēsum – to eat, waste
- dō, dare, dedī, datum – to give, bestow
Of these, esse, ferre, and fierī are suppletive, that is, their deviating third and fourth principal parts reflect what was an entirely different verb historically (in Proto-Indo-European).
The various parts of these verbs go as follows:
- The verb sum "I am":
- Present: sum, es, est, sumus, estis, sunt "I am"
- Future: erō, eris, erit, erimus, eritis, erunt "I will be"
- Imperfect: eram, erās, erat, erāmus, erātis, erant "I was"
- Present subjunctive: sim, sīs, sit, sīmus, sītis, sint "I may be, I would be, I am"
- Imperfect subjunctive: essem, essēs, esset, essēmus, essētis, essent "I would be, I should be, I was"
- Perfect: fuī, -istī, -it... "I was", "I have been"
- Infinitive esse "to be"
- Possum "I am able":
- Present: possum, potes, potest, possumus, potestis, possunt "I am able"
- Future: poterō, poteris, poterit...
- Imperfect: poteram, poterās, poterat...
- Present subjunctive: possim, possīs, possit, possīmus, possītis, possint
- Imperfect subjunctive: possem, possēs, posset, possēmus, possētis, possent
- Perfect: potuī, -istī, -it...
- Infinitive: posse "to be able"
- Eō "I go" goes as follows:
- Present: eō, īs, it, īmus, ītis, eunt "I go"
- Future: ībō, ībis, ībit...
- Imperfect: ībam, ībās, ībat...
- Present subjunctive: eam, eās, eat...
- Imperfect subjunctive: īrem, īrēs, īret...
- Infinitive: īre "to go"
- Imperative: ī! (pl. īte!)
- Present participle: iēns (pl. euntēs)
Abeō "I go away", adeō "I go up to", redeō "I go back" etc. have similar endings.
- Volō "I want" is an irregular 3rd conjugation verb:
- Present: volō, vīs, vult, volumus, vultis, volunt "I want"
- Future: volam, -ēs, -et...
- Imperfect: volēbam...
- Present subjunctive: velim, -īs, -it...
- Imperfect subjunctive: vellem, -ēs, -et...
- Infinitive: velle "to want"
- Nōlō "I am unwilling"
- Present: nōlō, nōn vīs, nõn vult, nōlumus, nōn vultis, nōlunt "I don't want, I am unwilling"
- Infinitive: nōlle "to be unwilling"
- Other forms are similar to volō above.
- Mālō "I prefer"
- Present: mālō, māvīs, māvult, mālumus, māvultis, mālunt "I prefer"
- Infinitive: mālle "to prefer"
- Dō "I give" is like the 1st conjugation, but has certain forms with a short "a":
- Present: dō, dās, dat, damus, datis, dant "I give"
- Future: dabō...
- Imperfect: dabam...
- Present subjunctive: dem, dēs, det...
- Imperfect subjunctive: darem, darēs, daret...
- Perfect: dedī
- Infinitive: dare "to give"
- Ferō "I bring" or "I bear" is like 3rd conjugation verbs, but has certain forms where the short "i" or "e" is omitted. The Perfect tulī "I brought", and the Perfect passive latus sum "I was brought" are also irregular:
- Present: ferō, fers, fert, ferimus, fertis, ferunt "I bring"
- Imperfect subjunctive: ferrem... "I would bring, I should bring, I was bringing"
- Perfect: tulī "I brought"
- Infinitive: ferre "to bring"
- Imperative: fer! (pl. ferte!) "bring!"
- Present participle: ferēns (pl. ferentēs) "bringing"
- Fīō "I happen," "I am done," or "I become," is used instead of the passive form of faciō "I make."
- Present: fīō, fīs, fit, fīmus, fītis, fīunt
- Future: fīam, fīēs, fīet...
- Imperfect: fiēbam...
- Present Subjunctive: fīam, fīās, fīat...
- Imperfect Subjunctive: fierem, fierēs, fieret...
- Infinitive: fierī "to happen"
- Imperative: fī (pl. fīte)
- The perfect, pluperfect, and future perfect forms use facts sum and conjugate regularly, e.g. factus erat "it has become" and factī erimus "we will have become."[14]
Deponent and semi-deponent verbs
Deponent verbs are verbs that are passive in form (that is, conjugated as though in the passive voice) but active in meaning. These verbs have only three principal parts, since the perfect of ordinary passives is formed periphrastically with the perfect participle, which is formed on the same stem as the supine. Some examples coming from all conjugations are:
- 1st conjugation: mīror, mīrārī, mīrātus sum – to admire, wonder
- 2nd conjugation: polliceor, pollicērī, pollicitus sum – to promise, offer
- 3rd conjugation: loquor, loquī, locūtus sum – to speak, say
- 4th conjugation: mentior, mentīrī, mentītus sum – to tell a lie
Deponent verbs use active conjugations for tenses that do not exist in the passive: the gerund, the supine, the present and future participles and the future infinitive. They cannot be used in the passive themselves (except the gerundive), and their analogues with "active" form do not in fact exist: one cannot directly translate "The word is said" with any form of loquī, and there are no forms like loquō, loquis, loquit, etc.
Semi-deponent verbs form their imperfective aspect tenses in the manner of ordinary active verbs; but their perfect tenses are built periphrastically like deponents and ordinary passives; thus, semi-deponent verbs have a perfect active participle instead of a perfect passive participle. An example:
- audeō, audēre, ausus sum – to dare, venture
Unlike the proper passive of active verbs, which is always intransitive, some deponent verbs are transitive, which means that they can take an object. For example:
- Eo die quo consueverat intervallo hostes sequitur. – That day he follows the enemy at his usual distance.
Note: In the Romance languages, which lack deponent or passive verb forms, the Classical Latin deponent verbs either disappeared (being replaced with non-deponent verbs of a similar meaning) or changed to a non-deponent form. For example, in Spanish and Italian, mīrārī changed to mirar(e) by changing all the verb forms to the previously nonexistent "active form", and audeō changed to osar(e) by taking the participle ausus and making an -ar(e) verb out of it (note that au went to o).
Defective verbs
Defective verbs are verbs that are conjugated in only some instances.
- Some verbs are conjugated only in the perfective aspect's tenses, yet have the imperfective aspect's tenses' meanings. As such, the perfect becomes the present, the pluperfect becomes the imperfect, and the future perfect becomes the future. Therefore, the defective verb ōdī means, "I hate." These defective verbs' principal parts are given in vocabulary with the indicative perfect in the first person and the perfect active infinitive. Some examples are:
- ōdī, ōdisse – to hate
- meminī, meminisse – to remember
- coepī, coepisse – to have begun
- A few verbs, the meanings of which usually have to do with speech, appear only in certain occurrences.
- Cedo (plur. cette), which means "Hand it over" or "Out with it" is only in the imperative mood, and only is used in the second person.
The following are conjugated irregularly:
Aio
Conjugation of aiō Indicative
presentIndicative
imperfectSubjunctive
presentImperative
presentSingular Plural Singular Plural Singular Plural Singular First person aiō —— aiēbam aiēbāmus —— —— —— Second person ais aiēbās aiēbātis aiās* ai Third person ait aiunt aiēbat aiēbant aiat aiant* ——
- Present Active Participle: – aiēns, –entis
Inquam
| Conjugation of inquam | ||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Present indicative | Future indicative |
Perfect indicative |
Imperfect indicative | |||||
| Singular | Plural | Singular | Singular | Singular | ||||
| First person | inquam | inquimus[15] | —— | inquiī[16] | —— | |||
| Second person | inquis | —— | inquiēs | inquistī[17] | ||||
| Third person | inquit | inquiunt | inquiet | inquit | inquiēbat[3] | |||
Fari
| Conjugation of fārī | ||||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Present indicative |
Future indicative |
Perfect indicative |
Pluperfect indicative |
Present imperative | ||||||
| Singular | Plural | Singular | Singular | Singular | Singular | Plural | ||||
| First person | for | —— | fābor | fātus sum | fātus eram | —— | —— | |||
| Second person | —— | —— | —— | —— | fāre | fāminī | ||||
| Third person | fātur | fantur | fābitur | —— | —— | |||||
- Present Active Participle – fāns, fantis
- Present Active Infinitive – fārī (variant: fārier)
- Supine – (acc.) fātum, (abl.) fātū
- Gerund – (gen.) fandī, (dat. and abl.) fandō, no accusative
- Gerundive – fandus, –a, –um
The Romance languages lost many of these verbs, but others (such as ōdī) survived but became regular fully conjugated verbs (in Italian, odiare).
Impersonal verbs
Impersonal verbs are those lacking a person. In English impersonal verbs are usually used with the neuter pronoun "it" (as in "It seems," or "It storms"). Latin uses the third person singular. These verbs lack a fourth principal part. A few examples are:
- pluit, pluere, pluvit – to rain (it rains)
- ningit, ningere, ninxit[4] – to snow (it snows)
- oportet, oportēre, oportuit – to be proper (it is proper, one should/ought to)
- licet, licēre, licuit – to be permitted [to] (it is allowed [to])
The third person forms of esse may also be seen as impersonal when seen from the perspective of English:
- Nox aestīva calida fuit. – It was a hot, summer night.
- Est eī quī terram colunt. – It is they who till the land.
Irregular future active participles
As stated, the future active participle is normally formed by removing the –um from the supine, and adding a –ūrus. However, some deviations occur.
| Present active infinitive |
Supine | Future active participle |
|---|---|---|
| iuvāre | iūtum | iuvātūrus |
| lavāre/lavere | lavātum (but PPP lautus) | lavātūrus |
| parere | partum | paritūrus |
| ruere | rutum | ruitūrus |
| secāre | sectum | secātūrus |
| fruī | frūctum/fruitum | fruitūrus |
| nascī | nātum | nātūrus/nascitūrus |
| morī[5] | mortuum | moritūrus |
| orīrī | ortum | oritūrus |
Alternative verb forms
Several verb forms may occur in alternative forms (in some authors these forms are fairly common, if not more common than the canonical ones):
- The ending –ris in the passive voice may be –re as in:
- portābāris → portābāre
- The ending –ērunt in the perfect may be –ēre (primarily in poetry) as in:
- portāvērunt → portāvēre
- The ending –ī in the passive infinitive may be –ier as in:
- portārī → portārier, dicī → dicier
Syncopated verb forms
Like in most Romance languages, syncopated forms and contractions are present in Latin. They may occur in the following instances:
- Perfect stems that end in a –v may be contracted when inflected.
- portāvisse → portāsse
- portāvistī → portāstī
- portāverant → portārant
- portāvisset → portāsset
- The compounds of noscere (to learn) and movēre (to move, dislodge) can also be contracted.
- nōvistī → nōstī
- nōvistis → nōstis
- commōveram → commōram
- commōverās → commōrās
Summary of forms
The four conjugations in the finite forms
| The Four Conjugations, Finite Forms | |||||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 1st | 2nd | 3rd | 3rd (i-stem) | 4th | |||||||
| laudō, laudāre, laudāvī, laudātus | terreō, terrēre, terruī, territus | agō, agere, ēgī, actus | capiō, capere, cēpī, captus | audiō, audīre, audīvī, audītus | |||||||
| Active | Passive | Active | Passive | Active | Passive | Active | Passive | Active | Passive | ||
| Present | |||||||||||
| Indicative | |||||||||||
| 1st singular | laudō | laudor | terreō | terreor | agō | agor | capiō | capior | audiō | audior | |
| 2nd person | laudās | laudāris | terrēs | terrēris | agis | ageris | capis | caperis | audīs | audīris | |
| 3rd person | laudat | laudātur | terret | terrētur | agit | agitur | capit | capitur | audit | audītur | |
| 1st plural | laudāmus | laudāmur | terrēmus | terrēmur | agimus | agimur | capimus | capimur | audīmus | audīmur | |
| 2nd person | laudātis | laudāminī | terrētis | terrēminī | agitis | agiminī | capitis | capiminī | audītis | audīminī | |
| 3rd person | laudant | laudantur | terrent | terrentur | agunt | aguntur | capiunt | capiuntur | audiunt | audiuntur | |
| Subjunctive | |||||||||||
| 1st singular | laudem | lauder | terream | terrear | agam | agar | capiam | capiar | audiam | audiar | |
| 2nd person | laudēs | laudēris | terreās | terreāris | agās | agāris | capias | capiāris | audiās | audiāris | |
| 3rd person | laudet | laudētur | terreat | terreātur | agat | agātur | capiat | capiātur | audiat | audiātur | |
| 1st plural | laudēmus | laudēmur | terreāmus | terreāmur | agāmus | agāmur | capiāmus | capiāmur | audiāmus | audiāmur | |
| 2nd person | laudētis | laudēminī | terreātis | terreāminī | agātis | agāminī | capiātis | capiāminī | audiātis | audiāminī | |
| 3rd person | laudent | laudentur | terreant | terreantur | agant | agantur | capiant | capiantur | audiant | audiantur | |
| Imperative | |||||||||||
| 2nd person | laudā | laudāre | terrē | terrēre | age | agere | cape | capere | audī | audīris | |
| 2nd plural | laudāte | laudāminī | terrēte | terrēminī | agite | agiminī | capite | capiminī | audīte | audīminī | |
| Imperfect | |||||||||||
| Indicative | |||||||||||
| 1st singular | laudābam | laudābar | terrēbam | terrēbar | agēbam | agēbar | capiēbam | capiēbar | audiēbam | audiēbar | |
| 2nd person | laudābās | laudābāris | terrēbās | terrēbāris | agēbās | agēbāris | capiēbās | capiēbāris | audiēbās | audiēbāris | |
| 3rd person | laudābat | laudābātur | terrēbat | terrēbātur | agēbat | agēbātur | capiēbat | capiēbātur | audiēbat | audiēbātur | |
| 1st plural | laudābāmus | laudābāmur | terrēbāmus | terrēbāmur | agēbāmus | agēbāmur | capiēbāmus | capiēbāmur | audiēbāmus | audiēbāmur | |
| 2nd person | laudābātis | laudābāminī | terrēbātis | terrēbāminī | agēbātis | agēbāminī | capiēbātis | capiēbāminī | audiēbātis | audiēbāminī | |
| 3rd person | laudābant | laudābantur | terrēbant | terrēbantur | agēbant | agēbantur | capiēbant | capiēbantur | audiēbant | audiēbantur | |
| Subjunctive | |||||||||||
| 1st singular | laudārem | laudārer | terrērem | terrērer | agerem | agerer | caperem | caperer | audīrem | audīrer | |
| 2nd person | laudārēs | laudārēris | terrērēs | terrērēris | agerēs | agerēris | caperēs | caperēris | audīrēs | audīrēris | |
| 3rd person | laudāret | laudārētur | terrēret | terrērētur | ageret | agerētur | caperet | caperētur | audīret | audīrētur | |
| 1st plural | laudārēmus | laudārēmur | terrērēmus | terrērēmur | agerēmus | agerēmur | caperēmus | caperēmur | audīrēmus | audīrēmur | |
| 2nd person | laudārētis | laudārēminī | terrērētis | terrērēminī | agerētis | agerēminī | caperētis | caperēminī | audīrētis | audīrēminī | |
| 3rd person | laudārent | laudārentur | terrērent | terrērentur | agerent | agerentur | caperent | caperentur | audīrent | audīrentur | |
| Future | |||||||||||
| Indicative | |||||||||||
| 1st singular | laudābō | laudābor | terrēbō | terrēbor | agam | agar | capiam | capiar | audiam | audiar | |
| 2nd person | laudābis | laudāberis | terrēbis | terrēberis | agēs | agēris | capiēs | capiēris | audiēs | audiēris | |
| 3rd person | laudābit | laudābitur | terrēbit | terrēbitur | aget | agētur | capiet | capiētur | audiet | audiētur | |
| 1st plural | laudābimus | laudābimur | terrēbimus | terrēbimur | agēmus | agēmur | capiēmus | capiēmur | audiēmus | audiēmur | |
| 2nd person | laudābitis | laudābiminī | terrēbitis | terrēbiminī | agētis | agēminī | capiētis | capiēminī | audiētis | audiēminī | |
| 3rd person | laudābunt | laudābuntur | terrēbunt | terrēbuntur | agent | agentur | capient | capientur | audient | audientur | |
| Subjunctive | |||||||||||
| 1st singular | laudātūrus, -a, -um sim | territūrus, -a, -um sim | actūrus, -a, -um sim | captūrus, -a, -um sim | audītūrus, -a, -um sim | ||||||
| 2nd person | laudātūrus, -a, -um sis | territūrus, -a, -um sis | actūrus, -a, -um sis | captūrus, -a, -um sim sis | audītūrus, -a, -um sis | ||||||
| 3rd person | laudātūrus, -a, -um sit | territūrus, -a, -um sit | actūrus, -a, -um sit | captūrus, -a, -um sit | audītūrus, -a, -um sit | ||||||
| 1st plural | laudātūrī, -ae, -a simus | territūrī, -ae, -a simus | actūrī, -ae, -a simus | captūrī, -ae, -a simus | audītūrī, -ae, -a simus | ||||||
| 2nd person | laudātūrī, -ae, -a sitis | territūrī, -ae, -a sitis | actūrī, -ae, -a sitis | captūrī, -ae, -a sitis | audītūrī, -ae, -a sitis | ||||||
| 3rd person | laudātūrī, -ae, -a sint | territūrī, -ae, -a sint | actūrī, -ae, -a sint | captūrī, -ae, -a sint | audītūrī, -ae, -a sint | ||||||
| Imperative | |||||||||||
| 2nd person | laudātō | laudātor | terrētō | terrēre | agitō | agere | capitō | capitor | audītō | audītor | |
| 3rd person | laudātō | laudātor | terrētō | terrētor | agitō | agitor | capitō | capitor | audītō | audītor | |
| 2nd plural | laudātōte | terrētōte | agitōte | capitōte | audītōte | ||||||
| 3rd person | laudantō | laudantor | terrentō | terrentor | aguntō | agunto | capiuntō | capiuntor | audiuntō | audiuntor | |
| Perfect | |||||||||||
| Indicative | |||||||||||
| 1st singular | laudāvī | laudātus, -a, -um sum | terruī | territus, -a, -um sum | ēgī | actus, -a, -um sum | cēpī | captus, -a,-um sum | audīvī | audītus, -a, -um sum | |
| 2nd person | laudāvistī | laudātus, -a, -um es | terruistī | territus, -a, -um es | ēgistī | actus, -a, -um es | cēpistī | captus, -a,-um es | audīvistī | audītus, -a, -um es | |
| 3rd person | laudāvit | laudātus, -a, -um est | terruit | territus, -a, -um est | ēgit | actus, -a, -um est | cēpit | captus, -a,-um est | audīvit | audītus, -a, -um est | |
| 1st plural | laudāvimus | laudātī, -ae, -a sumus | terruimus | territī, -ae, -a sumus | ēgimus | actī, -ae, -a sumus | cēpimus | captī, -ae, -a sumus | audīvimus | audītī, -ae, -a sumus | |
| 2nd person | laudāvistis | laudātī, -ae, -a estis | terruistis | territī, -ae, -a estis | ēgistis | actī, -ae, -a estis | cēpistis | captī, -ae, -a estis | audīvistis | audītī, -ae, -a estis | |
| 3rd person | laudāvērunt | laudātī, -ae, -a sunt | terruērunt | territī, -ae, -a sunt | ēgērunt | actī, -ae, -a sunt | cēpērunt | captī, -ae, -a sunt | audīvērunt | audītī, -ae, -a sunt | |
| Subjunctive | |||||||||||
| 1st singular | laudāverim | laudātus, -a, -um sim | terruerim | territus, -a, -um sim | ēgerim | actus, -a, -um sim | cēperim | captus, -a,-um sim | audīverim | audītus, -a, -um sim | |
| 2nd person | laudāveris | laudātus, -a, -um sis | terrueris | territus, -a, -um sis | ēgeris | actus, -a, -um sis | cēperis | captus, -a,-um sis | audīveris | audītus, -a, -um sis | |
| 3rd person | laudāverit | laudātus, -a, -um sit | terruerit | territus, -a, -um sit | ēgerit | actus, -a, -um sit | cēperit | captus, -a,-um sit | audīverit | audītus, -a, -um sit | |
| 1st plural | laudāverimus | laudātī, -ae, -a simus | terruerimus | territī, -ae, -a simus | ēgerimus | actī, -ae, -a simus | cēperimus | captī, -ae, -a simus | audīverimus | audītī, -ae, -a simus | |
| 2nd person | laudāveritis | laudātī, -ae, -a sitis | terrueritis | territī, -ae, -a sitis | ēgeritis | actī, -ae, -a sitis | cēperitis | captī, -ae, -a sitis | audīveritis | audītī, -ae, -a sitis | |
| 3rd person | laudāverint | laudātī, -ae, -a sint | terruerint | territī, -ae, -a sint | ēgerint | actī, -ae, -a sint | cēperint | captī, -ae, -a sint | audīverint | audītī, -ae, -a sint | |
| Pluperfect | |||||||||||
| Indicative | |||||||||||
| 1st singular | laudāveram | laudātus, -a, -um eram | terrueram | territus, -a, -um eram | ēgeram | actus, -a, -um eram | cēperam | captus, -a,-um eram | audīveram | audītus, -a, -um eram | |
| 2nd person | laudāverās | laudātus, -a, -um erās | terruerās | territus, -a, -um erās | ēgerās | actus, -a, -um erās | cēperās | captus, -a,-um erās | audīverās | audītus, -a, -um erās | |
| 3rd person | laudāverat | laudātus, -a, -um erat | terruerat | territus, -a, -um erat | ēgerat | actus, -a, -um erat | cēperat | captus, -a,-um erat | audīverat | audītus, -a, -um erat | |
| 1st plural | laudāverāmus | laudātī, -ae, -a erāmus | terruerāmus | territī, -ae, -a erāmus | ēgerāmus | actī, -ae, -a erāmus | cēperāmus | captī, -ae, -a erāmus | audīverāmus | audītī, -ae, -a erāmus | |
| 2nd person | laudāverātis | laudātī, -ae, -a erātis | terruerātis | territī, -ae, -a erātis | ēgerātis | actī, -ae, -a erātis | cēperātis | captī, -ae, -a erātis | audīverātis | audītī, -ae, -a erātis | |
| 3rd person | laudāverant | laudātī, -ae, -a erant | terruerant | territī, -ae, -a erant | ēgerant | actī, -ae, -a erant | cēperant | captī, -ae, -a erant | audīverant | audītī, -ae, -a erant | |
| Subjunctive | |||||||||||
| 1st singular | laudāvissem | laudātus, -a, -um essem | terruissem | territus, -a, -um essem | ēgissem | actus, -a, -um essem | cēpissem | captus, -a,-um essem | audīvissem | audītus, -a, -um essem | |
| 2nd person | laudāvissēs | laudātus, -a, -um essēs | terruissēs | territus, -a, -um essēs | ēgissēs | actus, -a, -um essēs | cēpissēs | captus, -a,-um essēs | audīvissēs | audītus, -a, -um essēs | |
| 3rd person | laudāvisset | laudātus, -a, -um esset | terruisset | territus, -a, -um esset | ēgisset | actus, -a, -um esset | cēpisset | captus, -a,-um esset | audīvisset | audītus, -a, -um esset | |
| 1st plural | laudāvissēmus | laudātī, -ae, -a essēmus | terruissēmus | territī, -ae, -a essēmus | ēgissēmus | actī, -ae, -a essēmus | cēpissēmus | captī, -ae, -a essēmus | audīvissēmus | audītī, -ae, -a essēmus | |
| 2nd person | laudāvissētis | laudātī, -ae, -a essētis | terruissētis | territī, -ae, -a essētis | ēgissētis | actī, -ae, -a essētis | cēpissētis | captī, -ae, -a essētis | audīvissētis | audītī, -ae, -a essētis | |
| 3rd person | laudāvissent | laudātī, -ae, -a essent | terruissent | territī, -ae, -a essent | ēgissent | actī, -ae, -a essent | cēpissent | captī, -ae, -a essent | audīvissent | audītī, -ae, -a essent | |
| Future Perfect | |||||||||||
| Indicative | |||||||||||
| 1st singular | laudāverō | laudātus, -a, -um erō | terruerō | territus, -a, -um erō | ēgerō | actus, -a, -um erō | cēperō | captus, -a,-um erō | audīverō | audītus, -a, -um erō | |
| 2nd person | laudāverīs | laudātus, -a, -um erīs | terruerīs | territus, -a, -um erīs | ēgerīs | actus, -a, -um erīs | cēperīs | captus, -a,-um erīs | audīverīs | audītus, -a, -um erīs | |
| 3rd person | laudāverit | laudātus, -a, -um erit | terruerit | territus, -a, -um erit | ēgerit | actus, -a, -um erit | cēperit | captus, -a,-um erit | audīverit | audītus, -a, -um erit | |
| 1st plural | laudāverimus | laudātī, -ae, -a erimus | terruerimus | territī, -ae, -a erimus | ēgerimus | actī, -ae, -a erimus | cēperimus | captī, -ae, -a erimus | audīverimus | audītī, -ae, -a erimus | |
| 2nd person | laudāveritis | laudātī, -ae, -a eritis | terrueritis | territī, -ae, -a eritis | ēgeritis | actī, -ae, -a eritis | cēperitis | captī, -ae, -a eritis | audīveritis | audītī, -ae, -a eritis | |
| 3rd person | laudāverint | laudātī, -ae, -a erunt | terruerint | territī, -ae, -a erunt | ēgerint | actī, -ae, -a erunt | cēperint | captī, -ae, -a erunt | audīverint | audītī, -ae, -a erunt | |
Notes
^ Futūrus esse is sometimes contracted as fore as seen in Caesar's De Bello Gallico.
^ The archaic uncontracted form potesse occurs frequently in Lucretius.
^ Form moriri, Ovid, Metamorphoses (poem) 14.215[18]
^ Used by Cicero frequently.
^ Used personally by Lucretius (2.627): ningunt[19]
- ^ Merriam-Webster online dictionary "Conjugation".
- ^ Donatus [Ars Maior], 10.16.
- ^ Priscian, "Liber octauus de uerbo" (Corpus Grammaticorum Latinorum)
- ^ Daniel J. Taylor "Latin declensions and conjugations: from Varro to Priscian" Historie Épistémologie Langage 13.2 (1991), p. 85–93.
- ^ e.g. Gildersleeve and Lodge, 3rd edition (1895), §120.
- ^ Gildersleeve & Lodge, Latin Grammar (1895), §163.
- ^ Gildersleeve & Lodge, Latin Grammar (1895), §164.
- ^ Gildersleeve & Lodge Latin Grammar (1985), §166.
- ^ Gildersleeve & Lodge (1903), Gildersleeve's Latin Grammar, p. 89.
- ^ Jenney, Charles; Roger Scudder; Eric C. Baade (1979). First Year Latin. Allyn and Bacon. p. 123. ISBN 0-205-07859-1.
- ^ Gildersleeve & Lodge (1903), Gildersleeve's Latin Grammar p. 175.
- ^ Gildersleeve & Lodge (1903), Gildersleeve's Latin Grammar, pp. 173, 318–9.
- ^ Eitrem, S. (2006). Latinsk grammatikk (3 ed.). Oslo: Aschehoug. p. 111.
- ^ Wheelock, Frederic (2011), Wheelock's Latin, New York: HarperCollins, p. 304, ISBN 978-0-06-199722-8
- ^ Horace. "1.3.66". Sermonum liber primus (in Latin).
- ^ Catullus. "10.27". Poems of Catullus (in Latin).
- ^ Cicero. "2.259". De Oratore (in Latin).
- ^ "P. OVIDI NASONIS METAMORPHOSEN LIBER QVARTVS DECIMVS". The Latin Library. Retrieved September 1, 2010.
- ^ "TITI LVCRETI CARI DE RERVM NATVRA LIBER SECVNDVS". The Latin Library. Retrieved September 1, 2010.
See also
References
- J.B. Greenough; G.L. Kittredge; A.A. Howard; Benj. L. D'Ooge, eds. (1903). Allen and Greenough's New Latin Grammar for Schools and College. Ginn and Company.
- Bennett, Charles Edwin (1918). New Latin Grammar.
External links
- Verbix automatically conjugates verbs in Latin.
- Latin Verb Synopsis Drill tests a user on his ability to conjugate verbs correctly.
- Arbuckle Latin Conjugator automatically conjugates and translates verbs in Latin.